ACI 440.

2R-02
Guide for the Design and Construction of
Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Concrete Structures
Reported by ACI Committee 440
ACI encourages the development and appropriate use of new and emerging technologies through the publication of the Emerging Technology
Series. This series presents information and recommendations based on available test data, technical reports, limited experience with field
applications, and the opinions of committee members. The presented information and recommendations, and their basis, may be less fully de-
veloped and tested than those for more mature technologies. This report identifies areas in which information is believed to be less fully de-
veloped, and describes research needs. The professional using this document should understand the limitations of this document and exercise
judgment as to the appropriate application of this emerging technology.

Sami H. Rizkalla John P. Busel

Chair Secretary

Charles E. Bakis Ali Ganjehlou Damian I. Kachlakev Morris Schupack

P. N. Balaguru Duane J. Gee Vistasp M. Karbhari David W. Scott
Craig A. Ballinger T. Russell Gentry Howard S. Kliger Rajan Sen
Lawrence C. Bank Arie Gerritse James G. Korff Mohsen A. Shahawy
Abdeldjelil Belarbi Karl Gillette Michael W. Lee Carol K. Shield
Brahim Benmokrane William J. Gold* Ibrahim Mahfouz Khaled A. Soudki
*
Gregg J. Blaszak Charles H. Goodspeed, III Henry N. Marsh, Jr. Luc R. Taerwe
Gordon L. Brown, Jr. Nabil F. Grace Orange S. Marshall Jay Thomas
Vicki L. Brown Mark F. Green Amir Mirmiran Houssam A. Toutanji
Thomas I. Campbell Mark E. Greenwood Ayman S. Mosallam Taketo Uomoto
Charles W. Dolan Doug D. Gremel Antoine E. Naaman Miroslav Vadovic
Dat Duthinh Michael S. Guglielmo Antonio Nanni David R. Vanderpool
Rami M. Elhassan Issam E. Harik Kenneth Neale Milan Vatovec
Salem S. Faza Mark P. Henderson Edward F. O’Neil, III Stephanie L. Walkup
Edward R. Fyfe Bohdan N. Horeczko Max L. Porter David White
David M. Gale Srinivasa L. Iyer

*Co-chairs of the subcommittee that prepared this document.

Note: The committee acknowledges the contribution of associate member Paul Kelley.

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) systems for strengthening concrete structures is needed. This document offers general information on the history and use of
have emerged as an alternative to traditional strengthening techniques, such FRP strengthening systems; a description of the unique material properties of
as steel plate bonding, section enlargement, and external post-tensioning. FRP; and committee recommendations on the engineering, construction, and
FRP strengthening systems use FRP composite materials as supplemental inspection of FRP systems used to strengthen concrete structures. The
externally bonded reinforcement. FRP systems offer advantages over traditional proposed guidelines are based on the knowledge gained from worldwide
strengthening techniques: they are lightweight, relatively easy to install, and experimental research, analytical work, and field applications of FRP
are noncorrosive. Due to the characteristics of FRP materials, the behavior systems used to strengthen concrete structures.
of FRP strengthened members, and various issues regarding the use of
externally bonded reinforcement, specific guidance on the use of these systems Keywords: aramid fibers; bridges; buildings; carbon fibers; concrete; corro-
sion; crack widths; cracking; cyclic loading; deflections; development length;
earthquake-resistant; fatigue; fiber-reinforced polymers; flexure; glass fiber;
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices,
shear; stresses; structural analysis; structural design; time-dependent; torsion.
and Commentaries are intended for guidance in plan-
ning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction.
This document is intended for the use of individuals who CONTENTS
are competent to evaluate the significance and limita- PART 1—GENERAL
tions of its content and recommendations and who will Chapter 1—Introduction, p. 440.2R-2
accept responsibility for the application of the material 1.1—Scope and limitations
it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims 1.2—Applications and use
any and all responsibility for the stated principles. The 1.3—Use of proprietary FRP systems
Institute shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising 1.4—Definitions and acronyms
therefrom. 1.5—Notation
Reference to this document shall not be made in con-
tract documents. If items found in this document are de- ACI 440.2R-02 became effective July 11, 2002.
sired by the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the Copyright  2002, American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
language for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer. mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction
or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing
is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

440.2R-1
440.2R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Chapter 2—Background information, p. 440.2R-8 10.3—Nominal shear strength

2.1—Historical development 10.4—FRP system contribution to shear strength
2.2—Commercially available externally bonded FRP systems
Chapter 11—Axial compression, tension, and
PART 2—MATERIALS ductility enhancement, p. 440.2R-27
Chapter 3—Constituent materials and properties, 11.1—Axial compression
pp. 440.2R-9 11.2—Tensile strengthening
3.1—Constituent materials 11.3—Ductility
3.2—Physical properties
3.3—Mechanical properties and behavior Chapter 12—Reinforcement details, p. 440.2R-29
3.4—Time-dependent behavior 12.1—Bond and delamination
3.5—Durability 12.2—Detailing of laps and splices
3.6—FRP system qualification
Chapter 13—Drawings, specifications, and
PART 3—RECOMMENDED CONSTRUCTION submittals, p. 440.2R-30
REQUIREMENTS 13.1—Engineering requirements
Chapter 4—Shipping, storage, and handling, 13.2—Drawings and specifications
pp. 440.2R-12
4.1—Shipping 13.3—Submittals
4.2—Storage
4.3—Handling PART 5—DESIGN EXAMPLES
Chapter 14—Design examples, p. 440.2R-31
14.1—Calculation of FRP system tensile strength
Chapter 5—Installation, p. 440.2R-13 14.2—Calculation of FRP system tensile strength
5.1—Contractor competency
14.3—Flexural strengthening of an interior beam
5.2—Temperature, humidity, and moisture considerations
5.3—Equipment 14.4—Shear strengthening of an interior T-beam
5.4—Substrate repair and surface preparation 14.5—Shear strengthening of an exterior column
5.5—Mixing of resins
5.6—Application of constituent materials Chapter 15—References, p. 440.2R-40
5.7—Alignment of FRP materials 15.1—Referenced standards and reports
5.8—Multiple plies and lap splices 15.2—Cited references
5.9—Curing of resins 15.3—Other references
5.10—Temporary protection
APPENDIXES
Chapter 6—Inspection, evaluation, and Appendix A—Material properties of carbon, glass,
acceptance, pp. 440.2R-16 and aramid fibers, p. 440.2R-44
6.1—Inspection
6.2—Evaluation and acceptance Appendix B—Summary of standard test methods,
p. 440.2R-44
Chapter 7—Maintenance and repair, p. 440.2R-17
7.1—General Appendix C—Areas of future research, p. 440.2R-45
7.2—Inspection and assessment
7.3—Repair of strengthening system PART 1—GENERAL
7.4—Repair of surface coating CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION
The strengthening or retrofitting of existing concrete
PART 4—DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS structures to resist higher design loads, correct deterioration-
Chapter 8—General design considerations, related damage, or increase ductility has traditionally been
p. 440.2R-18 accomplished using conventional materials and construction
8.1—Design philosophy techniques. Externally bonded steel plates, steel or concrete
8.2—Strengthening limits jackets, and external post-tensioning are just some of the
8.3—Selection of FRP systems many traditional techniques available.
8.4—Design material properties Composite materials made of fibers in a polymeric resin,
also known as fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP), have
Chapter 9—Flexural strengthening, p. 440.2R-21 emerged as an alternative to traditional materials and tech-
9.1—General considerations niques. For the purposes of this document, an FRP system is
9.2—Nominal strength defined as all the fibers and resins used to create the composite
9.3—Ductility laminate, all applicable resins used to bond it to the concrete
9.4—Serviceability substrate, and all applied coatings used to protect the constituent
9.5—Creep-rupture and fatigue stress limits materials. Coatings used exclusively for aesthetic reasons are
9.6—Application to a singly reinforced rectangular section not considered part of an FRP system.
FRP materials are lightweight, noncorrosive, and exhibit
Chapter 10—Shear strengthening, pp. 440.2R-25 high tensile strength. Additionally, these materials are readily
10.1—General considerations available in several forms ranging from factory-made laminates
10.2—Wrapping schemes to dry fiber sheets that can be wrapped to conform to the
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-3

geometry of a structure before adding the polymer resin. resins, or fiber/resin combinations for which this is not true.
The relatively thin profile of cured FRP systems are often This document currently does not have special provisions for
desirable in applications where aesthetics or access is a concern. such materials.
The growing interest in FRP systems for strengthening and Many issues regarding bond of the FRP system to the
retrofitting can be attributed to many factors. Although the substrate remain the focus of a great deal of research. For
fibers and resins used in FRP systems are relatively expensive both flexural and shear strengthening, there are many different
compared to traditional strengthening materials like concrete varieties of debonding failure that can govern the strength of
and steel, labor and equipment costs to install FRP systems an FRP-strengthened member. While most of the debonding
are often lower. FRP systems can also be used in areas modes have been identified by researchers, more accurate
with limited access where traditional techniques would
methods of predicting debonding are still needed. Throughout
be difficult to implement: for example, a slab shielded by
the design procedures, significant limitations on the strain level
pipe and conduit.
achieved in the FRP material (and thus the stress level
The basis for this document is the knowledge gained from
worldwide experimental research, analytical work, and field achieved) are imposed to conservatively account for debonding
applications of FRP strengthening systems. The recommen- failure modes. It is envisioned that future development of
dations in this document are intended to be conservative. these design procedures will include more thorough methods
Areas where further research is needed are highlighted in of predicting debonding.
this document and compiled in Appendix C. The document does give guidance on proper detailing and
installation of FRP systems to prevent many types of debonding
1.1—Scope and limitations failure modes. Steps related to the surface preparation and
This document provides guidance for the selection, design, proper termination of the FRP system are vital in achieving
and installation of FRP systems for externally strengthening the levels of strength predicted by the procedures in this
concrete structures. Information on material properties, document. Some research has been conducted on various
design, installation, quality control, and maintenance of FRP methods of anchoring FRP strengthening systems (by
systems used as external reinforcement is presented. This mechanical or other means). It is important to recognize,
information can be used to select an FRP system for increasing however, that methods of anchoring these systems are
the strength and stiffness of reinforced concrete beams or the highly problematic due to the brittle, anisotropic nature
ductility of columns, and other applications. of composite materials. Any proposed method of anchorage
A significant body of research serves as the basis for this should be heavily scrutinized before field implementation.
document. This research, conducted over the past 20 years, The design equations given in this document are the result of
includes analytical studies, experimental work, and monitored
research primarily conducted on moderately sized and
field applications of FRP strengthening systems. Based on
proportioned members. While FRP systems likely are effective
the available research, the design procedures outlined in this
document are considered to be conservative. It is important on other members, such as deep beams, this has not been
to note, however, that the design procedures have not, in validated through testing. Caution should be given to applica-
many cases, been thoroughly developed and proven. It is tions involving strengthening of very large members or
envisioned that over time these procedures will be adapted to strengthening in disturbed regions (D-regions) of structural
be more accurate. For the time being, it is important to members. Where warranted, specific limitations on the size of
specifically point out the areas of the document that do still members to be strengthened are given in this document.
require research. This document applies only to FRP strengthening systems
The durability and long-term performance of FRP materials used as additional tensile reinforcement. It is currently not
have been the subject of much research; however, this research recommended to use these systems as compressive reinforce-
remains ongoing. Long-term field data are not currently ment. While FRP materials can support compressive stresses,
available, and it is still difficult to accurately predict the life there are numerous issues surrounding the use of FRP for
of FRP strengthening systems. The design guidelines in this compression. Microbuckling of fibers can occur if any resin
document do account for environmental degradation and voids are present in the laminate, laminates themselves can
long-term durability by suggesting reduction factors for buckle if not properly adhered or anchored to the substrate,
various environments. Long-term fatigue and creep are and highly unreliable compressive strengths result from
also addressed by stress limitations indicated in this document. misaligning fibers in the field. This document does not address
These factors and limitations are considered to be conservative. the construction, quality control, and maintenance issues that
As more research becomes available, however, these factors would be involved with the use of the material for this purpose,
will be modified and the specific environmental conditions
nor does it address the design concerns surrounding such
and loading conditions to which they should apply will be better
applications. The use of the types of FRP strengthening
defined. Additionally, the coupling effect of environmen-
tal conditions and loading conditions still requires further systems described in this document to resist compressive
study. Caution is advised in applications where the FRP forces is strongly discouraged.
system is subjected simultaneously to extreme environmental This document does not specifically address masonry
and stress conditions. (concrete masonry units, brick, or clay tile) construction,
The factors associated with the long-term durability of the including masonry walls. Research completed to date,
FRP system do not affect the tensile modulus of the material however, has shown that FRP systems can be used to
used for design. Generally, this is reasonable given that the strengthen masonry walls, and many of the guidelines contained
tensile modulus of FRP materials is not affected by environ- in this document may be applicable (Triantafillou 1998b;
mental conditions. There may be, however, specific fibers, Ehsani et al. 1997; and Marshall et al. 1999).
440.2R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

1.2—Applications and use Due to the low temperature resistance of most fiber-rein-
FRP systems can be used to rehabilitate or restore the forced polymer materials, the strength of externally bonded
strength of a deteriorated structural member, to retrofit or FRP systems is assumed to be lost completely in a fire. For
strengthen a sound structural member to resist increased this reason, the structural member without the FRP system
loads due to changes in use of the structure, or to address should possess sufficient strength to resist all applicable
design or construction errors. The engineer should determine loads during a fire. Specific guidance, including load
if an FRP system is a suitable strengthening technique before combinations and a rational approach to calculating structural
selecting the type of FRP system. fire endurance, is given in Part 4.
To assess the suitability of an FRP system for a particular The fire endurance of FRP-strengthened concrete members
application, the engineer should perform a condition assessment may be improved through the use of certain resins, coatings,
of the existing structure including establishing its existing or other methods of fire protection, but these have not been
load-carrying capacity, identifying deficiencies and their sufficiently demonstrated to insulate the FRP system from
causes, and determining the condition of the concrete the temperatures reached during a fire.
substrate. The overall evaluation should include a thorough 1.2.3 Maximum service temperature—The physical and
field inspection, a review of existing design or as-built mechanical properties of the resin components of FRP systems
documents, and a structural analysis in accordance with are influenced by temperature and degrade above their glass-
ACI 364.1R. Existing construction documents for the transition temperature Tg . The Tg is the midpoint of the
structure should be reviewed, including the design drawings, temperature range over which the resin changes from a
project specifications, as-built information, field test reports, past hard brittle state to a softer plastic state. This change in
repair documentation, and maintenance history documentation. state will degrade the properties of the cured laminates.
The engineer should conduct a thorough field investigation of The Tg is unique to each FRP system and ranges from 140
the existing structure in accordance with ACI 437R or other to 180 F (60 to 82 C) for existing, commercially available
applicable documents. The tensile strength of the concrete on FRP systems. The maximum service temperature of an
surfaces where the FRP system may be installed should be FRP system should not exceed the Tg of the FRP system.
evaluated by conducting a pull-off adhesion test in accordance The Tg for a particular FRP system can be obtained from
with ACI 503R. In addition, field investigation should verify the system manufacturer.
the following: 1.2.4 Minimum concrete substrate strength—FRP systems
• Existing dimensions of the structural members; work on sound concrete and should not be considered for
• Location, size, and cause of cracks and spalls; applications on structural members containing corroded
• Location and extent of corrosion of reinforcing steel; reinforcing steel or deteriorated concrete unless the substrate is
• Quantity and location of existing reinforcing steel; repaired in accordance with Section 5.4. Concrete distress,
• In-place compressive strength of concrete; and deterioration, and corrosion of existing reinforcing steel
• Soundness of the concrete, especially the concrete should be evaluated and addressed before the application of
cover, in all areas where the FRP system is to be the FRP system. Concrete deterioration concerns include,
bonded to the concrete. but are not limited to, alkali-silica reactions, delayed
The load-carrying capacity of the existing structure should ettringite formation, carbonation, longitudinal cracking
be based on the information gathered in the field investigation, around corroded reinforcing steel, and laminar cracking at
the review of design calculations and drawings, and as the location of the steel reinforcement.
determined by analytical or other suitable methods. Load The condition and strength of the substrate should be
tests or other methods can be incorporated into the overall evaluated to determine its capacity for strengthening of the
evaluation process if deemed appropriate. member with externally bonded FRP reinforcement. The
The engineer should survey the available literature and bond between repair materials and original concrete should
consult with FRP system manufacturers to ensure the selected satisfy the recommendations of ACI 503R or Section 3.1 of
FRP system and protective coating are appropriate for the ICRI Guideline No. 03733.
intended application. The existing concrete substrate strength is an important
1.2.1 Strengthening limits—Some engineers and system parameter for bond-critical applications, including flexure or
manufacturers have recommended that the increase in the shear strengthening. It should possess the necessary strength
load-carrying capacity of a member strengthened with an to develop the design stresses of the FRP system through
FRP system be limited. The philosophy is that a loss of FRP bond. The substrate, including all bond surfaces between
reinforcement should not cause member failure. Specific repaired areas and the original concrete, should have sufficient
guidance, including load combinations for assessing member direct tensile and shear strength to transfer force to the FRP
integrity after loss of the FRP system, is provided in Part 4. system. The tensile strength should be at least 200 psi (1.4 MPa)
FRP systems used to increase the strength of an existing as determined by using a pull-off type adhesion test as in
member should be designed in accordance with Part 4, which ACI 503R or ASTM D 4541. FRP systems should not be used
includes a comprehensive discussion of load limitations, when the concrete substrate has a compressive strength ( fc′ )
sound load paths, effects of temperature and environment on less than 2500 psi (17 MPa). Contact-critical applications,
FRP systems, loading considerations, and effects of reinforcing such as column wrapping for confinement that rely only on
steel corrosion on FRP system integrity. intimate contact between the FRP system and the concrete, are
1.2.2 Fire and life safety—FRP-strengthened structures not governed by this minimum value. Design stresses in the
should comply with all applicable building and fire codes. FRP system are developed by deformation or dilation of the
Smoke and flame spread ratings should be determined in concrete section in contact-critical applications.
accordance with ASTM E 84. Coatings can be used to limit The application of FRP systems will not stop the ongoing
smoke and flame spread. corrosion of existing reinforcing steel. If steel corrosion is
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-5

evident or is degrading the concrete substrate, placement concrete substrate and the FRP system. In general, contact-
of FRP reinforcement is not recommended without arresting the critical applications consist of FRP systems that completely
ongoing corrosion and repairing any degradation to the substrate. wrap around the perimeter of the section. For most contact-
critical applications the FRP system is bonded to the concrete
1.3—Use of proprietary FRP systems to facilitate installation but does not rely on that bond to perform
This document refers specifically to commercially as intended. Confinement of columns for seismic retrofit is an
available, proprietary FRP systems consisting of fibers example of a contact-critical application.
and resins combined in a specific manner and installed by Creep-rupture—The gradual, time-dependent reduction
a specific method. These systems have been developed of tensile strength due to continuous loading that leads to
through material characterization and structural testing. failure of the section.
Untested combinations of fibers and resins could result in Cross-link—A chemical bond between polymer molecules.
an unexpected range of properties as well as potential Note: an increased number of cross-links per polymer
material incompatibilities. Any FRP system considered molecule increases strength and modulus at the expense
for use should have sufficient test data demonstrating adequate of ductility.
performance of the entire system in similar applications, Cure of FRP systems—The process of causing the irre-
including its method of installation. versible change in the properties of a thermosetting resin by
The use of FRP systems developed through material chemical reaction. Cure is typically accomplished by addition
characterization and structural testing, including well- of curing (cross-linking) agents or initiators, with or without
documented proprietary systems, is recommended. The heat and pressure. Full cure is the point at which a resin
use of untested combinations of fibers and resins should be reaches the specified properties. Undercure is a condition
avoided. A comprehensive set of test standards for FRP where specified properties have not been reached.
systems is being developed by several organizations, including Curing agent—A catalytic or reactive agent that causes
ASTM, ACI, ICRI, and the Intelligent Sensing for Innovative polymerization when added to a resin. Also called hardener
Structures organization (ISIS). Available standards from these or initiator.
organizations are outlined in Appendix B. Debonding—A separation at the interface between the
substrate and the adherent material.
1.4—Definitions and acronyms Degradation—A decline in the quality of the mechanical
The following definitions clarify terms pertaining to FRP properties of a material.
that are not commonly used in the reinforced concrete practice.
Delamination—A separation along a plane parallel to the
These definitions are specific to this document and are not
surface, as in the separation of the layers of the FRP laminate
applicable to other ACI documents.
from each other.
AFRP—Aramid fiber-reinforced polymer.
Development length, FRP—The bonded distance required
Batch—Quantity of material mixed at one time or in one
for transfer of stresses from the concrete to the FRP so as to
continuous process.
develop the strength of the FRP system. The development
Binder—Chemical treatment applied to the random arrange-
length is a function of the strength of the substrate and the
ment of fibers to give integrity to mats, roving, and fabric.
rigidity of the bonded FRP.
Specific binders are utilized to promote chemical compatibility
with the various laminating resins used. Durability, FRP—The ability of a material to resist
Bond-critical applications—Applications of FRP systems weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, and other
conditions of service.
for strengthening structural members that rely on bond to the
concrete substrate; flexural and shear strengthening of E-glass—A family of glass with a calcium alumina
beams and slabs are examples of bond-critical applications. borosilicate composition and a maximum alkali content of
Catalyst—A substance that accelerates a chemical reaction 2.0%. A general-purpose fiber that is used in reinforced
and enables it to proceed under conditions more mild than polymers.
otherwise required and that is not, itself, permanently Epoxy—A thermosetting polymer that is the reaction product
changed by the reaction. See Initiator or Hardener. of epoxy resin and an amino hardener. (See also Epoxy resin.)
CFR—Code of Federal Regulations. Epoxy resin—A class of organic chemical-bonding systems
CFRP—Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (includes graphite used in the preparation of special coatings or adhesives for
fiber-reinforced polymer). concrete as binders in epoxy-resin mortars and concretes.
Composite—A combination of two or more constituent Fabric—Arrangement of fibers held together in two
materials differing in form or composition on a macroscale. dimensions. A fabric can be woven, nonwoven, knitted, or
Note: The constituents retain their identities; that is, they do stitched. Multiple layers of fabric may be stitched together.
not dissolve or merge completely into one another, although Fabric architecture is the specific description of fibers,
they act in concert. Normally, the components can be physically directions, and construction of the fabric.
identified and exhibit an interface between one another. Fiber—Any fine thread-like natural or synthetic object of
Concrete substrate—The existing concrete or any cemen- mineral or organic origin. Note: This term is generally used
titious repair materials used to repair or replace the existing for materials whose length is at least 100 times its diameter.
concrete. The substrate can consist entirely of existing concrete, Fiber, aramid—Highly oriented organic fiber derived
entirely of repair materials, or of a combination of existing from polyamide incorporating into an aromatic ring structure.
concrete and repair materials. The substrate includes the surface Fiber, carbon—Fiber produced by heating organic
to which the FRP system is installed. precursor materials containing a substantial amount of
Contact-critical applications—Applications of FRP carbon, such as rayon, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), or pitch
systems that rely on continuous intimate contact between the in an inert environment.
440.2R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Fiber, glass—Fiber drawn from an inorganic product of Interlaminar shear—Shearing force tending to produce a
fusion that has cooled without crystallizing. Types of glass relative displacement between two laminae in a laminate
fibers include alkali resistant (AR-glass), general purpose along the plane of their interface.
(E-glass), and high strength (S-glass). Laminate—One or more layers of fiber bound together in
Fiber content—The amount of fiber present in a composite. a cured resin matrix.
Note: This usually is expressed as a percentage volume fraction Layup—The process of placing the FRP reinforcing
or weight fraction of the composite. material in position for molding.
Fiber fly—Short filaments that break off dry fiber tows or Mat—A fibrous material for reinforced polymer, consisting
yarns during handling and become airborne; usually classified of randomly oriented chopped filaments, short fibers (with
as a nuisance dust. or without a carrier fabric), or long random filaments loosely
Fiberglass—A composite material consisting of glass fibers held together with a binder.
in resin. Matrix—In the case of fiber-reinforced polymers, the
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)—A general term for a materials that serve to bind the fibers together, transfer load
composite material that consists of a polymer matrix reinforced to the fibers, and protect them against environmental attack
with cloth, mat, strands, or any other fiber form. See and damage due to handling.
Composite. Monomer—An organic molecule of relatively low
Fiber volume fraction—The ratio of the volume of fibers molecular weight that creates a solid polymer by reacting
to the volume of the composite. with itself or other compounds of low molecular weight or both.
Fiber weight fraction—The ratio of the weight of fibers MSDS—Material safety data sheet.
to the weight of the composite. OSHA—Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
Filament—See Fiber. PAN—Polyacrylonitrile, a precursor fiber used to make
Filler—A relatively inert substance added to a resin to carbon fiber.
alter its properties or to lower cost or density. Sometimes the Phenolic—A thermosetting resin produced by the condensa-
term is used specifically to mean particulate additives. Also tion of an aromatic alcohol with an aldehyde, particularly of
called extenders. phenol with formaldehyde.
Pitch—Petroleum or coal tar precursor base used to make
Fire retardant—Chemicals that are used to reduce the
carbon fiber.
tendency of a resin to burn; these can be added to the resin or
coated on the surface of the FRP. Ply—A single layer of fabric or mat; multiple plies, when
molded together, make up the laminate.
Flow—The movement of uncured resin under pressure or
Polyester—One of a large group of synthetic resins, mainly
gravity loads.
produced by the reaction of dibasic acids with dihydroxy
FRP—Fiber reinforced polymer; formerly, fiber-reinforced alcohols; commonly prepared for application by mixing with
plastic. a vinyl-group monomer and free-radical catalysts at ambient
GFRP—Glass fiber-reinforced polymer. temperatures and used as binders for resin mortars and
Glass fiber—An individual filament made by drawing or concretes, fiber laminates (mainly glass), adhesives, and the
spinning molten glass through a fine orifice. A continuous like. Commonly referred to as “unsaturated polyester.”
filament is a single glass fiber of great or indefinite length. A Polymer—A high molecular weight organic compound,
staple fiber is a glass fiber of relatively short length, generally natural or synthetic, containing repeating units.
less than 17 in. (0.43 m), the length related to the forming or Polymerization—The reaction in which two or more
spinning process used. molecules of the same substance combine to form a compound
Glass transition temperature (Tg)—The midpoint of the containing the same elements and in the same proportions but
temperature range over which an amphoras material (such as of higher molecular weight.
glass or a high polymer) changes from (or to) a brittle, vitreous Polyurethane—Reaction product of an isocyanate with
state to (or from) a plastic state. any of a wide variety of other compounds containing an
Grid, FRP—A two-dimensional (planar) or three-dimen- active hydrogen group; used to formulate tough, abrasion-
sional (spatial) rigid array of interconnected FRP bars that resistant coatings.
form a contiguous lattice that can be used to reinforce concrete. Postcuring, FRP—Additional elevated-temperature curing
The lattice can be manufactured with integrally connected bars that increases the level of polymer cross-linking; final properties
or made of mechanically connected individual bars. of the laminate or polymer are enhanced.
Hardener—1) a chemical (including certain fluosilicates or Pot life—Time interval after preparation during which a
sodium silicate) applied to concrete floors to reduce wear and liquid or plastic mixture is to be used.
dusting; or 2) in a two-component adhesive or coating, the Prepreg—A fiber or fiber sheet material containing resin
chemical component that causes the resin component to cure. that is advanced to a tacky consistency. Multiple plies of
Impregnate—In fiber-reinforced polymers, to saturate prepreg are typically cured with applied heat and pressure;
the fibers with resin. also preimpregnated fiber or sheet.
Initiator—A source of free radicals, which are groups of Pultrusion—A continuous process for manufacturing
atoms that have at least one unpaired electron, used to start composites that have a uniform cross-sectional shape. The
the curing process for unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester process consists of pulling a fiber-reinforcing material
resins. Peroxides are the most common source of free radicals. through a resin impregnation bath then through a shaping die
See Catalyst. where the resin is subsequently cured.
Interface—The boundary or surface between two different, Resin—Polymeric material that is rigid or semirigid at
physically distinguishable media. On fibers, the contact area room temperature, usually with a melting point or glass
between fibers and coating/sizing. transition temperature above room temperature.
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-7

Resin content—The amount of resin in a laminate, expressed CE = environmental-reduction factor

as either a percentage of total mass or total volume. d = distance from extreme compression fiber to the
Roving—A number of yarns, strands, tows, or ends of neutral axis, in. (mm)
fibers collected into a parallel bundle with little or no twist. df = depth of FRP shear reinforcement as shown in
Sheet, FRP—A dry, flexible ply used in wet layup FRP Fig. 10.2, in. (mm)
systems. Unidirectional FRP sheets consist of continuous
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa)
fibers aligned in one direction and held together in-plane to
create a ply of finite width and length. Fabrics are also referred Ef = tensile modulus of elasticity of FRP, psi (MPa)
to as sheets. See Fabric, Ply. Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
Shelf life—The length of time packaged materials can be fc = compressive stress in concrete, psi (MPa)
stored under specified conditions and remain usable. fc′ = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
Sizing—Surface treatment or coating applied to filaments √fc′ = square root of specified compressive strength of
to improve the filament-to-resin bond and to impart processing concrete
and durability attributes. fcc′ = apparent compressive strength of confined concrete,
Sustained stress—Stress caused by unfactored sustained psi (MPa)
loads including dead loads and the sustained portion of the
live load. ff = stress level in the FRP reinforcement, psi (MPa)
Thermoset—Resin that is formed by cross-linking polymer ff,s = stress level in the FRP caused by a moment within
chains. Note: A thermoset cannot be melted and recycled the elastic range of the member, psi (MPa)
because the polymer chains form a three-dimensional network. ffe = effective stress in the FRP; stress level attained at
Tow—An untwisted bundle of continuous filaments. section failure, psi (MPa)
Vinyl ester—A thermosetting resin containing both vinyl ffu* = ultimate tensile strength of the FRP material as
and ester components, and cured by additional polymerization reported by the manufacturer, psi (MPa)
initiated by free-radical generation. Vinyl esters are used as ffu = design ultimate tensile strength of FRP, psi
binders for fiber laminates and adhesives. (MPa)
VOC—Volatile organic compounds; any compound of
f fu = mean ultimate strength of FRP based on a popu-
carbon, excluding carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonic
acid, metallic carbides, or carbonates, and ammonium lation of 20 or more tensile tests per ASTM D
carbonate, that participates in atmospheric photochemical 3039, psi (MPa)
reactions, such as ozone depletion. fl = confining pressure due to FRP jacket, psi (MPa)
Volume fraction—The proportion from 0.0 to 1.0 of a fs = stress in nonprestressed steel reinforcement, psi
component within the composite, measured on a volume (MPa)
basis, such as fiber-volume fraction. fs,s = stress level in nonprestressed steel reinforcement at
Wet layup—A method of making a laminate product by service loads, psi (MPa)
applying the resin system as a liquid when the fabric or mat fy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed steel
is put in place. reinforcement, psi (MPa)
Wet-out—The process of coating or impregnating roving,
yarn, or fabric in which all voids between the strands and h = overall thickness of a member, in. (mm)
filaments are filled with resin; it is also the condition at Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to
which this state is achieved. concrete, in.4 (mm4)
Witness panel—A small field sample FRP panel, manufac- k = ratio of the depth of the neutral axis to the reinforce-
tured on-site in a noncritical area at conditions similar to the ment depth measured on the same side of neutral
actual construction. The panel can be later tested to determine axis
mechanical and physical properties to confirm expected kf = stiffness per unit width per ply of the FRP rein-
properties of the installed FRP laminate. forcement, lb/in. (N/mm); kf = Ef tf
Yarn—An assemblage of twisted filaments, fibers, or k1 = modification factor applied to κv to account for the
strands, formed into a continuous length that is suitable for
concrete strength
use in weaving textile materials.
k2 = modification factor applied to κv to account for the
1.5—Notation wrapping scheme
Af = ntf wf , area of FRP external reinforcement, in.2 Le = active bond length of FRP laminate, in. (mm)
(mm2) ldf = development length of FRP system, in. (mm)
Afv = area of FRP shear reinforcement with spacing s, in.2 Mcr = cracking moment, in.-lb (N-mm)
(mm2) Mn = nominal moment strength, in.-lb (N-mm)
Ag = gross area of section, in.2 (mm2) Ms = moment within the elastic range of the member,
As = area of nonprestressed steel reinforcement, in.2 in.-lb (N-mm)
(mm2) Mu = factored moment at section, in.-lb (N-mm)
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement, in.2 (mm2) n = number of plies of FRP reinforcement
*
b = width of rectangular cross section, in. (mm) pfu = ultimate tensile strength per unit width per play of
* *
bw = web width or diameter of circular section, in. (mm) the FRP reinforcement, lb/in. (N/mm); pfu =ffu tf
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the p fu = mean tensile strength per unit width per ply of the
neutral axis, in. (mm) reinforcement, lb/in. (N/mm)
440.2R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Pn = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity, lb κm = bond-dependent coefficient for flexure
(N) κv = bond-dependent coefficient for shear
r = radius of the edges of a square or rectangular section ρf = FRP reinforcement ratio
confined with FRP, in. (mm) ρg = ratio of the area of longitudinal steel reinforcement to
Rn = nominal strength of a member the cross-sectional area of a compression member
Rnφ = nominal strength of a member subjected to the ρs = ratio of nonprestressed reinforcement
elevated temperatures associated with a fire σ = standard deviation
SDL = dead load effects ψf = additional FRP strength-reduction factor
sf = spacing FRP shear reinforcing as described in
Fig. 10.2, in. (mm) CHAPTER 2—BACKGROUND INFORMATION
SLL = live load effects Externally bonded FRP systems have been used to
tf = nominal thickness of one ply of the FRP reinforce- strengthen and retrofit existing concrete structures around
ment, in. (mm) the world since the mid 1980s. The number of projects
Tg = glass-transition temperature, °F (°C) utilizing FRP systems worldwide has increased dramatically,
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete with from a few 10 years ago to several thousand today (Bakis et
steel flexural reinforcement, lb (N) al. 2002). Structural elements strengthened with externally
Vn = nominal shear strength, lb (N) bonded FRP systems include beams, slabs, columns, walls,
joints/connections, chimneys and smokestacks, vaults,
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by steel stirrups,
domes, tunnels, silos, pipes, and trusses. Externally bonded
lb (N)
FRP systems have also been used to strengthen masonry,
Vf = nominal shear strength provided by FRP stirrups, lb timber, steel, and cast-iron structures. The idea of strengthening
wf = width of the FRP reinforcing plies, in. (mm) concrete structures with externally bonded reinforcement is not
α = angle of inclination of stirrups or spirals, degrees new. Externally bonded FRP systems were developed as
αL = longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion, in./in./ alternates to traditional external reinforcing techniques like
°F (mm/mm/°C) steel plate bonding and steel or concrete column jacketing.
αT = transverse coefficient of thermal expansion, in./in./°F The initial development of externally bonded FRP systems
(mm/mm/°C) for the retrofit of concrete structures occurred in the 1980s in
β1 = ratio of the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress both Europe and Japan.
block to the depth of the neutral axis
εb = strain level in the concrete substrate developed by a 2.1—Historical development
In Europe, FRP systems were developed as alternates to
given bending moment (tension in positive), in./in.
steel plate bonding. Bonding steel plates to the tension zones
(mm/mm) of concrete members with epoxy resins were shown to be
εbi = strain level in the concrete substrate at the time of the viable techniques for increasing their flexural strengths
FRP installation (tension is positive), in./in. (mm/mm) (Fleming and King 1967). This technique has been used to
εc = stain level in the concrete, in./in. (mm/mm) strengthen many bridges and buildings around the world.
εcc′ = maximum usable compressive strain of FRP confined Because steel plates can corrode, leading to a deterioration of
concrete, in./in. (mm/mm) the bond between the steel and concrete, and that are difficult
εcu = maximum usable compressive strain of concrete, in./ to install, requiring the use of heavy equipment, researchers
in., (mm/mm) have looked to FRP materials as an alternative to steel.
εf = strain level in the FRP reinforcement, in./in. (mm/ Experimental work using FRP materials for retrofitting
mm) concrete structures was reported as early as 1978 in Germany
(Wolf and Miessler 1989). Research in Switzerland led to
εfe = effective strain level in FRP reinforcement; strain level
the first applications of externally bonded FRP systems
attained at section failure, in./in. (mm/mm) to reinforced concrete bridges for flexural strengthening
εfu = design rupture strain of FRP reinforcement, in./in. (Meier 1987; Rostasy 1987).
(mm/mm) FRP systems were first applied to reinforced concrete
ε fu = mean rupture stain of FRP reinforcement based on columns for providing additional confinement in Japan in
a population of 20 or more tensile tests per the 1980s (Fardis and Khalili 1981; Katsumata et al. 1987).
ASTM D 3039, in./in. (mm/mm) A sudden increase in the use of FRPs in Japan was observed
εfu* = ultimate rupture strain of the FRP reinforcement, after the 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu earthquake (Nanni 1995).
in./in. (mm/mm) The United States has had a long and continuous interest
εs = strain level in the nonprestessed steel reinforcement, in fiber-based reinforcement for concrete structures since the
in./in./ (mm) 1930s. Actual development and research into the use of these
εsy = strain corresponding to the yield strength of non- materials for retrofitting concrete structures, however, started
in the 1980s through the initiatives of the National Science
prestressed steel reinforcement
Foundation (NSF) and the Federal Highway Administration
φ = strength reduction factor (FHWA). The research activities led to the construction of
γ = multiplier on fc′ to determine the intensity of an many field projects encompassing a wide variety of environ-
equivalent rectangular stress distribution for concrete mental conditions. Previous research and field applications
κa = efficiency factor for FRP reinforcement (based on for FRP rehabilitation and strengthening are described in
the section geometry) ACI 440R-96 and conference proceedings (Japan Concrete
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-9

Institute 1997; Neale 2000; Dolan et al. 1999; Sheheta et al. 1. Preimpregnated unidirectional fiber sheets where the fibers
1999; Saadatmanesh and Ehsani 1998; Benmokrane and run predominantly in one planar direction;
Rahman 1998; Neale and Labossière 1997; Hassan and 2. Preimpregnated multidirectional fiber sheets or fabrics
Rizkalla 2002). where the fibers are oriented in at least two planar directions;
The development of codes and standards for externally and
bonded FRP systems is ongoing in Europe, Japan, Canada, 3. Preimpregnated fiber tows that are wound or otherwise
and the United States. Within the last 10 years, the Japan mechanically applied to the concrete surface.
Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) and the Japan Concrete 2.2.3 Precured systems—Precured FRP systems consist of
Institute (JCI) and the Railway Technical Research Institute a wide variety of composite shapes manufactured off-site.
(RTRI) published several documents related to the use of Typically, an adhesive along with the primer and putty is
FRP materials in concrete structures. used to bond the precured shapes to the concrete surface. The
In Europe, Task Group 9.3 of the International Federation system manufacturer should be consulted for recommended
for Structural Concrete (FIB) recently published a bulletin installation procedures. Precured systems are analogous to
on design guidelines for externally bonded FRP reinforcement precast concrete. Three common types of precured systems
for reinforced concrete structures (FIB 2001). are listed as follows:
The Canada Standards Association and ISIS have been 1. Precured unidirectional laminate sheets, typically delivered
active in developing guidelines for FRP systems. Section 16, to the site in the form of large flat stock or as thin ribbon
“Fiber Reinforced Concrete,” of the Canadian Highway strips coiled on a roll;
Bridge Design Code was completed in 2000 (CSA S806-02) 2. Precured multidirectional grids, typically delivered to
and the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) recently the site coiled on a roll;
approved the code “Design and Construction of Building 3. Precured shells, typically delivered to the site in the
Components with Fiber Reinforced Polymers” (CSA S806-02). form of shell segments cut longitudinally so they can be
In the United States, criteria for evaluating FRP systems opened and fitted around columns or other members; multiple
are becoming available to the construction industry (AC125 shell layers are bonded to the concrete and to each other to
1997; CALTRANS 1996; Hawkins et al. 1998). provide seismic confinement.
2.2.4 Other FRP forms—Other FRP forms are not covered
2.2—Commercially available externally bonded in this document. These include cured FRP rigid rod and
FRP systems flexible strand or cable (Saadatmanesh and Tannous
FRP systems come in a variety of forms, including wet 1999a; Dolan 1999; Fukuyama 1999; ACI 440R-96 and
layup systems and precured systems. FRP system forms can ACI 440.1R-01).
be categorized based on how they are delivered to the site
and installed. The FRP system and its form should be selected PART 2—MATERIALS
based on the acceptable transfer of structural loads and the CHAPTER 3—CONSTITUENT MATERIALS AND
ease and simplicity of application. Common FRP system PROPERTIES
forms suitable for the strengthening of structural members are The physical and mechanical properties of FRP materials
listed as follows: presented in this chapter explain the behavior and properties
2.2.1 Wet layup systems—Wet layup FRP systems consist affecting their use in concrete structures. The effects of factors
of dry unidirectional or multidirectional fiber sheets or fabrics such as loading history and duration, temperature, and moisture
impregnated with a saturating resin on-site. The saturating on the properties of FRP are discussed.
resin, along with the compatible primer and putty, is used to FRP-strengthening systems come in a variety of forms
bond the FRP sheets to the concrete surface. Wet layup sys- (wet layup, prepreg, precured). Factors such as fiber volume,
tems are saturated in-place and cured in-place and, in this type of fiber, type of resin, fiber orientation, dimensional
sense, are analogous to cast-in-place concrete. Three common effects, and quality control during manufacturing all play a
types of wet layup systems are listed as follows: role in establishing the characteristics of an FRP material. The
1. Dry unidirectional fiber sheets where the fibers run material characteristics described in this chapter are generic and
predominantly in one planar direction; do not apply to all commercially available products. Standard
2. Dry multidirectional fiber sheets or fabrics where the test methods are being developed by several organizations
fibers are oriented in at least two planar directions; and including ASTM, ACI, and ISIS to characterize certain FRP
3. Dry fiber tows that are wound or otherwise mechanically products. In the interim, however, the engineer is encouraged to
applied to the concrete surface. The dry fiber tows are im- consult with the FRP system manufacturer to obtain the relevant
pregnated with resin on-site during the winding operation. characteristics for a specific product and the applicability of
2.2.2 Prepreg systems—Prepreg FRP systems consist of those characteristics.
uncured unidirectional or multidirectional fiber sheets or
fabrics that are preimpregnated with a saturating resin in the 3.1—Constituent materials
manufacturer’s facility. Prepreg systems are bonded to the The constituent materials used in commercially available
concrete surface with or without an additional resin application, FRP repair systems, including all resins, primers, putties,
depending upon specific system requirements. Prepreg saturants, adhesives, and fibers, have been developed for the
systems are saturated off-site and, like wet layup systems, strengthening of structural concrete members based on
cured in place. Prepreg systems usually require additional materials and structural testing.
heating for curing. Prepreg system manufacturers should be 3.1.1 Resins—A wide range of polymeric resins, including
consulted for storage and shelf-life recommendations and primers, putty fillers, saturants, and adhesives, are used with
curing procedures. Three common types of prepreg FRP FRP systems. Commonly used resin types including epoxies,
systems are listed as follows: vinyl esters, and polyesters have been formulated for use in
440.2R-10 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table 3.1—Typical densities of FRP materials, 3.2—Physical properties

lb/ft3 (g/cm3) 3.2.1 Density—FRP materials have densities ranging from
75 to 130 lb/ft3 (1.2 to 2.1 g/cm3), which is four to six times
Steel GFRP CFRP AFRP
lower than that of steel (Table 3.1). The reduced density
490 75 to 130 90 to 100 75 to 90
(7.9) (1.2 to 2.1) (1.5 to 1.6) (1.2 to 1.5) leads to lower transportation costs, reduces added dead load
on the structure, and can ease handling of the materials on
the project site.
Table 3.2—Typical coefficients of thermal 3.2.2 Coefficient of thermal expansion—The coefficients
expansion for FRP materials* of thermal expansion of unidirectional FRP materials differ
Direction Coefficient of thermal expansion, × 10–6/°F (× 10–6/°C) in the longitudinal and transverse directions, depending on
GFRP CFRP AFRP
the types of fiber, resin, and volume fraction of fiber. Table 3.2
lists the longitudinal and transverse coefficients of thermal
Longitudinal, αL 3.3 to 5.6 –0.6 to 0 –3.3 to –1.1
(6 to 10) (–1 to 0) (–6 to –2) expansion for typical unidirectional FRP materials. Note that
10.4 to 12.6 12 to 27 33 to 44 a negative coefficient of thermal expansion indicates that the
Transverse, αT material contracts with increased temperature and expands
(19 to 23) (22 to 50) (60 to 80)
*Typical values for fiber-volume fractions ranging from 0.5 to 0.7. with decreased temperature. For reference, concrete has a
coefficient of thermal expansion that varies from 4 × 10–6 to
a wide range of environmental conditions. FRP system 6 × 10–6/°F (7 × 10–6 to 11 × 10–6/°C) and is usually assumed
manufacturers use resins that have the following characteristics: to be isotropic (Mindess and Young 1981). Steel has an
isotropic coefficient of thermal expansion of 6.5 × 10–6/°F
• Compatibility with and adhesion to the concrete substrate; (11.7 × 10–6/°C). See Section 8.3.1 for design considerations
• Compatibility with and adhesion to the FRP composite regarding thermal expansion.
system; 3.2.3 Effects of high temperatures—Beyond the Tg, the
• Resistance to environmental effects, including but not elastic modulus of a polymer is significantly reduced due to
limited to moisture, salt water, temperature extremes, and changes in its molecular structure. The value of Tg depends
chemicals normally associated with exposed concrete; on the type of resin but is normally in the region of 140 to
• Filling ability; 180 °F (60 to 82 °C). In an FRP composite material, the fibers,
• Workability; which exhibit better thermal properties than the resin, can
• Pot life consistent with the application; continue to support some load in the longitudinal direction
• Compatibility with and adhesion to the reinforcing until the temperature threshold of the fibers is reached. This
fiber; and can occur at temperatures near 1800 °F (1000 °C) for glass
• Development of appropriate mechanical properties for fibers and 350 °F (175 °C) for aramid fibers. Carbon fibers
the FRP composite. are capable of resisting temperatures in excess of 500 °F
(275 °C). Due to a reduction in force transfer between fibers
[Link] Primer—The primer is used to penetrate the through bond to the resin, however, the tensile properties of
surface of the concrete, providing an improved adhesive the overall composite are reduced. Test results have indicated
bond for the saturating resin or adhesive. that temperatures of 480 °F (250 °C), much higher than the
[Link] Putty fillers—The putty is used to fill small surface resin Tg, will reduce the tensile strength of GFRP and CFRP
voids in the substrate, such as bug holes, and to provide a materials in excess of 20% (Kumahara et al. 1993). Other
smooth surface to which the FRP system can bond. Filled properties affected by the shear transfer through the resin,
surface voids also prevent bubbles from forming during such as bending strength, are reduced significantly at lower
curing of the saturating resin. temperatures (Wang and Evans 1995).
[Link] Saturating resin—The saturating resin is used to For bond-critical applications of FRP systems, the properties
impregnate the reinforcing fibers, fix them in place, and of the polymer at the fiber-concrete interface are essential in
provide a shear load path to effectively transfer load between maintaining the bond between FRP and concrete. At a tempera-
fibers. The saturating resin also serves as the adhesive for ture close to its Tg, however, the mechanical properties of the
wet layup systems, providing a shear load path between the polymer are significantly reduced, and the polymer begins to
previously primed concrete substrate and the FRP system. loose its ability to transfer stresses from the concrete to the fibers.
[Link] Adhesives—Adhesives are used to bond precured
FRP laminate systems to the concrete substrate. The adhesive 3.3—Mechanical properties and behavior
provides a shear load path between the concrete substrate and 3.3.1 Tensile behavior—When loaded in direct tension,
the FRP reinforcing laminate. Adhesives are also used to bond FRP materials do not exhibit any plastic behavior (yielding)
together multiple layers of precured FRP laminates. before rupture. The tensile behavior of FRP materials
[Link] Protective coatings—The protective coating is consisting of one type of fiber material is characterized by a
used to protect the bonded FRP reinforcement from potentially linearly elastic stress-strain relationship until failure, which
damaging environmental effects. Coatings are typically is sudden and can be catastrophic.
applied to the exterior surface of the cured FRP system after The tensile strength and stiffness of an FRP material is
the adhesive or saturating resin has cured. dependent on several factors. Because the fibers in an FRP
3.1.2 Fibers—Continuous glass, aramid, and carbon fibers material are the main load-carrying constituent, the type of
are common reinforcements used with FRP systems. The fibers fiber, the orientation of the fibers, and the quantity of fibers
give the FRP system its strength and stiffness. Typical ranges of primarily govern the tensile properties of the FRP material.
the tensile properties of fibers are given in Appendix A. A more Due to the primary role of the fibers and methods of application,
detailed description of fibers is given in ACI 440R. the properties of an FRP repair system are sometimes reported
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-11

based on the net-fiber area. In other instances, the reported the fiber-volume fraction, and the type of resin. Compressive
properties are based on the gross-laminate area. strengths of 55, 78, and 20% of the tensile strength have been
The gross-laminate area of an FRP system is calculated using reported for GFRP, CFRP, and AFRP, respectively (Wu
the total cross-sectional area of the cured FRP system, including 1990). In general, compressive strengths are higher for
all fibers and resin. The gross-laminate area is typically used materials with higher tensile strengths, except in the case
for reporting precured laminate properties where the cured of AFRP where the fibers exhibit nonlinear behavior in
thickness is constant and the relative proportion of fiber and compression at a relatively low level of stress.
resin is controlled. The compressive modulus of elasticity is usually smaller
The net-fiber area of an FRP system is calculated using the than the tensile modulus of elasticity of FRP materials.
known area of fiber, neglecting the total width and thickness Test reports on samples containing a 55 to 60% volume fraction
of the cured system; thus, resin is excluded. The net-fiber of continuous E-glass fibers in a matrix of vinyl ester or
area is typically used for reporting properties of wet layup sys- isophthalic polyester resin have reported a compressive
tems that use manufactured fiber sheets and field-installed modulus of elasticity of 5000 to 7000 ksi (34,000 to
resins. The wet layup installation process leads to a con- 48,000 MPa) (Wu 1990). According to reports, the compressive
trolled fiber content and a variable resin content. modulus of elasticity is approximately 80% for GFRP, 85%
System properties reported using the gross-laminate area have for CFRP, and 100% for AFRP of the tensile modulus of
higher relative thickness dimensions and lower relative strength elasticity for the same product (Ehsani 1993).
and modulus values, whereas system properties reported using
the net-fiber area have lower relative thickness dimensions and 3.4—Time-dependent behavior
higher relative strength and modulus values. Regardless of the 3.4.1 Creep-rupture—FRP materials subjected to a constant
basis for the reported values, the load-carrying strength (ffu Af ) load over time can suddenly fail after a time period referred
and stiffness (Af Ef ) remain constant. (The calculation of FRP to as the endurance time. This type of failure is known as
system properties using both gross-laminate and net-fiber creep-rupture. As the ratio of the sustained tensile stress to
property methods is illustrated in Part 5.) Properties reported the short-term strength of the FRP laminate increases, endurance
based on the net-fiber area are not the properties of the time decreases. The endurance time also decreases under
bare fibers. The properties of an FRP system should be adverse environmental conditions, such as high temperature,
characterized as a composite, recognizing not just the material ultraviolet-radiation exposure, high alkalinity, wet and dry
properties of the individual fibers but also the efficiency of cycles, or freezing-and-thawing cycles.
the fiber-resin system, the fabric architecture, and the method In general, carbon fibers are the least susceptible to creep-
used to create the composite. The mechanical properties of all rupture; aramid fibers are moderately susceptible, and glass
FRP systems, regardless of form, should be based on the testing fibers are most susceptible. Creep-rupture tests have been
of laminate samples with a known fiber content. conducted on 0.25 in. (6 mm) diameter FRP bars reinforced
The tensile properties of some commercially available with glass, aramid, and carbon fibers. The FRP bars were
FRP strengthening systems are given in Appendix A. The tested at different load levels at room temperature. Results
tensile properties of a particular FRP system, however, indicated that a linear relationship exists between creep-
should be obtained from the FRP system manufacturer. rupture strength and the logarithm of time for all load levels.
Manufacturers should report an ultimate tensile strength defined The ratios of stress level at creep-rupture after 500,000 h
by this guide as the mean tensile strength of a sample of test (about 50 years) to the initial ultimate strength of the GFRP,
specimens minus three times the standard deviation (ffu* = AFRP, and CFRP bars were extrapolated to be 0.3, 0.47, and
f fu – 3σ) and, similarly, report an ultimate rupture strain 0.91, respectively (Yamaguchi et al. 1997). Similar values
(ε*fu = ε fu – 3σ). These statistically based ultimate tensile have been determined elsewhere (Malvar 1998).
properties provide a 99.87% probability that the indicated Recommendations on sustained stress limits imposed to
values are exceeded (Mutsuyoshi et al. 1990). Young’s modulus avoid creep-rupture are given in the design section of this
should be calculated as the chord modulus between 0.003 guide. As long as the sustained stress in the FRP is below the
and 0.006 strain, in accordance with ASTM D 3039. A creep rupture stress limits, the strength of the FRP is available
minimum number of 20 replicate test specimens should be for nonsustained loads.
used to determine the ultimate tensile properties. The 3.4.2 Fatigue—A substantial amount of data for fatigue
manufacturer should provide a description of the method behavior and life prediction of stand-alone FRP materials have
used to obtain the reported tensile properties, including the been generated in the last 30 years (National Research Council
number of tests, mean values, and standard deviations. 1991). During most of this period, aerospace materials were the
3.3.2 Compressive behavior—Externally bonded FRP primary subjects of investigation. Despite the differences in
systems should not be used as compression reinforcement quality and consistency between aerospace and commercial-
due to insufficient testing validating its use in this type of grade FRP materials, some general observations on the fatigue
application. While it is not recommended to rely on externally behavior of FRP materials can be made. Unless specifically
bonded FRP systems to resist compressive stresses, the stated otherwise, the following cases being reviewed are based
following section is presented to fully characterize the on an unidirectional material with approximately 60% fiber-
behavior of FRP materials. volume fraction and subjected to tension-tension sinusoidal
Coupon tests on FRP laminates used for repair on concrete cyclic loading at:
have shown that the compressive strength is lower than the • A frequency low enough to not cause self-heating;
tensile strength (Wu 1990). The mode of failure for FRP • Ambient laboratory environments;
laminates subjected to longitudinal compression can include • A stress ratio (ratio of minimum applied stress to
transverse tensile failure, fiber microbuckling, or shear maximum applied stress) of 0.1; and
failure. The mode of failure depends on the type of fiber, • A direction parallel to the principal fiber alignment.
440.2R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Test conditions that raise the temperature and moisture exposure. These properties should be adjusted in accordance
content of FRP materials generally degrade the ambient with Section 8.4 to account for the anticipated service environ-
environment fatigue behavior. ment to which the FRP system may be exposed during its
Of all types of FRP composites for infrastructure applications, service life.
CFRP is the least prone to fatigue failure. An endurance limit
of 60 to 70% of the initial static ultimate strength of CFRP is 3.6—FRP system qualification
typical. On a plot of stress versus the logarithm of the number of FRP systems should be qualified for use on a project on the
cycles at failure (S-N curve), the downward slope of CFRP basis of independent laboratory test data of the FRP-constituent
is usually about 5% of the initial static ultimate strength per materials and the laminates made with them, structural test
decade of logarithmic life. At one million cycles, the fatigue data for the type of application being considered, and durability
strength is generally between 60 and 70% of the initial static data representative of the anticipated environment. Test data
ultimate strength and is relatively unaffected by the moisture provided by the FRP system manufacturer demonstrating the
and temperature exposures of concrete structures unless the proposed FRP system meets all mechanical and physical
resin or fiber/resin interface is substantially degraded by the design requirements including tensile strength, durability,
environment. resistance to creep, bond to substrate, and T g should be
In ambient-environment laboratory tests (Mandell and considered but not used as the sole basis for qualification.
Meier 1983), individual glass fibers demonstrated delayed FRP composite systems that have not been fully tested
rupture caused by stress corrosion, which had been induced should not be considered for use. Mechanical properties
by the growth of surface flaws in the presence of even minute of FRP systems should be determined from tests on laminates
quantities of moisture. When many glass fibers are embedded manufactured in a process representative of their field installa-
into a matrix to form an FRP composite, a cyclic tensile tion. Mechanical properties should be tested in general
fatigue effect of approximately 10% loss in the initial static conformance with the procedures listed in Appendix B.
strength per decade of logarithmic lifetime is observed Modifications of standard testing procedures may be permitted
(Mandell 1982). This fatigue effect is thought to be due to fiber- to emulate field assemblies.
fiber interactions and not dependent on the stress corrosion The specified material-qualification programs should
mechanism described for individual fibers. Usually, no require sufficient laboratory testing to measure the repeatability
clear fatigue limit can be defined. Environmental factors and reliability of critical properties. Testing of multiple
can play an important role in the fatigue behavior of glass batches of FRP materials is recommended. Independent
fibers due to their susceptibility to moisture, alkaline, structural testing can be used to evaluate a system’s performance
and acidic solutions. for the specific application.
Aramid fibers, for which substantial durability data are
available, appear to behave reasonably well in fatigue. PART 3—RECOMMENDED
Neglecting in this context the rather poor durability of all CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
aramid fibers in compression, the tension-tension fatigue CHAPTER 4—SHIPPING, STORAGE, AND
behavior of an impregnated aramid fiber strand is excellent. HANDLING
Strength degradation per decade of logarithmic lifetime is 4.1—Shipping
approximately 5 to 6% (Roylance and Roylance 1981). FRP system constituent materials must be packaged and
While no distinct endurance limit is known for AFRP, two- shipped in a manner that conforms to all applicable federal
million-cycle endurance limits of commercial AFRP tendons and state packaging and shipping codes and regulations.
for concrete applications have been reported in the range of Packaging, labeling, and shipping for thermosetting resin
54 to 73% of the ultimate tensile strength (Odagiri et al. materials are controlled by CFR 49. Many materials are
1997). Based on these findings, Odagiri suggested that the classified as corrosive, flammable, or poisonous in subchapter C
maximum stress be set to 0.54 to 0.73 times the tensile (CFR 49) under “Hazardous Materials Regulations.”
strength. Because the slope of the applied stress versus
logarithmic endurance time of AFRP is similar to the slope 4.2—Storage
of the stress versus logarithmic cyclic lifetime data, the 4.2.1 Storage conditions—To preserve the properties and
individual fibers appear to fail by a strain-limited, creep- maintain safety in the storage of FRP system constituent
rupture process. This lifetime-limiting mechanism in materials, the materials should be stored in accordance with
commercial AFRP bars is accelerated by exposure to moisture the manufacturer’s recommendations. Certain constituent
and elevated temperature (Roylance and Roylance 1981; materials, such as reactive curing agents, hardeners, initiators,
Rostasy 1997). catalysts, and cleaning solvents, have safety-related require-
ments and should be stored in a manner as recommended by
3.5—Durability the manufacturer and OSHA. Catalysts and initiators (usually
Many FRP systems exhibit reduced mechanical properties peroxides) should be stored separately.
after exposure to certain environmental factors, including 4.2.2 Shelf life—The properties of the uncured resin
temperature, humidity, and chemical exposure. The exposure components can change with time, temperature, or humidity.
environment, duration of the exposure, resin type and Such conditions can affect the reactivity of the mixed system
formulation, fiber type, and resin-curing method are and the uncured and cured properties. The manufacturer sets
some of the factors that influence the extent of the reduction in a recommended shelf life within which the properties of the
mechanical properties. These factors are discussed in more resin-based materials should continue to meet or exceed
detail in Section 8.3. The tensile properties reported by the stated performance criteria. Any component material that
manufacturer are based on testing conducted in a laboratory has exceeded its shelf life, has deteriorated, or has been
environment and do not reflect the effects of environmental contaminated should not be used. FRP materials deemed
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-13

unusable should be disposed of in a manner specified by the Consult the manufacturer’s literature for proper mixing
manufacturer and acceptable to state and federal environmental procedures and MSDSs for specific handling hazards. Ambient
control regulations. cure resin formulations produce heat when curing, which in
turn accelerates the reaction. Uncontrolled reactions, including
4.3—Handling fuming, fire, or violent boiling, may occur in containers
4.3.1 Material safety data sheets—Material safety data holding a mixed mass of resin; therefore, containers should
sheets (MSDS) for all FRP constituent materials and be monitored.
components must be obtained from the manufacturers and 4.3.6 Clean-up and disposal—Clean-up can involve use
must be accessible at the job site. of flammable solvents, and appropriate precautions
4.3.2 Information sources—Detailed information on the should be observed. Clean-up solvents are available that do
handling and potential hazards of FRP constituent materials not present the same flammability concerns. All waste materials
can be found in information sources, such as ACI and ICRI should be contained and disposed of as prescribed by the prevail-
reports, company literature and guides, OSHA guidelines, ing environmental authority.
and other government informational documents. ACI 503R
is specifically noted as a general guideline for the safe handling CHAPTER 5—INSTALLATION
of epoxy compounds. Procedures for installing FRP systems have been developed
4.3.3 General handling hazards—Thermosetting resins by the system manufacturers and often differ between systems.
describe a generic family of products that includes unsaturated In addition, installation procedures can vary within a system,
polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxy, and polyurethane resins. The depending on the type and condition of the structure. This
materials used with them are generally described as hardeners, chapter presents general guidelines for the installation of FRP
curing agents, peroxide initiators, isocyanates, fillers, and systems. Contractors trained in accordance with the installation
flexibilizers. There are precautions that should be observed procedures developed by the system manufacturer should
when handling thermosetting resins and their component install FRP systems. Deviations from the procedures developed
materials. Some general hazards that may be encountered by the FRP system manufacturer should not be allowed without
when handling thermosetting resins are listed as follows: consulting with the manufacturer.
• Skin irritation, such as burns, rashes, and itching;
• Skin sensitization, which is an allergic reaction similar 5.1—Contractor competency
to that caused by poison ivy, building insulation, or The FRP system installation contractor should demonstrate
other allergens; competency for surface preparation and application of the FRP
• Breathing organic vapors from cleaning solvents, system to be installed. Contractor competency can be demon-
monomers, and diluents; strated by providing evidence of training and documentation of
• With a sufficient concentration in air, explosion or fire related work previously completed by the contractor or by actual
of flammable materials when exposed to heat, flames, surface preparation and installation of the FRP system on
pilot lights, sparks, static electricity, cigarettes, or other portions of the structure. The FRP system manufacturer or their
sources of ignition; authorized agent should train the contractor’s application
• Exothermic reactions of mixtures of materials causing personnel in the installation procedures of their system and
fires or personal injury; and ensure they are competent to install the system.
• Nuisance dust caused by grinding or handling of the
cured FRP materials (consult manufacturer’s literature 5.2—Temperature, humidity, and moisture
for specific hazards). considerations
The complexity of thermosetting resins and associated Temperature, relative humidity, and surface moisture at
materials makes it essential that labels and MSDS are read and the time of installation can affect the performance of the FRP
understood by those working with these products. CFR 16, Part system. Conditions to be observed before and during installation
1500, regulates the labeling of hazardous substances and include surface temperature of the concrete, air temperature,
includes thermosetting-resin materials. ANSI Z-129.1 provides relative humidity, and corresponding dew point.
further guidance regarding classification and precautions. Primers, saturating resins, and adhesives generally should
4.3.4 Personnel safe handling and clothing—Disposable not be applied to cold or frozen surfaces. When the surface
suits and gloves are suitable for handling fiber and resin temperature of the concrete surface falls below a minimum
materials. Disposable rubber or plastic gloves are recommended level as specified by the FRP system manufacturer, improper
and should be discarded after each use. Gloves should be saturation of the fibers and improper curing of the resin
resistant to resins and solvents. constituent materials can occur, compromising the integrity
Safety glasses or goggles should be used when handling of the FRP system. An auxiliary heat source can be used to
resin components and solvents. Respiratory protection, such raise the ambient and surface temperature during installation.
as dust masks or respirators, should be used when fiber fly, The heat source should be clean and not contaminate the surface
dust, or organic vapors are present, or during mixing and or the uncured FRP system.
placing of resins if required by the FRP system manufacturer. Resins and adhesives generally should not be applied to
4.3.5 Workplace safe handling—The workplace should be damp or wet surfaces unless they have been formulated for
well ventilated. Surfaces should be covered as needed to such applications. FRP systems should not be applied to concrete
protect against contamination and resin spills. Each FRP surfaces that are subject to moisture vapor transmission. The
system constituent material has different handling and transmission of moisture vapor from a concrete surface
storage requirements to prevent damage. Consult with the through the uncured resin materials typically appears as
material manufacturer for guidance. Some resin systems are surface bubbles and can compromise the bond between the
potentially dangerous during the mixing of the components. FRP system and the substrate.
440.2R-14 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

5.3—Equipment adhesive bond between the FRP system and the concrete
Each FRP system has unique equipment designed specifically substrate, although one is often provided to facilitate installation.
for the application of the materials for that system. This [Link] Bond-critical applications—Surface preparation
equipment can include resin impregnators, sprayers, lifting/ for bond-critical applications should be in accordance with
positioning devices, and winding machines. All equipment recommendations of ACI 546R and ICRI 03730. The
should be clean and in good operating condition. The concrete or repaired surfaces to which the FRP system is to
contractor should have personnel trained in the operation of be applied should be freshly exposed and free of loose or
all equipment. Personal protective equipment, such as unsound materials. Where fibers wrap around the corners of
gloves, masks, eye guards, and coveralls, should be chosen rectangular cross sections, the corners should be rounded to
and worn for each employee’s function. All supplies and a minimum 1/2 in. (13 mm) radius to prevent stress concentra-
equipment should be available in sufficient quantities to allow tions in the FRP system and voids between the FRP system
continuity in the installation project and quality assurance. and the concrete. Roughened corners should be smoothed
with putty. Obstructions, reentrant corners, concave surfaces,
5.4—Substrate repair and surface preparation and embedded objects can affect the performance of the FRP
The behavior of concrete members strengthened or retrofitted system and should be addressed. Obstructions and embedded
with FRP systems is highly dependent on a sound concrete objects may need to be removed before installing the FRP
substrate and proper preparation and profiling of the concrete system. Reentrant corners and concave surfaces may require
surface. An improperly prepared surface can result in debonding special detailing to ensure that the bond of the FRP system to the
or delamination of the FRP system before achieving the design substrate is maintained. Surface preparation can be accom-
load transfer. The general guidelines presented in this chapter plished using abrasive or water-blasting techniques. All laitance,
should be applicable to all externally bonded FRP systems. dust, dirt, oil, curing compound, existing coatings, and any other
Specific guidelines for a particular FRP system should be matter that could interfere with the bond of the FRP system to
obtained from the FRP system manufacturer. Substrate the concrete should be removed. Bug holes and other small
preparation can generate noise, dust, and disruption to building surface voids should be completely exposed during surface
occupants. profiling. After the profiling operations are complete, the
5.4.1 Substrate repair—All problems associated with the surface should be cleaned and protected before FRP installation
condition of the original concrete and the concrete substrate so that no materials that can interfere with bond are redeposited
that can compromise the integrity of the FRP system should on the surface.
be addressed before surface preparation begins. ACI 546R and The concrete surface should be prepared to a minimum
ICRI 03730 detail methods for the repair and surface preparation concrete surface profile (CSP) 3 as defined by the ICRI-
of concrete. All concrete repairs should meet the requirements surface-profile chips. The FRP system manufacturer should
of the design drawings and project specifications. The FRP be consulted to determine if more aggressive surface profiling
system manufacturer should be consulted on the compatibility is necessary. Localized out-of-plane variations, including
of the materials used for repairing the substrate with the FRP form lines, should not exceed 1/32 in. (1 mm) or the tolerances
system. recommended by the FRP system manufacturer. Localized
[Link] Corrosion-related deterioration—Externally out-of-plane variations can be removed by grinding before
bonded FRP systems should not be applied to concrete abrasive or water blasting or can be smoothed over using epoxy
substrates suspected of containing corroded reinforcing putty if the variations are very small. Bug holes and voids
steel. The expansive forces associated with the corrosion should be filled with epoxy putty.
process are difficult to determine and could compromise the All surfaces to receive the strengthening system should be
structural integrity of the externally applied FRP system. as dry as recommended by the FRP system manufacturer.
The cause(s) of the corrosion should be addressed and the Water in the pores can inhibit resin penetration and reduce
corrosion-related deterioration should be repaired before the mechanical interlocking. Moisture content should be
application of any externally bonded FRP system. evaluated in accordance with the requirements of ACI 503.4.
[Link] Injection of cracks—Some FRP manufacturers [Link] Contact-critical applications—In applications
have reported that the movement of cracks 0.010 in. (0.3 mm) involving confinement of structural concrete members,
and wider can affect the performance of the externally bonded surface preparation should promote continuous intimate
FRP system through delamination or fiber crushing. Con- contact between the concrete surface and the FRP system.
sequently, cracks wider than 0.010 in. (0.3 mm) should be Surfaces to be wrapped should, at a minimum, be flat or
pressure injected with epoxy in accordance with ACI 224.1R. convex to promote proper loading of the FRP system. Large
Smaller cracks exposed to aggressive environments may require voids in the surface should be patched with a repair material
resin injection or sealing to prevent corrosion of existing compatible with the existing concrete.
steel reinforcement. Crack-width criteria for various exposure Materials with low compressive strength and elastic modulus,
conditions are given in ACI 224R. like plaster, can reduce the effectiveness of the FRP system
5.4.2 Surface preparation—Surface preparation requirements and should be removed.
should be based on the intended application of the FRP system.
Applications can be categorized as bond-critical or contact- 5.5—Mixing of resins
critical. Bond-critical applications, such as flexural or shear Mixing of resins should be done in accordance with the FRP
strengthening of beams, slabs, columns, or walls, require an system manufacturer’s recommended procedure. All resin
adhesive bond between the FRP system and the concrete. components should be at a proper temperature and mixed in the
Contact-critical applications, such as confinement of columns, correct ratio until there is a uniform and complete mixing of
only require intimate contact between the FRP system and components. Resin components are often contrasting colors, so
the concrete. Contact-critical applications do not require an full mixing is achieved when color streaks are eliminated.
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-15

Resins should be mixed for the prescribed mixing time and Dry fibers are impregnated at the job site during the winding
visually inspected for uniformity of color. The material process.
manufacturer should supply recommended batch sizes, mixture Wrapping machines are primarily used for the automated
ratios, mixing methods, and mixing times. wrapping of concrete columns. The tows can be wound either
Mixing equipment can include small electrically powered horizontally or at a specified angle. The wrapping machine
mixing blades or specialty units, or resins can be mixed by is placed around the column and automatically wraps the tow
hand stirring, if needed. Resin mixing should be in quantities material around the perimeter of the column while moving
sufficiently small to ensure that all mixed resin can be used up and down the column.
within the resin’s pot life. Mixed resin that exceeds its pot After wrapping, prepreg systems should be cured at an
life should not be used because the viscosity will continue to elevated temperature. Usually a heat source is placed around
increase and will adversely affect the resin’s ability to the column for a predetermined temperature and time schedule
penetrate the surface or saturate the fiber sheet. in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Temperatures are controlled to ensure consistent quality. The
5.6—Application of constituent materials resulting FRP jackets do not have any seams or welds because
Fumes can accompany the application of some FRP resins. the tows are continuous. In all of the previous application steps,
FRP systems should be selected with consideration for their the FRP system manufacturer’s recommendations should be
impact on the environment, including emission of volatile followed.
organic compounds and toxicology. 5.6.4 Precured systems—Precured systems include shells,
5.6.1 Primer and putty—Where required, primer should strips, and open grid forms that are typically installed with an
be applied to all areas on the concrete surface where the FRP adhesive. Adhesives should be uniformly applied to the
system is to be placed. The primer should be placed uniformly prepared surfaces where precured systems are to be placed,
on the prepared surface at the manufacturer’s specified rate except in certain instances of concrete confinement where
of coverage. The applied primer should be protected from adhesion of the FRP system to the concrete substrate may not
dust, moisture, and other contaminants prior to applying the be required.
FRP system. Precured laminate surfaces to be bonded should be clean
and prepared in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommen-
Putty should be used in an appropriate thickness and dation. The precured sheets or curved shells should be placed
sequence with the primer as recommended by the FRP
on or into the wet adhesive in a manner recommended by the
manufacturer. The system-compatible putty, which is typically FRP manufacturer. Entrapped air between layers should
a thickened epoxy paste, should be used only to fill voids and be released or rolled out before the adhesive sets. Adhesive
smooth surface discontinuities before the application of other
should be applied at a rate recommended by the FRP
materials. Rough edges or trowel lines of cured putty should manufacturer to ensure full bonding of successive layers.
be ground smooth before continuing the installation.
5.6.5 Protective coatings—Coatings should be compatible
Prior to applying the saturating resin or adhesive, the primer with the FRP strengthening system and applied in accordance
and putty should be allowed to cure as specified by the FRP with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Typically, the
system manufacturer. If the putty and primer are fully cured, use of solvents to clean the FRP surface prior to installing
additional surface preparation may be required prior to the coatings is not recommended due to the deleterious effects
application of the saturating resin or adhesive. Surface solvents can have on the polymer resins. The FRP system
preparation requirements should be obtained from the FRP manufacturer should approve any use of solvent-wipe
system manufacturer. preparation of FRP surfaces before the application of
5.6.2 Wet layup systems—Wet layup FRP systems are protective coatings.
typically installed by hand using dry fiber sheets and a The coatings should be periodically inspected and
saturating resin, and the manufacturer’s recommendations maintenance should be provided to ensure the effectiveness
should be followed. The saturating resin should be applied of the coatings.
uniformly to all prepared surfaces where the system is to be
placed. The fibers can also be impregnated in a separate process 5.7—Alignment of FRP materials
using a resin-impregnating machine before placement on the The FRP-ply orientation and ply-stacking sequence should
concrete surface. be specified. Small variations in angle, as little as 5 degrees,
The reinforcing fibers should be gently pressed into the from the intended direction of fiber alignment can cause a
uncured saturating resin in a manner recommended by the substantial reduction in strengthening. Deviations in ply
FRP system manufacturer. Entrapped air between layers orientation should only be made if approved by the engineer.
should be released or rolled out before the resin sets. Sufficient Sheet and fabric materials should be handled in a manner
saturating resin should be applied to achieve full saturation of to maintain the fiber straightness and orientation. Fabric
the fibers. kinks, folds, or other forms of severe waviness should be
Successive layers of saturating resin and fiber materials reported to the engineer.
should be placed before the complete cure of the previous
layer of resin. If previous layers are cured, interlayer surface 5.8—Multiple plies and lap splices
preparation, such as light sanding or solvent application as Multiple plies can be used, provided all plies are fully
recommended by the system manufacturer, may be required. impregnated with the resin system, the resin shear strength is
5.6.3 Machine-applied systems—Machine-applied systems sufficient to transfer the shearing load between plies, and the
can use resin-preimpregnated tow or dry-fiber tows. Prepreg bond strength between the concrete and FRP system is
tows are impregnated with saturating resin off-site and sufficient. For long spans, multiple lengths of fiber material
delivered to the work site as spools of prepreg tow material. or precured stock can be used to continuously transfer the
440.2R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

load by providing adequate lap splices. Lap splices should be the supervision of a licensed engineer or a qualified inspector.
staggered, unless noted otherwise by the engineer. Lap splice Inspectors should be knowledgeable of FRP systems and be
details, including lap length, should be based on testing and trained in the installation of FRP systems. The qualified
installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommen- inspector should require compliance with the design drawings
dations. Due to the unique characteristics of some FRP and project specifications. During the installation of the FRP
systems, multiple plies and lap splices are not always possible. system, daily inspection should be conducted and should
Specific guidelines on lap splices are given in Chapter 12. include:
• Date and time of installation;
5.9—Curing of resins • Ambient temperature, relative humidity, and general
Curing of resins is a time-temperature-dependent phenome- weather observations;
non. Ambient-cure resins can take several days to reach full • Surface temperature of concrete;
cure. Temperature extremes or fluctuations can retard or • Surface dryness per ACI 503.4;
accelerate the resin curing time. The FRP system manufacturer • Surface preparation methods and resulting profile using
may offer several prequalified grades of resin to accommodate the ICRI-surface-profile-chips;
these situations. • Qualitative description of surface cleanliness;
Elevated cure systems require the resin to be heated to a • Type of auxiliary heat source, if applicable;
specific temperature for a specified period of time. Various • Widths of cracks not injected with epoxy;
combinations of time and temperature within a defined
• Fiber or precured laminate batch number(s) and
envelope should provide full cure of the system.
approximate location in structure;
All resins should be cured according to the manufacturer’s
• Batch numbers, mixture ratios, mixing times, and
recommendation. Field modification of resin chemistry should
qualitative descriptions of the appearance of all mixed
not be permitted.
resins, including primers, putties, saturants, adhesives,
Cure of installed plies should be monitored before placing
and coatings mixed for the day;
subsequent plies. Installation of successive layers should be
• Observations of progress of cure of resins;
halted if there is a curing anomaly.
• Conformance with installation procedures;
• Pull-off test results: bond strength, failure mode, and
5.10—Temporary protection
Adverse temperatures; direct contact by rain, dust, or dirt; location;
excessive sunlight; high humidity; or vandalism can damage • FRP properties from tests of field sample panels or
an FRP system during installation and cause improper cure witness panels, if required;
of the resins. Temporary protection, such as tents and plastic • Location and size of any delaminations or air voids; and
screens, may be required during installation and until the • General progress of work.
resins have cured. If temporary shoring is required, the FRP The inspector should provide the engineer or owner with
system should be fully cured before removing the shoring the inspection records and witness panels. It is recommended
and allowing the structural member to carry the design loads. that the records and witness panels be retained for a minimum of
In the event of suspected damage to the FRP system during 10 years or a period specified by the engineer. The installation
installation, the engineer should be notified and the FRP contractor should retain sample cups of mixed resin and
system manufacturer consulted. maintain a record of the placement of each batch.

CHAPTER 6—INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND 6.2—Evaluation and acceptance

ACCEPTANCE FRP systems should be evaluated and accepted/rejected
Quality-assurance and quality-control (QA/QC) programs based on conformance/nonconformance with the design draw-
and criteria are to be maintained by the FRP system manu- ings and specifications. FRP system material properties, instal-
facturers, the installation contractors, and others associated lation within specified placement tolerances, presence of
with the project. The quality-control program should be delaminations, cure of resins, and adhesion to substrate should
comprehensive and cover all aspects of the strengthening be included in the evaluation. Placement tolerances including fi-
project. The degree of quality control and the scope of testing, ber orientation, cured thickness, ply orientation, width and spac-
inspection, and record keeping depends on the size and ing, corner radii, and lap splice lengths should be evaluated.
complexity of the project. Witness panel and pulloff tests are used to evaluate the
Quality assurance is achieved through a set of inspections and installed FRP system. In-place load testing can also be used
applicable tests to document the acceptability of the installation. to confirm the installed behavior of the FRP strengthened
Project specifications should include a requirement to provide member (Nanni and Gold 1998).
a quality-assurance plan for the installation and curing of all 6.2.1 Materials—Before starting the project, the FRP
FRP materials. The plan should include personnel safety system manufacturer should submit certification of specified
issues, application and inspection of the FRP system, location material properties and identification of all materials to be
and placement of splices, curing provisions, means to ensure used. Additional material testing can be conducted if deemed
dry surfaces, quality-assurance samples, cleanup, and the necessary based on the complexity and intricacy of the
required submittals listed in Section 13.3. project. Evaluation of delivered FRP materials can include
tests for tensile strength, infrared spectrum analysis, Tg, gel
6.1—Inspection time, pot life, and adhesive shear strength. These tests are
FRP systems and all associated work should be inspected usually performed on material samples sent to a laboratory,
as required by the applicable codes. In the absence of such according to the quality-control test plan. Tests for pot life of
requirements, inspection should be conducted by or under resins and curing hardness are usually conducted on-site.
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-17

Materials that do not meet the minimum requirements as For precured FRP systems, each delamination should be
specified by the engineer should be rejected. evaluated and repaired in accordance with the engineer’s
Witness panels can be used to evaluate the tensile strength direction. Upon completion of the repairs, the laminate
and modulus, lap splice strength, hardness, and Tg of the FRP should be re-inspected to verify that the repair was properly
system installed and cured on-site using installation proce- accomplished.
dures similar to those used to install and cure the FRP system. 6.2.4 Cure of resins—The relative cure of FRP systems can
During installation, flat panels of predetermined dimensions be evaluated by laboratory testing of witness panels or resin-
and thickness can be fabricated on-site according to a prede- cup samples using ASTM D 3418. The relative cure of the res-
termined sampling plan. After curing on-site, the panels can in can also be evaluated on the project site by physical observa-
then be sent to a laboratory for testing. Witness panels can be tion of resin tackiness and hardness of work surfaces or
retained or submitted to an approved laboratory in a timely hardness of retained resin samples. The FRP system manu-
manner for testing of strength, hardness, and Tg. Strength and facturer should be consulted to determine the specific res-
elastic modulus of FRP materials can be determined in accor- in-cure verification requirements. For precured systems,
dance with ASTM D 3039 and ISIS (1998). The properties to adhesive-hardness measurements should be made in accor-
be evaluated by testing should be specified. The engineer may dance with the manufacturer’s recommendation.
waive or alter the frequency of testing.
6.2.5 Adhesion strength—For bond-critical applications,
Some FRP systems, including precured and machine-
tension adhesion testing of cored samples should be conducted
wound systems, do not lend themselves to the fabrication of
using the methods in ACI 503R or ASTM D 4541 or the
small, flat, witness panels. For these cases, the engineer can
method described by ISIS (1998). The sampling frequency
modify the requirements to include test panels or samples
should be specified. Tension adhesion strengths should exceed
provided by the manufacturer. Tension strength and elastic
200 psi (1.4 MPa) and exhibit failure of the concrete substrate.
modulus, lap-splice strength of FRP materials can also be
determined using burst testing of field fabricated ring Lower strengths or failure between the FRP system and the
specimens (ISIS 1998). concrete or between plies should be reported to the engineer
for evaluation and acceptance.
During installation, sample cups of mixed resin should
be prepared according to a predetermined sampling plan 6.2.6 Cured thickness—Small core samples, typically 0.5 in.
and retained for testing to determine the level of cure (see (13 mm) diameter, may be taken to visually ascertain the
Section 6.2.4). cured laminate thickness or number of plies. Cored samples
6.2.2 Fiber orientation—Fiber or precured-laminate required for adhesion testing also can be used to ascertain the
orientation should be evaluated by visual inspection. Fiber laminate thickness or number of plies. The sampling frequency
waviness—a localized appearance of fibers that deviate from should be specified. Taking samples from high-stress areas
the general straight-fiber line in the form of kinks or or splice areas should be avoided. For aesthetic reasons, the
waves—should be evaluated for wet layup systems. cored hole can be filled and smoothed with a repair mortar or
Fiber or precured laminate misalignment of more than the FRP system putty. If required, a 4 to 8 in. (100 to 200 mm)
5 degrees from that specified on the design drawings (approxi- overlapping FRP sheet patch of equivalent plies may be applied
mately 1 in./ft [80 mm/m]) should be reported to the engineer over the filled and smoothed core hole immediately after taking
for evaluation and acceptance. the core sample. The FRP sheet patch should be installed in
6.2.3 Delaminations—The cured FRP system should be accordance with the manufacturer’s installation procedures.
evaluated for delaminations or air voids between multiple
plies or between the FRP system and the concrete. Inspection CHAPTER 7—MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
methods should be capable of detecting delaminations of 2 in.2 7.1—General
(1300 mm2) or greater. Methods such as acoustic sounding As with any strengthening or retrofit repair, the owner
(hammer sounding), ultrasonics, and thermography can be should periodically inspect and assess the performance of the
used to detect delaminations. FRP system used for strengthening or retrofit repair of
The effect of delaminations or other anomalies on the concrete members. The causes of any damage or deficiencies
structural integrity and durability of the FRP system should detected during routine inspections should be identified and
be evaluated. Delamination size, location, and quantity addressed before performing any repairs or maintenance.
relative to the overall application area should be considered
in the evaluation.
7.2—Inspection and assessment
General acceptance guidelines for wet layup systems are:
• Small delaminations less than 2 in.2 each (1300 mm2) 7.2.1 General inspection—A visual inspection looks for
are permissible as long as the delaminated area is less changes in color, debonding, peeling, blistering, cracking,
than 5% of the total laminate area and there are no more crazing, deflections, indications of reinforcing-bar corrosion,
than 10 such delaminations per 10 ft2 (1 m2); and other anomalies. In addition, ultra-sonic, acoustic sounding
• Large delaminations, greater than 25 in.2 (16,000 mm2), (hammer tap), or thermographic tests may indicate signs of
can affect the performance of the installed FRP and progressive delamination.
should be repaired by selectively cutting away the 7.2.2 Testing—Testing can include pull-off tension tests
affected sheet and applying an overlapping sheet patch (Section 6.2.5) or conventional structural loading tests.
of equivalent plies; and 7.2.3 Assessment—Test data and observations are used
• Delaminations less than 25 in.2 (16,000 mm2). may be to assess any damage and the structural integrity of the
repaired by resin injection or ply replacement, depending strengthening system. The assessment can include a recom-
on the size and number of delaminations and their mendation for repairing any deficiencies and preventing
locations. recurrence of degradation.
440.2R-18 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

7.3—Repair of strengthening system strengths or substrate conditions greater than those discussed
The method of repair of the strengthening system depends in these recommendations.
on the causes of the damage, the type of material, the form of For the design of FRP systems for the seismic retrofit of a
degradation, and the level of damage. Repairs to the FRP structure, it may be appropriate to use capacity design principles
system should not be undertaken without first identifying (Paulay and Priestley 1992), which assume a structure
and addressing the causes of the damage. should develop its full capacity and require that members be
Minor damage should be repaired, including localized capable of resisting the associated required shear strengths.
FRP laminate cracking or abrasions that affect the structural These FRP systems, particularly when used for columns,
integrity of the laminate. Minor damage can be repaired by should be designed to provide seismic resistance through
bonding FRP patches over the damaged area. The FRP energy dissipation and deflection capacity at the code-defined
patches should possess the same characteristics, such as base shear levels. Unless additional performance objectives
thickness or ply orientation, as the original laminate. The FRP are specified by the owner, life safety is the primary performance
patches should be installed in accordance with the material objective of seismic designs with an allowance for some level of
manufacturer’s recommendation. Minor delaminations can structural damage to provide energy dissipation. Consequently,
be repaired by epoxy-resin injection. Major damage, including retrofitted members may require some level of repair or
peeling and debonding of large areas, may require removal replacement following a seismic event. Caution should
of the affected area, reconditioning of the cover concrete, be exercised upon re-entering a seismically damaged
and replacing the FRP laminate. structure especially during or after a subsequent fire.

7.4—Repair of surface coating 8.2—Strengthening limits

In the event that the surface-protective coating should be Careful consideration should be given to determine
replaced, the FRP laminate should be inspected for structural reasonable strengthening limits. These limits are imposed to
damage or deterioration. The surface coating may be replaced guard against collapse of the structure should bond or other
using a process approved by the system manufacturer. failure of the FRP system occur due to fire, vandalism, or
other causes. Some designers and system manufacturers
PART 4—DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS have recommended that the unstrengthened structural
CHAPTER 8—GENERAL DESIGN member, without FRP reinforcement, should have sufficient
CONSIDERATIONS strength to resist a certain level of load. Using this philosophy,
General design recommendations are presented in this in the event that the FRP system is damaged, the structure
chapter. The recommendations presented are based on the will still be capable of resisting a reasonable level of load
traditional reinforced concrete design principles stated in the without collapse. It is the recommendation of the committee
requirements of ACI 318-99 and knowledge of the specific that the existing strength of the structure be sufficient to resist a
mechanical behavior of FRP reinforcement. level of load as described by Eq. (8-1).
FRP strengthening systems should be designed to resist
tensile forces while maintaining strain compatibility between (φRn)existing ≥ (1.2SDL + 0.85SLL)new (8-1)
the FRP and the concrete substrate. FRP reinforcement
should not be relied upon to resist compressive forces. It is
acceptable, however, for FRP tension reinforcement to More specific limits for structures requiring a fire endurance
experience compression due to moment reversals or changes in rating are given in Section 8.2.1.
load pattern. The compressive strength of the FRP reinforce- 8.2.1 Structural fire endurance—The level of strengthening
ment, however, should be neglected. that can be achieved through the use of externally bonded
FRP reinforcement is often limited by the code-required fire-
8.1—Design philosophy resistance rating of a structure. The polymer resins used in
These design recommendations are based on limit-states- wet layup and prepreg FRP systems and the polymer adhesives
design principles. This approach sets acceptable levels of used in precured FRP systems lose structural integrity at
safety against the occurrence of both serviceability limit temperatures exceeding the glass transition temperature Tg
states (excessive deflections, cracking) and ultimate-limit of the polymer. While the glass transition temperature can
states (failure, stress rupture, fatigue). In assessing the vary depending on the polymer chemistry, a typical range for
nominal strength of a member, the possible failure modes field-applied resins and adhesives is 140 to 180 ºF (60 to 82 ºC).
and subsequent strains and stresses in each material should Due to the high temperatures associated with a fire and the
be assessed. For evaluating the serviceability of a member, low temperature resistance of the FRP system, the FRP
engineering principles, such as modular ratios and transformed system will not be capable of enduring a fire for any appreciable
sections, can be used. amount of time. Furthermore, it is most often not feasible to
FRP strengthening systems should be designed in accordance insulate the FRP system to substantially increase its fire
with ACI 318-99 strength and serviceability requirements, endurance because the amount of insulation that would be
using the load factors stated in ACI 318-99. The strength- required to protect the FRP system is far more than can be
reduction factors required by ACI 318-99 should also be realistically applied.
used. Additional reduction factors applied to the contribution Although the FRP system itself has a low fire endurance,
of the FRP reinforcement are recommended by this guide to combination of the FRP system with an existing concrete
reflect lesser existing knowledge of FRP systems compared structure may still have an adequate level of fire endurance.
with reinforced and prestressed concrete. The engineer may This is attributable to the inherent fire endurance of the
wish to incorporate more conservative strength-reduction existing concrete structure alone. To investigate the fire
factors if there are uncertainties regarding existing material endurance of an FRP-strengthened concrete structure, it is
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-19

important to recognize that the strength of traditional reinforced Additionally, analysis should be performed on the member
concrete structures is somewhat reduced during exposure to strengthened by the FRP system to check that under overload
the high temperatures associated with a fire event as well. conditions the strengthened member will fail in a flexure
The yield strength of reinforcing steel is reduced, and the mode rather than in a shear mode.
compressive strength of concrete is reduced. As a result, the 8.2.3 Seismic applications—The majority of research into
overall resistance of a reinforced concrete member to load seismic strengthening of structures has dealt with strengthening
effects is reduced. This concept is used in ACI 216R to of columns. FRP systems are used to confine columns to
provide a method of computing the fire endurance of concrete improve concrete compressive strength, reduce required
members. ACI 216R suggests limits that maintain a reasonable splice length, and increase the shear strength (Priestley et al.
level of safety against complete collapse of the structure in 1996). Limited information is available for strengthening
the event of a fire. building frames in seismic zones. Chapter 11 identifies
By extending the concepts established in ACI 216R to restrictions on the use of FRP for shear and flexural strength-
FRP-strengthened reinforced concrete, limits on strengthening ening in seismic conditions.
can be used to ensure a strengthened structure will not collapse When beams or floors in building frames in seismic risk
in a fire. A member’s resistance to load effects, with reduced Zones 3 and 4 are strengthened, the strength and stiffness of
steel and concrete strengths and without the strength of the both the beam/floor and column should be checked to ensure
FRP reinforcement, can be computed. This resistance can the formation of the plastic hinge away from the column and
then be compared with the load demand on the member to the joint (Mosallam et al. 2000).
ensure the structure will not collapse under service loads and
elevated temperatures. 8.3—Selection of FRP systems
The existing strength of a structural member with a fire- 8.3.1 Environmental considerations—Environmental
resistance rating should satisfy the conditions of Eq. (8-2) if conditions uniquely affect resins and fibers of various FRP
it is to be strengthened with an FRP system. The load effects, systems. The mechanical properties (for example, tensile
SDL and SLL, should be determined using the current load strength, strain, and elastic modulus) of some FRP systems
requirements for the structure. If the FRP system is meant to degrade under exposure to certain environments, such as
allow greater load-carrying strength, such as an increase in alkalinity, salt water, chemicals, ultraviolet light, high
live load, the load effects should be computed using these temperatures, high humidity, and freezing and thawing cycles.
greater loads. The material properties used in design should account for
this degradation in accordance with Section 8.4.
(Rnθ)existing ≥ SDL + SLL (8-2) The engineer should select an FRP system based on the
known behavior of that system in the anticipated service
conditions. Some important environmental considerations
The nominal resistance of the member at an elevated
that relate to the nature of the specific systems are given as
temperature Rnθ can be determined using the guidelines follows. Specific information can be obtained from the FRP
outlined in ACI 216R. This resistance should be computed system manufacturer.
for the time period required by the structure’s fire-resistance
• Alkalinity/acidity: The performance of an FRP system
rating—for example, a two-hour fire rating—and should
over time in an alkaline or acidic environment depends
disallow the contribution of the FRP system. Furthermore, if
on the matrix material and the reinforcing fiber. Dry,
the FRP system is meant to address a loss in strength, such
unsaturated bare, or unprotected carbon fiber is resistant
as deterioration, the resistance should reflect this loss.
to both alkaline and acidic environments, while bare glass
The fire endurance of FRP materials can be improved fiber can degrade over time in these environments. A
through the use of certain polymers or methods of fire properly applied resin matrix, however, should isolate and
protection. Although these methods are typically impractical, protect the fiber from the alkaline/acidic environment and
these methods may become more effective in the future. If retard deterioration. The FRP system selected should
such methods can be shown through testing to increase the include a resin matrix resistant to alkaline and acidic
fire endurance of the FRP system to meet the fire resistance environments. Sites with high alkalinity and high
rating of a building structure, the criteria put forth in Eq. (8-2) moisture or relative humidity favor the selection of
can be modified to reflect the level of protection provided. carbon-fiber systems over glass-fiber systems.
The tests of these systems should, however, use end-point • Thermal expansion: FRP systems may have thermal
criteria defined by reaching the glass transition temperature expansion properties that are different from those of
of the polymer. That is, the fire endurance of the FRP system concrete. In addition, the thermal expansion properties
should be set to the measured amount of time required for the of the fiber and polymer constituents of an FRP system
polymer resins or adhesives in the FRP system to reach their can vary. Carbon fibers have a coefficient of thermal
glass transition temperature under exposure to a fire. expansion near zero while glass fibers have a coefficient of
ASTM E 119 gives guidance on the types of fires (heats and thermal expansion similar to concrete. The polymers
durations) to be used in such tests. used in FRP strengthening systems typically have
8.2.2 Overall structural strength—While FRP systems are coefficients of thermal expansion roughly five times
effective in strengthening members for flexure and shear and that of concrete. Calculation of thermally induced
providing additional confinement, other modes of failure, such strain differentials are complicated by variations in
as punching shear and bearing capacity of footings, may be un- fiber orientation, fiber volume fraction (ratio of the
affected by FRP systems. It is important to ensure that all mem- volume of fibers to the volume of fibers and resins
bers of a structure are capable of withstanding the anticipated in an FRP), and thickness of adhesive layers. Experience
increase in loads associated with the strengthened members. (Motavalli et al. 1993; Soudki and Green 1997;
440.2R-20 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table 8.1—Environmental-reduction factor for FRP systems. The coatings should be periodically inspected
various FRP systems and exposure conditions and maintenance should be provided to ensure the effectiveness
Environmental- of the coatings.
Exposure conditions Fiber and resin type reduction factor CE External coatings or thickened coats of resin over fibers
Carbon/epoxy 0.95 can protect them from damage due to impact or abrasion. In
Interior exposure Glass/epoxy 0.75 high-impact or traffic areas, additional levels of protection
Aramid/epoxy 0.85 may be necessary. Portland-cement plaster and polymer
Carbon/epoxy 0.85
coatings are commonly used for protection where minor
Exterior exposure (bridges, impact or abrasion is anticipated.
piers, and unenclosed Glass/epoxy 0.65
parking garages)
Aramid/epoxy 0.75
8.4—Design material properties
Carbon/epoxy 0.85
Aggressive environment Unless otherwise stated, the material properties reported by
(chemical plants and waste Glass/epoxy 0.50 manufacturers, such as the ultimate tensile strength, typically do
water treatment plants)
Aramid/epoxy 0.70 not consider long-term exposure to environmental conditions
and should be considered as initial properties. Because long-
Green et al. 1998) indicates, however, that thermal term exposure to various types of environments can reduce
expansion differences do not affect bond for small the tensile properties and creep-rupture and fatigue endurance
ranges of temperature change, such as ±50 °F (±28 °C). of FRP laminates, the material properties used in design
• Electrical conductivity: GFRP and AFRP are effective equations should be reduced based on the environmental
electrical insulators, while CFRP is conductive. To avoid exposure condition.
potential galvanic corrosion of steel elements, carbon- Equations (8-3) through (8-5) give the tensile properties
based FRP materials should not come in direct contact that should be used in all design equations. The design ultimate
with steel. tensile strength should be determined using the environmental-
8.3.2 Loading considerations—Loading conditions uniquely reduction factor given in Table 8.1 for the appropriate fiber
affect different fibers of FRP systems. The engineer should type and exposure condition.
select an FRP system based on the known behavior of that
system in the anticipated service conditions. ffu = CE ffu* (8-3)
Some important loading considerations that relate to the
nature of the specific systems are given below. Specific Similarly, the design rupture strain should also be reduced
information should be obtained from material manufacturers. for environmental-exposure conditions.
• Impact tolerance: AFRP and GFRP systems demonstrate
better tolerance to impact than CFRP systems; and ε fu = CEεfu
*
(8-4)
• Creep-rupture and fatigue: CFRP systems are highly
resistive to creep-rupture under sustained loading and Because FRP materials are linearly elastic until failure, the
fatigue failure under cyclic loading. GFRP systems are design modulus of elasticity can then be determined from
more sensitive to both loading conditions. Hooke’s law. The expression for the modulus of elasticity,
8.3.3 Durability considerations—Durability of FRP systems given in Eq. (8-5), recognizes that the modulus is typically
is the subject of considerable ongoing research (Steckel et unaffected by environmental conditions. The modulus given
al. 1999a). The engineer should select an FRP system that in this equation will be the same as the initial value reported
has undergone durability testing consistent with the appli- by the manufacturer.
cation environment. Durability testing may include hot-
wet cycling, alkaline immersion, freeze-thaw cycling, and
f fu
ultraviolet exposure. E f = -----
- (8-5)
Any FRP system that completely encases or covers a ε fu
concrete section should be investigated for the effects of a
variety of environmental conditions including those of freeze/ The constituent materials, fibers, and resins of an FRP system
thaw, steel corrosion, alkali and silica aggregate reactions, affect its durability and resistance to environmental exposure.
water entrapment, vapor pressures, and moisture vapor The environmental-reduction factors given in Table 8.1 are
transmission (Soudki and Green 1997; Christensen et al. conservative estimates based on the relative durability of
1996; Toutanji 1999). Many FRP systems create a moisture- each fiber type. As more research information is developed
impermeable layer on the surface of the concrete. In areas and becomes available, these values will be refined. The
where moisture vapor transmission is expected, adequate methodology regarding the use of these factors, however,
means should be provided to allow moisture to escape the will remain unchanged. Durability test data for FRP systems
concrete structure. with and without protective coatings may be obtained from
8.3.4 Protective-coating selection considerations—A coating the manufacturer of the FRP system under consideration.
can be applied to the installed FRP system to protect it from As Table 8.1 illustrates, if the FRP system is located in a
exposure to certain environmental conditions. The thickness relatively benign environment, such as indoors, the reduction
and type of coating should be selected based on the require- factor is closer to unity. If the FRP system is located in an
ments of the composite repair; resistance to environmental aggressive environment where prolonged exposure to high
effects, such as moisture, salt water, temperature extremes, humidity, freeze-thaw cycles, salt water, or alkalinity is
fire, impact, and UV exposure; resistance to site specific expected, a lower reduction factor should be used. The
effects; and resistance to vandalism. Coatings are relied upon reduction factor can reflect the use of a protective coating
to retard the degradation of the mechanical properties of the if the coating has been shown through testing to lessen the
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-21

effects of environmental exposure and the coating is maintained strength of an FRP-strengthened member. An additional
for the life of the FRP system. strength reduction factor (presented in Section 9.2) will
conservatively compensate for any such discrepancies.
CHAPTER 9—FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING 9.1.2 Section shear strength—When FRP reinforcement is
Bonding FRP reinforcement to the tension face of a concrete being used to increase the flexural strength of a member, it is
flexural member with fibers oriented along the length of the important to verify that the member will be capable of resisting
member will provide an increase in flexural strength. Increases the shear forces associated with the increased flexural
in overall flexural strength from 10 to 160% have been strength. The potential for shear failure of the section should
documented (Meier and Kaiser 1991; Ritchie et al. 1991; be considered by comparing the design shear strength of the
Sharif et al. 1994). When taking into account ductility and section to the required shear strength. If additional shear
serviceability limits, however, increases of 5 to 40% are strength is required, FRP laminates oriented transversely to
more reasonable. the section can be used to resist shear forces as described in
This chapter does not apply to FRP systems used to enhance Chapter 10.
the flexural strength of members in the expected plastic 9.1.3 Existing substrate strain—Unless all loads on a
hinge regions of ductile moment frames resisting seismic member, including self-weight and any prestressing forces,
loads. The design of such applications, if used, should examine are removed before installation of FRP reinforcement, the
the behavior of the strengthened frame, considering the substrate to which the FRP is applied will be strained. These
strengthened sections have a much-reduced rotation and strains should be considered as initial strains and should be
curvature capacities. In this case, the effect of cyclic load excluded from the strain in the FRP (Arduini and Nanni
reversal on the FRP reinforcement should be investigated. 1997; Nanni et al. 1998). The initial strain level on the bonded
substrate εbi can be determined from an elastic analysis of
9.1—General considerations the existing member, considering all loads that will be on the
This chapter presents guidance on the calculation of the member, during the installation of the FRP system. It is
flexural strengthening effect of adding longitudinal FRP recommended that the elastic analysis of the existing
reinforcement to the tension face of a reinforced concrete member be based on cracked section properties.
member. A specific illustration of the concepts in this chapter
applied to strengthening existing rectangular sections reinforced 9.2—Nominal strength
in the tension zone with nonprestressed steel is given. The The strength-design approach requires that the design
general concepts outlined here can, however, be extended to flexural strength of a member exceed its required moment
nonrectangular shapes (T-sections and I-sections) and to strength as indicated by Eq. (9-1). Design flexural strength
members with compression steel reinforcement. In the case φMn refers to the nominal strength of the member multiplied
of prestressed members, strain compatibility, with respect to by a strength-reduction factor, and the required moment
the state of strain in the stressed member, should be used to strength Mu refers to the load effects calculated from factored
evaluate the FRP contribution. Additional failure modes loads (for example, αDLMDL + αLLMLL +...). This guide
controlled by rupture of prestressing tendons should also be recommends that required moment strength of a section be
considered. calculated by use of load factors as required by ACI 318-99.
9.1.1 Assumptions—The following assumptions are made Furthermore, this guide recommends the use of the strength
in calculating the flexural resistance of a section strengthened reduction factors φ required by ACI 318-99 with an additional
with an externally applied FRP system: strength reduction factor of 0.85 applied to the flexural
• Design calculations are based on the actual dimensions, contribution of the FRP reinforcement alone (ψf = 0.85). See
internal reinforcing steel arrangement, and material Eq. (9-2) for an illustration of the use of the additional reduction
properties of the existing member being strengthened; factor. This additional reduction factor is meant to account
• The strains in the reinforcement and concrete are for lower reliability of the FRP reinforcement, as compared
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral with internal steel reinforcement.
axis, that is, a plane section before loading remains
plane after loading; φMn ≥ Mu (9-1)
• There is no relative slip between external FRP reinforce-
ment and the concrete; The nominal flexural strength of an FRP-strengthened concrete
• The shear deformation within the adhesive layer is member can be determined based on strain compatibility,
neglected since the adhesive layer is very thin with internal force equilibrium, and the controlling mode of failure.
slight variations in its thickness; 9.2.1 Failure modes—The flexural strength of a section
• The maximum usable compressive strain in the concrete depends on the controlling failure mode. The following
is 0.003; flexural failure modes should be investigated for an FRP-
• The tensile strength of concrete is neglected; and strengthened section (GangaRao and Vijay 1998):
• The FRP reinforcement has a linear elastic stress-strain • Crushing of the concrete in compression before yielding of
relationship to failure. the reinforcing steel;
It should be understood that while some of these assumptions • Yielding of the steel in tension followed by rupture of
are necessary for the sake of computational ease, the assump- the FRP laminate;
tions do not accurately reflect the true fundamental behavior of • Yielding of the steel in tension followed by concrete
FRP flexural reinforcement. For example, there will be shear crushing;
deformation in the adhesive layer causing relative slip between • Shear/tension delamination of the concrete cover (cover
the FRP and the substrate. The inaccuracy of the assumptions delamination); and
will not, however, significantly affect the computed flexural • Debonding of the FRP from the concrete substrate
440.2R-22 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

(FRP debonding). which the FRP ruptures, or the point at which the FRP debonds
Concrete crushing is assumed to occur if the compressive from the substrate. This maximum strain or the effective
strain in the concrete reaches its maximum usable strain (εc strain level in the FRP reinforcement at the ultimate-limit
= εcu = 0.003). Rupture of the FRP laminate is assumed to state can be found from Eq. (9-3).
occur if the strain in the FRP reaches its design rupture strain
(εf = εfu) before the concrete reaches its maximum usable
ε fe = ε cu  ----------- – ε bi ≤ κ m ε fu
h–c
strain. (9-3)
 c 
Cover delamination or FRP debonding can occur if the force
in the FRP cannot be sustained by the substrate. In order to
prevent debonding of the FRP laminate, a limitation should be where ε bi is the initial substrate strain as described in
placed on the strain level developed in the laminate. Eq. (9-2) Section 9.1.3.
gives an expression for a bond-dependent coefficient κm. 9.2.3 Stress level in the FRP reinforcement—The effective
stress level in the FRP reinforcement is the maximum level
 1  nE f t f of stress that can be developed in the FRP reinforcement
 -------------  1 – ------------------------ ≤ 0.90 for nE f t f ≤ 1,000,000 before flexural failure of the section. This effective stress
 60ε fu 2,000,000
level can be found from the strain level in the FRP, assuming
κm =  (9-2) U.S.
1  500,000
 ------------ ------------------
-  ≤ 0.90 for nE t > 1,000,000 perfectly elastic behavior.
 60ε  nE t  - f f
 fu f f
ffe = Ef εfe (9-4)

 1  nE f t f 9.3—Ductility
 -------------  1 – ------------------- ≤ 0.90 for nE f t f ≤ 180,000 The use of externally bonded FRP reinforcement for
 60ε fu 360,000
κm =  (9-2) SI flexural strengthening will reduce the ductility of the original
1 -  90,000
 ------------ 
- ≤ 0.90 for nE f t f > 180,000 member. In some cases, the loss of ductility is negligible.
 60ε  --------------- 
 fu nE f t f Sections that experience a significant loss in ductility,
however, should be addressed. To maintain a sufficient
degree of ductility, the strain level in the steel at the ultimate-
The term κm, expressed in Eq. (9-2), is a factor no greater limit state should be checked. Adequate ductility is achieved
than 0.90 that may be multiplied by the rupture strain of the if the strain in the steel at the point of concrete crushing or
FRP laminate to arrive at a strain limitation to prevent failure of the FRP, including delamination or debonding, is
debonding. The number of plies n used in this equation is the at least 0.005, according to the definition of a tension-
number of plies of FRP flexural reinforcement at the location controlled section as given in Chapter 2 of ACI 318-99.
along the length of the member where the moment strength The approach taken by this guide follows the philosophy
is being computed. This term recognizes that laminates of ACI 318-99 Appendix B, where a section with low ductility
with greater stiffnesses are more prone to delamination. Thus, should compensate with a higher reserve of strength. The
as the stiffness of the laminate increases, the strain limitation higher reserve of strength is achieved by applying a strength-
becomes more severe. For laminates with a unit stiffness reduction factor of 0.70 to brittle sections, as opposed to 0.90
nEf tf greater than 1,000,000 lb/in. (180,000 N/mm), κm limits for ductile sections.
the force in the laminate as opposed to the strain level. Therefore, a strength-reduction factor given by Eq. (9-5)
This effectively places an upper bound on the total force that should be used, where εs is the strain in the steel at the ultimate-
can be developed in an FRP laminate, regardless of the number limit state.
of plies. The width of the FRP laminate is not included in the
calculation of the unit stiffness, nEf tf , because an increase in
the width of the FRP results in a proportional increase in the  0.90 for ε s ≥ 0.005
bond area. 
 0.20 ( ε s – ε sy )
The κm term is only based on a general recognized trend and φ =  0.70 + -------------------------------- for ε sy < ε s < 0.005 (9-5)
on the experience of engineers practicing the design of bonded  0.005 – ε sy
FRP systems. Further research into the mechanics of bond of  for ε s ≤ ε sy
 0.70
FRP flexural reinforcement should result in more accurate
methods for predicting delamination, resulting in refinement
of Eq. (9-2). Further development of the equation will likely This equation sets the reduction factor at 0.90 for ductile
account not only for the stiffness of the laminate but also for sections and 0.70 for brittle sections where the steel does not
the stiffness of the member to which the laminate is bonded. yield, and provides a linear transition for the reduction factor
In the interim, the committee recommends the use of Eq. (9-2) between these two extremes (Fig. 9.1).
to limit the strain in the FRP and prevent delamination.
9.2.2 Strain level in FRP reinforcement—It is important to 9.4—Serviceability
determine the strain level in the FRP reinforcement at the The serviceability of a member (deflections, crack widths)
ultimate-limit state. Because FRP materials are linearly under service loads should satisfy applicable provisions of
elastic until failure, the level of strain in the FRP will dictate ACI 318-99. The effect of the FRP external reinforcement on
the level of stress developed in the FRP. The maximum the serviceability can be assessed using the transformed
strain level that can be achieved in the FRP reinforcement section analysis.
will be governed by either the strain level developed in the To avoid inelastic deformations of the reinforced concrete
FRP at the point at which concrete crushes, the point at members strengthened with external FRP reinforcement, the
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-23

Fig. 9.1—Graphical representation of the strength-reduction factor as a function of the

ductility.

Fig. 9.2—Internal strain and stress distribution for a rectangular section under flexure at
ultimate stage.

existing internal steel reinforcement should be prevented As stated in Section 3.4.1, research has indicated that glass,
from yielding under service load levels. The stress in the aramid, and carbon fibers can sustain 0.30, 0.47, and 0.91
steel under service load should be limited to 80% of the yield times their ultimate strengths, respectively, before encountering
strength, as shown in Eq. (9-6). a creep-rupture problem (Yamaguchi et al. 1997). To avoid
failure of an FRP-reinforced member due to creep-rupture
fs,s ≤ 0.80fy (9-6) and fatigue of the FRP, stress limits for these conditions
should be imposed on the FRP reinforcement. The stress level
in the FRP reinforcement can be computed using an elastic
9.5—Creep-rupture and fatigue stress limits
analysis and an applied moment due to all sustained loads
To avoid creep-rupture of the FRP reinforcement under
sustained stresses or failure due to cyclic stresses and fatigue (dead loads and the sustained portion of the live load) plus
of the FRP reinforcement, the stress levels in the FRP rein- the maximum moment induced in a fatigue loading cycle
forcement under these stress conditions should be checked. (Fig. 9.2). The sustained stress should be limited as expressed by
Because these stress levels will be within the elastic response Eq. (9-7) to maintain safety. Values for safe sustained plus cyclic
range of the member, the stresses can be computed by use of stress levels are given in Table 9.1. These values are based
an elastic analysis. on the stress limits previously stated in Section 3.4.1 with an
In Section 3.4, the creep-rupture phenomenon and fatigue imposed safety factor of 1/0.60.
characteristics of FRP material were described and the
resistance to its effects by various types of fibers was examined. Sustained plus cyclic stress limit ≥ ff,s (9-7)
440.2R-24 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Based on the strain level in the FRP reinforcement, the strain

level in the nonprestressed tension steel can be found from
Eq. (9-8) using strain compatibility.

εs = (εfe + εbi)  ----------- 

d–c
(9-8)
 h – c

The stress in the steel is calculated from the strain level in

the steel assuming elastic-plastic behavior.
Fig. 9.3—Elastic strain and stress distribution.
fs = Es εs ≤ fy (9-9)

With the strain and stress level in the FRP and steel reinforce-
Table 9.1—Sustained plus cyclic service load ment determined for the assumed neutral axis depth, internal
stress limits in FRP reinforcement
force equilibrium may be checked using Eq. (9-10).
Fiber type
Stress type Glass FRP Aramid FRP Carbon FRP A s f s + A f f fe
Sustained plus c = -------------------------
- (9-10)
cyclic stress limit
0.20ffu 0.30ffu 0.55ffu γ f c′ β1 b

The terms γ and β1 in Eq. (9-10) are parameters defining a

9.6—Application to a singly reinforced rectangular stress block in the concrete equivalent to the
rectangular section
actual nonlinear distribution of stress. If concrete crushing is the
To illustrate the concepts presented in this chapter, this controlling mode of failure (before or after steel yielding), γ and
section describes the application of these concepts to a singly β1 can be taken as the values associated with the Whitney stress
reinforced rectangular section (nonprestressed). block (γ = 0.85 and β1 from Section [Link] of ACI 318-99). If
9.6.1 Ultimate strength—Figure 9.2 illustrates the internal FRP rupture, cover delamination, or FRP-debonding control
strain and stress distribution for a rectangular section under failure occur, the Whitney stress block will give reasonably
flexure at the ultimate limit state. accurate results. A more accurate stress block for the actual
The calculation procedure used to arrive at the ultimate strain level reached in the concrete at the ultimate-limit state
strength should satisfy strain compatibility and force equilib- may be used. Moreover, methods considering a nonlinear
rium and should consider the governing mode of failure. stress distribution in the concrete can also be used.
Several calculation procedures can be derived to satisfy The actual depth to the neutral axis, c, is found by simulta-
these conditions. The calculation procedure described herein neously satisfying Eq. (9-3), (9-4), (9-8), (9-9) and (9-10), thus
is one such procedure that illustrates a trial and error method. establishing internal force equilibrium and strain compatibility.
The trial and error procedure involves selecting an assumed The nominal flexural strength of the section with FRP
depth to the neutral axis, c; calculating the strain level in external reinforcement can be computed from Eq. (9-11). An
each material using strain compatibility; calculating the additional reduction factor ψf is applied to the flexural-
associated stress level in each material; and checking internal strength contribution of the FRP reinforcement. A factor ψf =
force equilibrium. If the internal force resultants do not 0.85 is recommended.
equilibrate, the depth to the neutral axis must be revised and
the procedure repeated. β 1 c β 1 c
Mn = As fs  d – -------
- + ψ f A f f fe  h – -------
- (9-11)
For any assumed depth to the neutral axis c, the strain level in  2   2 
the FRP reinforcement can be computed from Eq. (9-3)
presented in section 9.2.2 and reprinted as follows for
convenience. This equation considers the governing mode of 9.6.2 Stress in steel under service loads—The stress level
failure for the assumed neutral axis depth. If the first term in in the steel reinforcement can be calculated based on a
cracked elastic analysis of the strengthened reinforced concrete
the equation controls, concrete crushing controls flexural
section, as indicated by Eq. (9-12).
failure of the section. If the second term controls, FRP failure
(rupture or debonding) controls flexural failure of the section.
M s + ε bi A f E f  h – ------ ( d – kd ) E s
kd
 3
ε fe = ε cu  ----------- – ε bi ≤ κ m ε fu
h–c f s, s = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (9-12)
(9-3)
 c  A s E s  d – ------ ( d – kd ) + A f E f  h – ------ ( h – kd )
kd kd
 3  3
The effective stress level in the FRP reinforcement can be
found from the strain level in the FRP, assuming perfectly The distribution of strain and stress in the reinforced concrete
section is shown in Fig. 9.3. Similar to conventional reinforced
elastic behavior.
concrete, the depth to the neutral axis at service kd can be
computed by taking the first moment of the areas of the
ffe = Ef εfe (9-4) transformed section. The transformed area of the FRP may
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-25

Fig. 10.1—Typical wrapping schemes for shear strengthening

using FRP laminates.

Fig. 9.4—Illustration of the level of applied moment to be

used to check the stress limits in the FRP reinforcement.

be obtained by multiplying the area of FRP by the modular

ratio of FRP to concrete. Although this method ignores the
difference in the initial strain level of the FRP, the initial
strain level does not greatly influence the depth to the neutral
axis in the elastic response range of the member. Fig. 10.2—Illustration of the dimensional variables used in
The stress in the steel under service loads computed from shear-strengthening calculations for repair, retrofit, or
Eq. (9-12) should be compared against the limits described strengthening using FRP laminates.
in Section 9.4.
9.6.3 Stress in FRP under service loads—The stress level Shear strengthening using external FRP may be provided at
in the FRP reinforcement can be computed using Eq. (9-13) locations of expected plastic hinges or stress reversal and for
with fs,s from Eq. (9-12) and Ms (in Eq. (9-12)) equal to the enhancing postyield flexural behavior of members in moment
moment due to all sustained loads (dead loads and the sustained frames resisting seismic loads only by completely wrapping
portion of the live load) plus the maximum moment induced the section. For external FRP reinforcement in the form of dis-
in a fatigue loading cycle as shown in Fig. 9.4. Equation (9-13) crete strips, the center-to-center spacing between the strips
gives the stress level in the FRP reinforcement under an applied should not exceed the sum of d/4 plus the width of the strip.
moment within the elastic response range of the member.
10.2—Wrapping schemes
The three types of FRP wrapping schemes used to increase
E h – kd
ff,s = fs,s  -----f  --------------- – ε bi E f (9-13) the shear strength of prismatic, rectangular beams, or columns
 E s d – kd are illustrated in Fig. 10.1. Completely wrapping the FRP
system around the section on all four sides is the most efficient
wrapping scheme and is most commonly used in column
The stress in the FRP under service loads computed from
applications where access to all four sides of the column is
Eq. (9-13) should be compared against the limits described
usually available. In beam applications, where an integral
in Section 9.5.
slab makes it impractical to completely wrap the member,
the shear strength can be improved by wrapping the FRP
CHAPTER 10—SHEAR STRENGTHENING system around three sides of the member (U-wrap) or bonding
FRP systems have been shown to increase the shear to the two sides of the member.
strength of existing concrete beams and columns by wrapping Although all three techniques have been shown to improve
or partially wrapping the members (Malvar et al. 1995; the shear strength of a member, completely wrapping the
Chajes et al. 1995; Norris et al. 1997; Kachlakev and McCurry section is the most efficient, followed by the three-sided U-wrap.
2000). Orienting the fibers transverse to the axis of the member Bonding to two sides of a beam is the least efficient scheme.
or perpendicular to potential shear cracks is effective in In all wrapping schemes, the FRP system can be installed
providing additional shear strength (Sato et al. 1996). Increasing continuously along the span length of a member or placed as
the shear strength can also result in flexural failures, which discrete strips. As discussed in Section 8.3.3, consideration
are relatively more ductile in nature as compared to shear should be given to the use of continuous FRP reinforcement
failures. that completely encases the member and may prevent the
migration of moisture.
10.1—General considerations
This chapter presents guidance on the calculation of the 10.3—Nominal shear strength
shear-strengthening effect of adding FRP shear reinforcement The nominal shear strength of a concrete member
to a reinforced concrete beam or column. The additional strengthened with an FRP system should exceed the required
shear strength that can be provided by the FRP system is shear strength (Eq. (10-1)). The required shear strength on an
based on many factors, including geometry of beam or column, FRP-strengthened concrete member should be computed
wrapping scheme, and existing concrete strength, but with the load factors required by ACI 318-99. The shear
should always be limited in accordance with the provisions of strength should be calculated using the strength-reduction
Chapter 8. factor φ, required by ACI 318-99.
440.2R-26 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table 10.1—Recommended additional reduction FRP system, loss of aggregate interlock of the concrete has been
factors for FRP shear reinforcement observed to occur at fiber strains less than the ultimate fiber
ψf = 0.95 Completely wrapped members strain. To preclude this mode of failure, the maximum strain
ψf = 0.85
used for design should be limited to 0.4% for applications that
Three-sided U-wraps or bonded face piles
can be completely wrapped with the FRP system (Eq. [10-6(a)]).

φVn ≥ Vu (10-1) εfe = 0.004 ≤ 0.75εfu (10-6(a))

The nominal shear strength of an FRP-strengthened concrete (for completely wrapping around the member’s cross section)
member can be determined by adding the contribution of the
FRP reinforcing to the contributions from the reinforcing steel This strain limitation is based on testing (Priestley et al.
(stirrups, ties, or spirals) and the concrete (Eq. (10-2)). An 1996) and experience. Higher strains should not be used for
additional reduction factor ψf is applied to the contribution FRP shear-strengthening applications.
of the FRP system.
[Link] Bonded U-wraps or bonded face plies—FRP
systems that do not enclose the entire section (two- and
φVn = φ(Vc + Vs + ψfVf) (10-2) three-sided wraps) have been observed to delaminate from
the concrete before the loss of aggregate interlock of the
It is suggested that an additional reduction factor ψf be section. For this reason, bond stresses should be analyzed to
applied to the shear contribution of the FRP reinforcement. For determine the usefulness of these systems and the effective
bond-critical shear reinforcement, an additional reduction factor strain level that can be achieved (Triantafillou 1998a). The
of 0.85 is recommended. For contact-critical shear reinforce- effective strain is calculated using a bond-reduction coefficient
ment, an additional reduction factor of 0.95 is recommended. κv applicable to shear.
These recommendations are given in Table 10.1.
εfe = κvεfu ≤ 0.004 (10-6(b))
10.4—FRP system contribution to shear strength
Figure 10.2 illustrates the dimensional variables used in (for U-wraps or bonding to two sides)
shear-strengthening calculations for FRP laminates. The The bond-reduction coefficient is a function of the concrete
contribution of the FRP system to shear strength of a mem- strength, the type of wrapping scheme used, and the stiffness
ber is based on the fiber orientation and an assumed crack of the laminate. The bond-reduction coefficient can be
pattern (Khalifa et al. 1998). The shear strength provided computed from Eq. (10-7) through (10-10) (Khalifa et al. 1998).
by the FRP reinforcement can be determined by calculating
the force resulting from the tensile stress in the FRP across k 1 k2 Le
the assumed crack. The shear contribution of the FRP shear κv = ---------------
- ≤ 0.75 (10-7) U.S.
reinforcement is then given by Eq. (10-3). 468 ε fu

A fv f fe ( sin α + cos α ) d f k 1 k2 Le
V f = ----------------------------------------------------
- (10-3) κv = ----------------------
- ≤ 0.75 (10-7) SI
sf 11,900 ε fu

The active bond length Le is the length over which the

where majority of the bond stress is maintained. This length is
given by Eq. (10-8).
Afv = 2ntf wf (10-4)
2500 -
Le = ----------------------- (10-8) U.S.
The tensile stress in the FRP shear reinforcement at ultimate ( nt f E f )
0.58
is directly proportional to the level of strain that can be
developed in the FRP shear reinforcement at ultimate.
23,300
Le = -----------------------
- (10-8) SI
ffe = εfe Ef (10-5) ( nt f E f )
0.58

10.4.1 Effective strain in FRP laminates—The effective The bond-reduction coefficient also relies on two modifica-
strain is the maximum strain that can be achieved in the FRP tion factors, k1 and k2, that account for the concrete strength and
system at the ultimate load stage and is governed by the the type of wrapping scheme used, respectively. Expressions for
failure mode of the FRP system and of the strengthened these modification factors are given in Eq. (10-9) and (10-10).
reinforced concrete member. The engineer should consider all
possible failure modes and use an effective strain representative
f c′  2 ⁄ 3
of the critical failure mode. The following subsections give k1 =  -----------
- (10-9) U.S.
guidance on determining this effective strain for different  4000
configurations of FRP laminates used for shear strengthening of
reinforced concrete members.
f c′  2⁄3
[Link] Completely wrapped members—For reinforced k1 =  -----
- (10-9) SI
concrete column and beam members completely wrapped by the  27
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-27

given for steel alone in ACI 318-99 Section [Link]. This

limit is stated in Eq. (10-11).

V s + V f ≤ 8 f c′ b w d (10-11) U.S.

V s + V f ≤ 0.66 f c′ b w d (10-11) SI

CHAPTER 11—AXIAL COMPRESSION, TENSION,

AND DUCTILITY ENHANCEMENT
Wrapping FRP systems completely around certain types
of compression members will confine those members, leading
to increases in axial compression strengths. Bonding FRP
systems to concrete members can also increase the axial
tension strength of the member. Confinement is also used to
enhance the ductility of members subjected to combined
axial and bending forces.

11.1—Axial compression
FRP systems can be used to increase the axial compression
strength of a concrete member by providing confinement
Fig. 10.3—Comparison of experimental results to the results
with an FRP jacket (Nanni and Bradford 1995, Toutanji
using the design procedure presented.
1999). Confining a concrete member is accomplished by
orienting the fibers transverse to the longitudinal axis of the
 df – Le member. In this orientation, the hoop fibers are similar to
 --------------- for U-wraps conventional spiral or tie reinforcing steel. Any contribution
 df of longitudinally aligned fibers to the axial compression
k2 =  (10-10)
 d f – 2L e strength of a concrete member should be neglected.
 ------------------
- for two sides bonded Confinement results in an increase in the apparent strength
 df of the concrete and in the maximum usable compressive
strain in the concrete (Seible et al. 1997). FRP jackets provide
The methodology for determining κv has been validated passive confinement to the compression member, remaining
for members in regions of high shear and low moment, such unstressed until dilation and cracking of the wrapped
as monotonically loaded simply supported beams. Although the compression member occur. For this reason, intimate contact
methodology has not been confirmed for shear strengthening between the FRP jacket and the concrete member is critical.
in areas subjected to combined high flexural and shear The axial compressive strength of a nonslender, normal-
stresses or in regions where the web is primarily in compression weight concrete member confined with an FRP jacket may be
(negative moment regions), κv is suggested to be sufficiently calculated using the confined concrete strength (Eq. (11-1)).
conservative for such cases. For nonseismic applications, the increase in axial strength
The design procedures outlined herein have been developed should be limited in accordance with Section 11.1.2. Vertical
by a combination of analytical and empirical results. The design displacement, section dilation, cracking, and strain limitations
methodology has been compared to the results of many in the FRP jacket can also limit the amount of additional
researchers in Fig. 10.3 (Khalifa et al. 1998). compression strength that can be achieved with an FRP jacket.
Mechanical anchorages can be used at termination The axial demand on an FRP-strengthened concrete member
points to develop larger tensile forces (Khalifa et al. 1999). should be computed with the load factors required by
The effectiveness of such mechanical anchorages, along ACI 318-99 and the axial compression strength should be
with the level of tensile stress they can develop, should be calculated using the strength-reduction factors φ for spiral
substantiated through representative physical testing. In no and tied members required by ACI 318-99.
case, however, should the effective strain in FRP laminates For nonprestressed members with existing steel spiral
exceed 0.004. reinforcement:
10.4.2 Spacing—Spaced FRP strips used for shear
strengthening should be investigated to evaluate their φPn = 0.85φ[0.85ψf fcc′ (Ag – Ast) + fy Ast ] (11-1(a))
contribution to the shear strength. Spacing should adhere to
the limits as set by ACI 318-99 for internal steel shear reinforce- For nonprestressed members with existing steel-tie rein-
ment. The spacing of FRP strips is defined as the distance forcement:
between the centerline of the strips. Structural testing should
validate the use of discretely spaced FRP stirrups for shear
strengthening (Hutchinson et al. 1998). φPn = 0.80φ[0.85ψf fcc′ (Ag – Ast) + fyAst ] (11-1(b))
10.4.3 Reinforcement limits—The total shear reinforcement
should be taken as the sum of the contribution of the FRP It is recommended to take the additional reduction factor,
shear reinforcement and the steel shear reinforcement. The ψf = 0.95. The apparent confined concrete strength for a circular
total shear reinforcement should be limited based on the criteria concrete member wrapped with an FRP jacket providing a
440.2R-28 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

confining pressure fl can be found from Eq. (11-2) (Mander should FRP jackets with fibers running longitudinally be
et al. 1988) originally developed for confinement provided relied upon to resist compression.
by steel jackets. 11.1.3 Serviceability considerations—At load levels near
ultimate, damage to the concrete in the form of significant
cracking in the radial direction might occur. The FRP jacket
f f contains the damage and maintains the structural integrity of
f cc′ = f c′ 2.25 1 + 7.9 ----l- – 2 ----l- – 1.25 (11-2)
f c′ f c′ the column. At service load levels, however, this type of
damage should be avoided. In this way, the FRP jacket will
only act during overloads that are temporary in nature.
Because Eq. (11-2) was originally developed for confinement To ensure that radial cracking will not occur under service
provided by steel jackets, it is important to note that this loads, the transverse strain in the concrete should remain
model originally considered a constant confining pressure below its cracking strain at service load levels. This corresponds
corresponding to the yield stress of the steel. This equation to limiting the stress in the concrete to 0.65fc′ . In addition, the
has been shown to be applicable to FRP-confined concrete stress in the steel should remain below 0.60fy to avoid plastic
(Spoelstra and Monti 1999). The confining pressure, however, deformation under sustained or cyclic loads. By maintaining
must be considered to be linearly variable such that an increase the specified stress in the concrete at service, the stress in the
in the strain in the FRP jacket results in a proportional increase FRP jacket will be relatively low. The jacket is only stressed
in the confining pressure. To determine the full stress-strain to significant levels when the concrete is transversely strained
behavior of FRP-confined concrete, the compressive strain above the cracking strain and the rate of the transverse expansion
in the concrete (longitudinal strain) must be related to the becomes large. Because FRP jackets provide passive
strain developed in the FRP jacket (transverse strain). The confinement, service load stresses in the FRP jacket should
strain in the FRP jacket may then be used to determine the never exceed the creep-rupture stress limit.
confining pressure and the resulting increase in the compressive In addition, axial deformations under service loads should
stress in the concrete. A simpler approach may be used to be investigated to evaluate their effect on the performance of
determine the peak value of confined concrete stress or the the structural member.
confined concrete strength. The confined concrete strength
can be computed from Eq. (11-2) using a confining pressure 11.2—Tensile strengthening
given in Eq. (11-3) that is the result of the maximum effective FRP systems can be used to provide additional tensile
strain that can be achieved in the FRP jacket. strength to a concrete member. Due to the linear-elastic nature
of FRP materials, the tensile contribution of the FRP system
κa ρ f f fe κ a ρ f ε fe E f is directly related to its strain level and is calculated using
f l = ---------------
- = ---------------------- (11-3) Hooke’s Law.
2 2 The level of tension provided by the FRP is limited by the
design tensile strength of the FRP and the ability to transfer
If the member is subjected to combined compression and stresses into the substrate through bond (Nanni et al. 1997).
shear, the effective strain in the FRP jacket should be limited The effective strain in the FRP can be determined based on
based on the criteria given in Eq. (11-4). the criteria given for shear strengthening in Eq. (10-6)
through (10-9). The value of k1 in Eq. (10-7) can be taken as
εfe = 0.004 ≤ 0.75εfu (11-4) 1.0. A minimum bond length of 2Le (where Le is the active
bond length defined previously in Eq. (10-8)) should be
provided to develop this level of strain.
11.1.1 Circular sections—FRP jackets are most effective
at confining circular members. The FRP system provides a 11.3—Ductility
circumferentially uniform confining pressure to the radial Increased ductility of a section results from the ability to
expansion of the compression member when the fibers are develop greater compressive strains in the concrete before
aligned transverse to the longitudinal axis of the member. compressive failure (Seible et al. 1997). The FRP jacket can
The confining pressure provided by an FRP jacket installed also serve to delay buckling of longitudinal steel reinforcement
around a circular member with a diameter h can be found in compression, and to clamp lap splices of longitudinal
using the reinforcement ratio given in Eq. (11-5). steel reinforcement.
For seismic applications, FRP jackets should be designed
4nt to provide a confining stress sufficient to develop concrete
ρ f = ---------f (11-5) compression strains associated with the displacement demands.
h
The maximum usable compressive strain in concrete for
FRP-confined circular reinforced concrete members can be
The efficiency factor κa for circular sections can be taken found by use of Eq. (11-6) (Mander et al. 1988).
as equal to 1.0.
11.1.2 Noncircular sections—Testing has shown that 1.71 ( 5f cc′ – 4f c′ )
confining square and rectangular members with FRP jackets ε cc
′ = ----------------------------------------- (11-6)
Ec
can provide marginal increases in the axial compression
strength of the member. Given the many unknowns with this
type of application, there are no recommendations provided Shear forces should also be evaluated in accordance with
at this time on the use of FRP. Applications of this nature Chapter 10 to prevent brittle shear failure in accordance with
should be closely scrutinized and evaluated. In no case ACI 318-99.
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-29

11.3.1 Circular members—The maximum usable com-

pressive strain for an FRP-confined circular member can be
found from Eq. (11-6) with fcc′ from Eq. (11-2) to (11-5) and
using κa = 1.0.
11.3.2 Noncircular members—Confining square and
rectangular sections, while not effective in increasing axial
strength, is effective in improving the ductility of compression
members. The maximum usable compressive strain for an
FRP-confined square or rectangular member can be found
from Eq. (11-6) with fcc′ from Eq. (11-2) to (11-4). The
reinforcement ratio for rectangular sections can be found
from Eq. (11-7).

2nt f ( b + h )
ρ f = --------------------------
- (11-7)
bh Fig. 12.1—Conceptual interfacial shear and normal stress
distributions along the length of a bonded FRP laminate
The efficiency factor for square and rectangular sections (Roberts and Haji-Kazemi 1989; Malek et al. 1998).
should be determined based on geometry, aspect ratio, and
the configuration of steel reinforcement. Equation (11-8) can
be used to determine this efficiency factor (Restrepo and
DeVino 1996), where r is the radius of the edges of the section
as described in the general guidelines of Chapter 12.

2 2
( b – 2r ) + ( h – 2r )
κa = 1 – -------------------------------------------------- (11-8)
3bh ( 1 – ρg )

The confining effect of FRP jackets should be assumed to

be negligible for rectangular sections with aspect ratios b/h Fig. 12.2—Delamination caused by tension failure of the
exceeding 1.5, or face dimensions, b or h, exceeding 36 in. concrete cover.
(900 mm), unless testing demonstrates their effectiveness.
The interface bond area should be calculated based on the
horizontal shear and tensile strength of the concrete substrate.
CHAPTER 12—REINFORCEMENT DETAILS Because interface delamination or interface bond failure
This chapter offers guidance for detailing externally bonded
modes are brittle, using a bond strength reduction factor of
FRP reinforcement. Detailing will typically depend on the
0.50 is recommended. Analytical methods for computing the
geometry of the structure, the soundness and quality of the
bond stress are available (Blaschko et al. 1998; Brosens and
substrate, and the levels of load that are to be sustained by the
Van Gemert 1997; Maeda et al. 1997).
FRP sheets or laminates. Many bond-related failures can be
avoided by following these general guidelines for detailing Mechanical anchorages can be effective in increasing
FRP sheets or laminates: stress transfer (Khalifa et al. 1999). The performance of any
• Do not turn inside corners; anchorage system should be substantiated through testing.
• Provide a minimum 1/2 in. (13 mm) radius when the 12.1.2 Concrete cover delamination—Concrete cover
sheet is wrapped around outside corners; and delamination can also result from the normal stresses developed
• Provide sufficient overlap when splicing FRP plies. in a bonded FRP laminate. With this type of delamination, the
existing internal reinforcing steel essentially acts as a bond
12.1—Bond and delamination breaker in a horizontal plane, and the reduced area of bulk
The actual distribution of bond stress in an FRP laminate concrete pulls away from the rest of the beam (this may be
is complicated by cracking of the substrate concrete. The exacerbated if epoxy-coated steel reinforcement was used in
general elastic distribution of interfacial shear stress and normal the existing member). The result is the entire concrete cover
stress along an FRP laminate bonded to uncracked concrete is layer splitting at the level of the tensile reinforcement from the
shown in Fig. 12.1. The normal stress is normal with respect rest of the reinforced concrete member (Fig. 12.2).
to the plane of the FRP laminate. The tensile concrete cover splitting failure mode is
For an FRP system installed according to Part 3 of this guide, controlled, in part, by the level of stress at the termination
the weak link in the concrete/FRP interface is the concrete. The point of the FRP laminate. Instead of a more detailed analysis,
soundness and tensile strength of the concrete substrate will the following general guidelines for the location of cut-off points
limit the overall effectiveness of the bonded FRP system. for the FRP laminate can be used to avoid this type of failure:
12.1.1 FRP debonding—Debonding of a properly installed • For simply supported beams, the plies should extend a
FRP laminate can result from a lack of bonded area of the distance d past the point along the span corresponding
FRP laminate to the concrete substrate. The concrete cannot to the cracking moment Mcr under factored loads. In
maintain the interfacial shear and normal stresses, and the addition, if the factored shear force at the termination
FRP laminate debonds from the substrate with a relatively point is greater than 2/3 the concrete shear strength
thin layer of concrete attached to it. (Vu > 0.67Vc), the FRP laminates should be anchored
440.2R-30 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Fig. 12.3 — Graphical representation of the guidelines for allowable termination points of
a three-ply FRP laminate.

with transverse reinforcement to prevent the concrete joints, and termination points to ensure failure through the FRP
cover layer from splitting. jacket thickness rather than failure of the spliced sections.
• For continuous beams, a single-ply FRP laminate For unidirectional FRP laminates, lap splices are required
should be terminated d/2 or 6 in. (150 mm) minimum only in the direction of the fibers. Lap splices are not required
beyond the inflection point (point of zero moment in the direction transverse to the fibers. FRP laminates
resulting from factored loads). For multiple-ply consisting of multiple unidirectional sheets oriented in more
laminates, the termination points of the plies should than one direction or multidirectional fabrics require lap
be tapered. The outermost ply should be terminated no splices in more than one direction to maintain the continuity
less than 6 in. (150 mm) beyond the inflection point. of the fibers and the overall strength of the FRP laminates.
Each successive ply should be terminated no less than
an additional 6 in. (150 mm) beyond the inflection CHAPTER 13—DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS,
point. For example, if a three-ply laminate is required, AND SUBMITTALS
the ply directly in contact with the concrete substrate 13.1—Engineering requirements
should be terminated at least 18 in. (460 mm) past the Although federal, state, and local codes for the design of
inflection point (Fig. 12.3). These guidelines apply for externally bonded FRP systems do not exist, other applicable
positive and negative moment regions. code requirements may influence the selection, design, and
installation of the FRP system. For example, code require-
12.2—Detailing of laps and splices ments related to fire or potable water may influence the selection
Splices of FRP laminates should be provided only as of the coatings used with the FRP system. All design work
permitted on drawings or in specifications or as authorized should be performed under the guidance of a licensed engineer
by the engineer as recommended by the system manufacturer. familiar with the properties and applications of FRP-
The fibers of FRP systems should be continuous and oriented strengthening systems.
in the direction of the largest tensile forces. Fiber continuity
can be maintained with a lap splice. For FRP systems, a lap 13.2—Drawings and specifications
splice should be made by overlapping the fibers along their The engineer should document calculations summarizing
length. The required overlap, or lap-splice length, depends on the assumptions and parameters used to design the FRP
the tensile strength and thickness of the FRP material system strengthening and should prepare design drawings and
and on the bond strength between adjacent layers of FRP project specifications. The drawings and specifications
laminates. Sufficient overlap should be provided to promote should show, at a minimum, the following information
the failure of the FRP laminate before debonding of the specific to externally applied FRP systems:
overlapped FRP laminates. The required overlap for an FRP • FRP system to be used;
system should be provided by the material manufacturer and • Location of the FRP system relative to the existing
substantiated through testing, independent of the manufacturer. structure;
Jacket-type FRP systems used for column members • Dimensions and orientation of each ply;
should provide appropriate development area at splices, • Number of plies and the sequence of installation;
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-31

• Location of splices and lap length; general recommendations regarding each material to be
• General notes listing design loads and allowable strains used. Installation procedures should include surface
in the FRP laminates; preparation requirements;
• Material properties of the FRP laminates and concrete • Manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
substrate; for all materials to be used;
• Concrete surface preparation requirements, including • Quality-control procedure for tracking FRP materials
corner preparation and maximum irregularity limitations; and material certifications;
• Installation procedures, including surface temperature • Durability test data for the FRP system in the types of
and moisture limitations, and application time limits environments expected;
between successive plies; • Structural test reports pertinent to the proposed appli-
• Curing procedures of FRP systems; cation; and
• Protective coatings and sealants, if required; • Reference projects.
• Shipping, storage, handling, and shelf-life guidelines; 13.3.2 FRP system installation contractor—Submittals re-
• Quality control and inspection procedures, including quired of the FRP system installation contractor should include:
acceptance criteria; and
• Documentation from the FRP system manufacturer of
• In-place load testing of installed FRP system, if necessary.
having been trained to install the proposed FRP system;
• Project references, including installations similar to the
13.3—Submittals proposed installation. For example, for an overhead
Specifications should require the FRP system manufacturer;
application, the contractor should submit a list of previous
installation contractor; inspection agency, if required; and all
installations involving the installation of the proposed
those involved with the project to submit product information
FRP system in an overhead application;
and evidence of their qualifications and experience to the
engineer for review. • Evidence of competency in surface preparation techniques;
13.3.1 FRP system manufacturer—Submittals required of and
the FRP system manufacturer should include: • Quality-control procedures including the daily log or
• Product data sheets indicating the physical, mechanical, inspection forms used by the contractor.
and chemical characteristics of the FRP system and all 13.3.3 FRP system inspection agency—If an independent
its constituent materials; inspection agency is used, submittals required of that agency
• Tensile properties of the FRP system including the should include:
method of reporting properties (net fiber or gross • A list of inspectors to be used on the project and their
laminate), test methods used, and the statistical basis qualifications;
used for determining the properties; • Sample inspection forms; and
• Installation instructions, maintenance instructions, and • A list of previous projects inspected by the inspector.

PART 5—DESIGN EXAMPLES

CHAPTER 14—DESIGN EXAMPLES
14.1—Calculation of FRP system tensile strength
This example illustrates the derivation of material properties based on net-fiber area versus the properties based on gross-lam-
inate area. As described in Section 3.3.1, both methods of determining material properties are valid. It is important, however,
that any design calculations consistently use material properties based on only one of the two methods (for example, if the gross-
laminate thickness is used in any calculation, the strength based on gross-laminate area should be used in the calculations as well).
A test panel is fabricated from two plies of a carbon fiber/epoxy unidirectional FRP system using the wet layup technique. Based
on the known fiber content of this FRP system, the net-fiber area is 0.0065 in.2/in. width/ply. After the system has cured, five
2 in. (5.08 cm) wide test coupons are cut from the panel. The test coupons are tested in tension to failure in accordance with
ASTM D 3039. Tabulated in Table 14.1 are the results of the tension testing.

Table 14.1—FRP-system tension test results

Specimen width Measured coupon thickness Measured rupture load
Coupon ID in. mm in. mm kips kN
T-1 2 50.8 0.055 1.397 17.8 79.2
T-2 2 50.8 0.062 1.575 16.4 72.9
T-3 2 50.8 0.069 1.753 16.7 74.3
T-4 2 50.8 0.053 1.346 16.7 74.3
T-5 2 50.8 0.061 1.549 17.4 77.4
Average 2 50.8 0.060 1.524 17.0 75.6
440.2R-32 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Net-fiber area property calculations Gross-laminate area property calculations

2
Af = (2)  0.0065 -------- (2 in.)
in.
 in.  Af = (0.060 in.)(2 in.) = 0.120 in.2
Calculate Af using the known, net-fiber Calculate Af using the average,
2
area ply thickness: = 0.026 in. measured laminate thickness:
2
Af = (2)  0.1651 ----------- (50.8 mm)
Af = ntf wf mm Af = tf w f Af = (1.524 mm)(50.8 mm)
 mm 
= 77.419 mm2
= 16.774 mm2
Calculate the average FRP system 17 kips Calculate the average FRP system tensile 17 kips
f fu = -----------------------2 = 650 ksi f fu = -----------------------2 = 140 ksi
tensile strength based on net-fiber area: 0.026 in. strength based on gross-laminate area: 0.120 in.
Average measured rupture load 75.62 kN = 4.508 kN/mm2 f = Average measured rupture load 75.62 kN = 0.997 kN/mm2
f fu = --------------------------------------------------------------------------- f fu = ----------------------------- fu --------------------------------------------------------------------------- f fu = -----------------------------
Af 16.774 mm
2 Af 77.419 mm
2

(650 ksi)(0.026 in. ) (140 ksi)(0.120 in. )

2 2
p fu = ------------------------------------------------- p fu = -------------------------------------------------
2 in. 2 in.
Calculate the average FRP system Calculate the average FRP system
tensile strength per unit width based on tensile strength per unit width based on
net-fiber area: = 8.4 kips/in. laminate area: = 8.4 kips/in.
 4.508 ---------- kN 
-2 ( 16.774 mm )
2  0.977 ---------- kN 
-2 ( 77.419 mm )
2
ff u A f  mm  f f u Af  mm 
p fu = ---------
- p fu = ------------------------------------------------------------------ p fu = ---------
- p fu = ------------------------------------------------------------------
wf 50.8 mm wf 50.8 mm

= 1.49 kN/mm = 1.49 kN/mm

14.2—Calculation of FRP system tensile strength

An engineer is considering two FRP systems for strengthening a reinforced concrete member and has obtained mechanical
properties from the respective manufacturers. System A consists of dry, carbon-fiber unidirectional sheets and is installed with
an epoxy resin using the wet layup technique. System B consists of precured carbon fiber/epoxy laminates that are bonded
to the concrete surface with an epoxy resin. Excerpts from the data sheets provided by the FRP system manufacturers are given
in Table 14.2. After reviewing the material data sheets sent by the FRP system manufacturers, the engineer compares the tensile
strengths of the two systems.

Table 14.2—Material properties and description of two types of FRP system

System A System B
(excerpts from data sheet) (excerpts from data sheet)
System type: dry, unidirectional sheet System type: precured, unidirectional laminate

Fiber type: high-strength carbon Fiber type: high-strength carbon

Polymer resin: epoxy Polymer resin: epoxy

System A is installed using a wet layup procedure where the dry carbon-fiber System B’s precured laminates are bonded to the concrete substrate using
sheets are impregnated and adhered with an epoxy resin on-site. System B’s epoxy paste adhesive.
Mechanical properties*†‡ Mechanical properties*†
tf = 0.013 in. (0.330 mm) tf = 0.050 in. (1.270 mm)
ffu* = 550 ksi (3792 N/mm ) 2
ffu* = 380 ksi (2620 N/mm2)
εfu* = 1.7% εfu* = 1.7%
Ef = 33,000 ksi (227,527 N/mm2) Ef = 22,000 ksi (151,724 N/mm2)
Notes on System A: Notes on System B:
*Reported properties are based on a population of 20 or more coupons tested in accordance *Reported properties are based on a population of 20 or more coupons tested in accordance
with ASTM D 3039. with ASTM D 3039.
†Reported properties have been statistically adjusted by subtracting three standard deviations †Reported properties have been statistically adjusted by subtracting three standard deviations
from the mean tensile stress and strain. from the mean tensile stress and strain.
‡
Thickness is based on the net-fiber area for one ply of the FRP system. Resin is
excluded. Actual installed thickness of cured FRP is 0.060 to 0.070 in. per ply.
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-33

Because the data sheets for both systems are reporting statistically based properties, it is possible to directly compare the ten-
sile strength and modulus of both systems. The calculations are shown below:

Procedure Calculation in inch-pound units Calculation in SI metric units

Step 1A—Calculate the tensile strength per unit
width of System A * *
pfu = (550 ksi)(0.013 in.) = 7.15 kips/in. pfu = (3.79 kN/mm2)(0.330 mm) = 1.25 kN/mm
*
pfu = ffu* tf
Step 1B—Calculate the tensile strength per unit
width of System B * *
pfu = (380 ksi)(0.050 in.) = 19 kips/in. pfu = (2.62 kN/mm2)(1.27 mm) = 3.33 kN/mm
*
pfu = ffu* tf
Step 2A—Calculate the tensile modulus per unit
width of System A kf = (33,000 ksi)(0.013 in.) = 429 kips/in. kf = (227.5 kN/mm2)(0.330 mm) = 75.13 kN/mm
kf = Ef tf
Step 2B—Calculate the tensile modulus per unit
width of System B
kf = (22,000 ksi)(0.050 in.) = 1100 kips/in. kf = (151.7 kN/mm2)(1.27 mm) = 192.63 kN/mm
kf = Ef tf
Step 3—Compare the two systems
p fu* (System B) 19 kips/in. = 2.66 pfu* (System B) 3.33 kN/mm- = 2.66
---------------------------------- = -------------------------- ---------------------------------- = --------------------------------
Compare the tensile strengths: p fu* (System A) 7.5 kips/in. p fu* (System A) 75.13 kN/mm
* (System A)
pfu ∴ three plies of System A are required for each ply ∴ three plies of System A are required for each ply
*
pfu (System B) of System B for an equivalent tensile strength of System B for an equivalent tensile strength

k f (System B) 1100 kips/in. k f (System A) 192.63 kN/mm = 2.56

Compare the stiffnesses: ------------------------------- = ------------------------------- = 2.56 ------------------------------- = -------------------------------------
k f (System A) 429 kips/in. k f (System B) 75.13 kN/mm
kf (System A)
kf (System B) ∴ three plies of System A are required for each ply ∴ three plies of System A are required for each ply
of System B for an equivalent stiffness of System B for an equivalent stiffness

Because all the design procedures outlined in this document limit the strain in the FRP material, the full ultimate strength of the ma-
terial is not utilized and should not be the basis of comparison between two material systems. When considering various FRP ma-
terial systems for a particular application, the FRP systems should be compared based on equivalent stiffness only. In addition,
each FRP system under consideration should have the ability to develop the strain level associated with the effective strain level re-
quired by the application without rupturing, εfu > εfe.
In many instances, it may be possible to vary the width of the FRP strip as opposed to the number of plies (use larger widths
for systems with lower thicknesses and visa versa). In such instances, equivalent stiffness calculations typically will not yield
equivalent contributions to the strength of a member. In general, thinner (lower ntf) and wider (higher wf) FRP systems will
provide a higher level of strength to a member due to lower bond stresses. The exact equivalency, however, can only be found by
performing complete calculations (according to procedures described in Chapters 9, 10, and 11 of this guide) for each system.

14.3—Flexural strengthening of an interior beam

A simply supported concrete beam reinforced with three No. 9 bars (Fig. 14.1) is located in a unoccupied warehouse and is
subjected to a 50% increase in its live-load carrying requirements. An analysis of the existing beam indicates that the beam
still has sufficient shear strength to resist the new required shear strength and meets the deflection and crack control service-
ability requirements. Its flexural strength, however, is inadequate to carry the increased live load.

Length of the beam l 24 ft 7.31 m

Width of the beam w 12 in. 30.48 cm
d 21.5 in. 54.61 cm
h 24 in. 60.96 cm
fc′ 5000 psi 34 N/mm2
fv′ 60 ksi 414 N/mm2
φMn without FRP 266 k-ft 355.3 kN × m
Fig. 14.1—Schematic of the idealized simply supported Bars No. 9 φ28
beam with FRP external reinforcement.
440.2R-34 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Summarized in Table 14.3 are the existing and new loadings and associated midspan moments for the beam.

Table 14.3—Loadings and corresponding moments

Loading/moment Existing loads Anticipated loads
Dead loads wDL 1.00 k/ft 14 N/mm 1.00 k/ft 14 N/mm
Live load wLL 1.20 k/ft 17 N/mm 1.80 k/ft 26 N/mm
Unfactored loads
(wDL + wLL ) 2.20 k/ft 32.1 N/mm 2.80 k/ft 40.9 N/mm

Unstrengthened load limit (1.2wDL +

N/A N/A 2.73 k/ft 39.8 N/mm
0.85wLL )
Factored loads
(1.4wDL + 1.7wLL ) 3.44 k/ft 50.2 N/mm 4.46 k/ft 65.1 N/mm

Dead-load moment MDL 72 k-ft 96.2 kN-m 72 k-ft 96.2 kN-m

Live-load moment MLL 86 k-ft 114.9 kN-m 130 k-ft 173.6 kN-m
Service-load moment Ms 158 k-ft 211.1 kN-m 202 k-ft 269.8 kN-m
Unstrengthened moment limit
(1.2MDL + 0.85MLL) N/A N/A 197 k-ft 263.2 kN-m

Factored moment Mu 248 k-ft 331.3 kN-m 321 k-ft 428.8 kN-m

It is proposed to strengthen the existing reinforced concrete beam with the FRP system described in Table 14.4. Specifically, two 12
in. (25.4 mm) wide x 23.0 ft (7 m) long plies are to be bonded to the soffit of the beam using the wet layup technique.

Table 14.4—Manufacturer’s reported FRP-system properties

Thickness per ply tf 0.040 in. 1.016 mm
Ultimate tensile strength ffu* 90 ksi 0.62 kN/mm2
Rupture strain εfu* 0.017 in./in. 0.017 mm/mm
Modulus of elasticity of FRP laminates Ef 5360 ksi 37 kN/mm2

By inspection, the level of strengthening is reasonable in that it does meet the strengthening limit criteria put forth in Eq. (8-1).
That is, the existing moment strength, (φMn)w/o FRP = 266 k-ft (355 kN-m), is greater than the unstrengthened moment limit,
(1.2MDL + 0.85MLL)new = 197 k-ft (263 kN-m). The design calculations used to verify this configuration follow.

Procedure Calculation in inch-pound units Calculation in SI metric units

Step 1—Calculate the FRP-system design
material properties
The beam is located in an interior space and a CFRP
material will be used. Therefore, per Table 8.1, an ffu = (0.95)(90 ksi) = 85 ksi ffu = (0.95)(620.53 N/mm2) = 589.5 N/mm2
environmental-reduction factor of 0.95 is suggested. εfu = (0.95)(0.017 in./in.) = 0.0162 in./in. εfu = (0.95)(0.017 mm/mm) = 0.0162 mm/mm
ffu = CE ffu*
εfu = CEεfu*
Step 2—Preliminary calculations
Properties of the concrete: f c′ β1 = 1.09 – 0.08fc′ (N/mm2) = 0.81
β1 = 1.05 – 0.05 -----------
- = 0.80
β1 from ACI 318-99, Section [Link] 1000
Ec = 57,000√fc′ E c = 57,000 34.47 N/mm = 334,672 N/mm2
2

E c = 57,000 5000 psi = 4,030,000 psi

Properties of the existing reinforcing steel:

As = 3(1.00 in.2) = 3.00 in.2 As = 3(615.7 mm2) = 1935.48 mm2

2 2
3.00 in. 1935.48 mm
A
ρs ≡ -----s- ρs = ------------------------------------------ = 0.00116 ρs = ---------------------------------------------------------- = 0.00116
bd ( 12 in. ) ( 21.5 in. ) ( 304.8 mm ) ( 546.1 mm )

Properties of the externally bonded FRP

reinforcement: Af = (2 plies)(0.040 in./ply)(12 in.) = 0.96 in.2 Af = (2 plies)(1.016 mm/ply)(304.8 mm) = 619.35 mm2
Af = ntf wf
2 2
0.96 in. 619.35 mm
A ρs = ------------------------------------------ = 0.00372 ρs = ---------------------------------------------------------- = 0.00372
ρf = ------f ( 12 in. ) ( 21.5 in. ) ( 304.8 mm ) ( 546.1 mm )
bd
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-35

Procedure Calculation in inch-pound units Calculation in SI metric units

Step 3—Determine the existing state of
strain on the soffit
The existing state of strain is calculated
assuming the beam is cracked and the only
loads acting on the beam at the time of the
FRP installation are dead loads. A cracked
section analysis of the existing beam gives k =
0.334 and Icr = 5905 in.4 = 2451 × 106 mm4 εbi =

M DL ( h – kd ) ( 864 k ⋅ in. ) [ 24 in. – ( 0.334 ) ( 21.5 in. ) ] ( 97,632 kN ⋅ mm ) [ 609.6 mm – ( 0.334 ) ( 546.1 mm ) ]
ε bi = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ε bi = ------------------------------ ( 5905 in. ) ( 4030 ksi )
4
( 2451 ⋅ 10 mm ) ( 28 kN/mm )
6 4 2
Ic r E c
εbi = 0.00061 εbi = 0.00061
Step 4—Determine the bond-dependent
coefficient of the FRP system
The dimensionless bond-dependent
coefficient for flexure κ m is calculated
using Eq. (9-2)

Compare nEftf to 1,000,000 (2)(5,360,000 psi)(0.040 in.) = 428,8000 < 1,000,000 (2)(37 kN/mm2)(1.016 mm) = 75,184 < 175,336

Therefore,
κm =
( 2 ) ( 37 kN/mm ) ( 1.016 mm )
2
κm = ------------  1 – -----------------------
1 nE f t f  1
- ≤ 0.90 ( 2 ) ( 5,360,000 psi ) ( 0.040 in.) ) κm = --------------------------- 1 – ----------------------------------------------------------------------
60ε fu 2,000,000 1
--------------------------- 1 – -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60 ( 0.0162 ) 175,336
60 ( 0.0162 ) 2,000,000
κm = 0.588 < 0.6
κm = 0.82 < 0.9
Step 5—Estimate c, the depth to the
neutral axis
A reasonable initial estimate of c is 0.20d.
The value of the c is adjusted after checking
equilibrium.

c = 0.20d c = (0.20)(21.5 in.) = 4.30 in. c = (0.20)(546.1 mm) = 109.2 mm

Step 6—Determine the effective level of
strain in the FRP reinforcement
The effectiveness strain level in the FRP
may be found from Eq. (9-3).

εfe = 0.003  ----------- – εbi ≤ κmεfu

h–c
 c 
εfe = 0.003  ------------------- – 0.00061 ≤ 0.82 ( 0.0162 ) εfe = 0.003  ------------------------------------------------------ – 0.00061
24 – 4.3 617.2 mm – 109.2 mm
 4.3   109.2 mm 
Note that for the neutral axis depth selected,
concrete crushing would be the failure mode
because the first expression in this equation ≤ 0.82(0.0162)
controls. If the second (limiting) expression
governed, then FRP failure would be in the εfe = 0.0131 ≤ 0.0133 εfe = 0.0131 ≤ 0.0133
failure mode.
Step 7—Calculate the strain in the existing
reinforcing steel
The strain in the reinforcing steel can be
calculated using similar triangles according
to Eq. (9-8).

εs = (εfe + εbi)  ----------- εs = (0.0131 + 0.00061)  --------------------------- = 0.012 εs = (0.0131 + 0.00061)  --------------------------------- = 0.012
d–c 21.5 – 4.30 546.1 – 109.2
 h – c  24 – 4.30   609.6 – 109.2

Step 8—Calculate the stress level in the

reinforcing steel and FRP
The stresses are calculated using Eq. (9-9)
and (9-4).

fs = Esεs ≤ fy fs = (29,000 ksi)(0.012) ≤ 60 ksi fs = (200 kN/mm2)(0.012) ≤ 0.14 kN/mm2

fs = 348 ksi ≤ 60 ksi fs = 2.4 kN/mm2 ≤ 0.14 kN/mm2

ffe = Ef εfe ffe = (5360 ksi)(0.0131) = 70.2 ksi ffe = (37 kN/mm2)(0.0131) = 0.5 kN/mm2
Step 9—Calculate the internal force
resultants and check equilibrium
Force equilibrium is verified by checking the
initial estimate of c with Eq. (9-10). (Because
concrete crushing controls failure, γ can be
taken as 0.85.) c=
(3.00 in. ) ( 60 ksi ) + ( 0.96 in. ) ( 70.2 ksi ) (1935.48 mm ) ( 413.7 N/mm ) + ( 619 mm ) ( 484 N/mm )
2 2 2 2 2 2

A s f s + A f f fe c = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
c = ------------------------- ( 0.85 ) ( 5 ksi ) ( 0.80 ) ( 12 in. ) ( 0.85 ) ( 34.47 N/mm ) ( 0.81 ) ( 305 mm )
2
γf c′ β 1 b
c = 6.06 in. ≠ 4.030 in. n.g. c = 152 mm ≠ 109 in. n.g.

∴ Revise estimate of c and repeat Steps 6 through 9 ∴ Revise estimate of c and repeat Steps 6 through 9 until
until equilibrium is achieved. equilibrium is achieved.
440.2R-36 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Procedure Calculation in inch-pound units Calculation in SI metric units

Step 10—Adjust c until force equilibrium (3.00 in. ) ( 60 ksi ) + ( 0.96 in. ) ( 49.8 ksi )
2 2
(1935.48 mm ) ( 0.41 kN/m ) + ( 619 mm ) ( 0.34 kN/mm )
2 2 2 2
is satisfied c = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- c = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Steps 6 through 9 were repeated several ( 0.85 ) ( 5 ksi ) ( 0.80 ) ( 12 in. ) ( 0.85 ) ( 0.03 kN/mm ) ( 0.81 ) ( 305 mm )
2

times with different values of c until equilib-

rium was achieved. The results of the final (1935 mm ) ( 413.7 N/mm ) + ( 619 mm ) ( 343 N/mm )
2 2 2 2
iteration are c = 5.58 in. = 5.58 in. ✓ O.K. c = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
( 0.85 ) ( 34.47 N/mm ) ( 0.81 ) ( 305 mm )
2

c = 5.58 in.; εs = 0.0086; fs = fy = 60 ksi; εfe =

0.0093; and ffe = 49.8 ksi c = 142 mm = 142 mm ✓ O.K.
∴ the value of c selected for the final iteration
is correct. ∴ the value of c selected for the final iteration is correct.
Step 11—Calculate design flexural
strength of the section
The design flexural strength is calculated
using Eq. (9-11). An additional reduction
factor, ψf = 0.85, is applied to the contribu-
tion of the FRP system. Because εs = 0.0086
> 0.005, a strength-reduction factor of φ =
0.90 is appropriate per Eq. (9-5).
β 1 c β 1 c
φM n = φ A s f s  d – -------
- + ψA f f fe h – -------
2
φM n = 0.90 (3.00 in. ( 60 ksi ) φM n = 0.90 ( 1935.48 mm ) ( 414 N/mm )
2 2
 -
2  2 

( 0.80 ) ( 5.58 in. )

 21.5 in. – -------------------------------------- ( 0.81 ) ( 142 mm )
 546 mm – ----------------------------------------
+ ( 0.85 ) ( 0.96 in. ) + ( 0.85 )(546 mm )
2 2
 2   2 

( 0.80 ) ( 5.58 in. ) ( 0.81 ) ( 142 mm )

( 49.8 ksi )  24 in. – -------------------------------------- ( 343 N/mm )  607 mm – ----------------------------------------
2
 2   2 

φMn = 3920 k ⋅ in. = 326 k ⋅ ft ≥ Mu = 321 k ⋅ ft φMn = 435,329 N ⋅ mm = 435.3 N ⋅ mm ≥ Mu = 428.7 N ⋅ m

∴ the strengthened section is capable of sustaining ∴ the strengthened section is capable of sustaining the
the new required moment strength. new required moment strength.
Step 12—Check service stresses in the
reinforcing steel and the FRP
Calculate the elastic depth to the cracked
neutral axis by adding the first moment of
the areas of the transformed section. This can
be simplified for a rectangular beam without
compression reinforcement as follows:

 ρ ---- E 2
- + ρ f -----f  + 2  ρ s -----s + ρ f -----f  --- 
Es E E h *See EQUATION NOTE I (U.S.) below. **See EQUATION NOTE I (SI) below.
k =
 s Ec E c  Ec E c  d 
k = 0.343 k = 0.343
–  ρ s -----s + ρ f -----f 
E E
 Ec kd = (0.343)(21.5 in.) = 7.37 in. kd = (0.343)(546.1 mm) = 187.3 mm
E c

Calculate the stress level in the reinforcing

steel using Eq. (9-12) and verify that it is less
than recommended limit per Eq. (9-6).
† ††
See EQUATION NOTE II (U.S.) below. See EQUATION NOTE II (SI) below.
M s + ε bi Af Ef ( h – ------) ( d – kd )Es
kd
3
fs,s = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
fs,s = 40.4 ksi ≤ (0.80)(60 ksi) = 48 ksi
A s E s d – ------ ( d – kd ) + A E  h – kd
 kd  ------ ( h – kd ) fs,s = 280 N/mm2 ≤ (0.80)(410 N/mm2) = 330 N/mm2
 3 f f 3
∴ the stress level in the reinforcing steel is within the ∴ the stress level in the reinforcing steel is within the
fs,s ≤ 0.80fy recommended limit. recommended limit.
*EQUATION NOTE I (U.S.):
2
k =  0.0116  29,000
----------------  5360
------------    29,000
----------------  5360
------------  ------------------  
24 in.  29,000
----------------  5360
------------ 
  4030  + 0.00372  4030  + 2  0.0116  4030  + 0.00372  4030  21.5 in.  –  0.0116  4030  + 0.00372  4030 

EQUATION NOTE I (SI):

2
k =  0.0116  200
---------  37
------    200
---------  37
------  ------------------------  
609.6 mm  200
---------  37
------ 
  28  + 0.00372  28  + 2  0.0116  28  + 0.00372  28  546.1 mm  –  0.0116  28  + 0.00372  28 

†
EQUATION NOTE II (U.S.):
2424 k ⋅ in. + ( 0.00061 ) ( 0.96 in. ) ( 5360 ksi )  24 in. – ------------------ (21.5 in. – 7.37 in.) ( 29,000 ksi )
2 7.37 in.
3
fs,s = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
( 3.00 in. ) ( 29,000 ksi ) 21.5 in. – ------------------ (21.5 in. – 7.37 in.) + ( 0.96 in. ) ( 5360 ksi )  24 in. – ------------------ ( 24 in. – 7.37 in. )

2 7.37 in. 2 7.37 in.
 3   3 
††
EQUATION NOTE II (SI):
273,912 kN ⋅ mm + ( 0.00061 ) ( 619.35 mm ) ( 37 kN/mm )  609.6 mm – ------------------------ ( 546.1 mm – 187.2 mm ) ( 200 kN/mm )
2 2 187.2 mm 2
 3 
fs,s= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
( 1847 mm ) ( 200 kN/mm )  546.1 mm – ------------------------ ( 546.1 mm – 187.2 mm ) + ( 619.35 mm ) ( 37 kN/mm )  609.6 mm – ------------------------ ( 609.6 mm – 187.2 mm )
2 2 187.2 mm 2 2 187.2 mm
 3   3 
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-37

Procedure Calculation in inch-pound units Calculation in SI metric units

Step 12 (cont.)—

Calculate the stress level in the FRP

using Eq. (9-13) and verify that it is
less than creep-rupture stress limit
given in Table 9.1. Assume that the full
service load is sustained.
2
f f, s = 40.4 ksi  -------------------------  ------------------------------------------ f f, s = 0.278 kN/mm  ------------------------------2  -------------------------------------------------------
5360 ksi 24 in. – 7.37 in. 2 37 kN/mm 609.6 mm – 187.2 mm
 29,000 ksi  21.5 in. – 7.37 in.  200 kN/mm   546.1 mm – 187.2 mm
ff,s = fs,s  -----f   --------------- – ε bi E f
E h – kd
 E s  d – kd

For a carbon FRP system, the sustained – (0.00061)(5360 ksi)  ------------------------------------------------------

609.6 mm – 187.2 mm-
– (0.00061)(371 kN/mm2)
plus cyclic stress limit is obtained from  546.1 mm – 187.2 mm
Table 9.1:
ff,s = 5.60 ksi ≤ (0.55)(85 ksi) = 50 ksi ff,s = 38.6 N/mm2 ≤ (0.55)(586 N/mm2) = 322.3 N/mm2
Sustained plus cyclic stress limit = 0.55ffu
∴ the stress level in the FRP is within the recommended ∴ the stress level in the FRP is within the recommended sus-
sustained plus cyclic stress limit. tained plus cyclic stress limit.

In detailing the FRP reinforcement, the FRP should be terminated a minimum of d past the point on the moment diagram
that represents cracking. The factored shear force at the termination should also be checked against 2/3 of the concrete shear
strength. If the shear force is greater than 2/3 of the concrete shear strength, FRP U-wraps are recommended to reinforce against
cover delamination.

14.4—Shear strengthening of an interior T-beam

A reinforced concrete T-beam (fc′ = 3000 psi = 20.7 N/mm2), located inside of an office building, is subjected to an increase in
its live-load carrying requirements. An analysis of the existing beam indicates that the beam is still satisfactory for flexural strength;
however, its shear strength is inadequate to carry the increased live load. Based on the analysis, the nominal shear strength
provided by the concrete is Vc = 36.4 kips = 162 kN and the nominal shear strength provided by steel shear reinforcement
is Vs = 19.6 kips = 87.2 kN. Thus, the design shear strength of the existing beam is φVn,existing = 0.85(36.4 kips + 19.6 kips)
= 47.6 kips = 211.7 kN. The factored required shear strength, including the increased live load, at a distance d away from the
support is Vu = 60 kips = 266.7 kN. Figure 14.2 shows the shear diagram with the locations where shear strengthening is
required along the length of the beam.
Supplemental FRP shear reinforcement is designed as shown in Fig. 14.3 and summarized in Table 14.5. Each FRP strip consists
of one ply (n = 1) of a flexible carbon sheet installed by wet layup. The FRP system manufacturer’s reported material properties
are shown in Table 14.6.

Table 14.5—Configuration of the supplemental

FRP shear reinforcement
d 22 in. 55.88 cm
df 16 in. 40.64 cm
Width of each sheet wf 10 in. 25.4 cm
Span between each sheet sf 12 in. 30.48 cm
FRP strip length 70 in. 177.8 cm

Table 14.6—Manufacturer’s reported FRP system

properties
Fig. 14.2—Shear diagram showing demand versus existing
strength. The FRP reinforcement should correct the deficiency Thickness per ply, tf 0.0065 in. 0.1651 mm
shown shaded. Ultimate tensile strength ffu* 550,000 psi 3792 N/mm2
Rupture strain εfu* 0.017 in./in. 0.017 mm/mm
Modulus of elasticity Ef 33,000,000 psi 227,527 N/mm2

Fig. 14.3—Configuration of the supplemental FRP shear

reinforcement.
440.2R-38 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

The design calculations used to arrive at this configuration follow.

Procedure Calculation in inch-pound units Calculation in SI metric units

Step 1—Compute the design material
properties

The beam is located in an enclosed and

conditioned space and a CFRP material will be
used. Therefore, per Table 8.1, an environmental-
reduction factor of 0.95 is suggested.

ffu = CE ffu* ffu = (0.95)(550 ksi) = 522.5 ksi ffu = (0.95)(3.79 kN/mm2) = 3.60 kN/mm2
εfu = (0.95)(0.017) = 0.016 εfu = (0.95)(0.017) = 0.016
εfu = CE εfu*
Step 2—Calculate the effective strain level
in the FRP shear reinforcement

The effective strain in FRP U-wraps should be

determined using the bond-reduction coefficient
κv. This coefficient can be computed using Eq.
(10-7) through (10-10).

2500 - 2500 416

Le = ---------------------- Le = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.58
- = 2.0 in. Le= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- = 50.8mm
2 0.58
[ ( 1 ) ( 0.0065 in. ) ( 33 × 10 psi ) ] [ ( 1 ) ( 0.1651 mm ) ( 227.53 kN/mm ) ]
6
( nt f E f )
0.58

f c′  2 ⁄ 3 3000 psi 2 ⁄ 3 2 2⁄3

k1 =  -----------
- k1 =  -------------------- = 0.82 k1 =  ----------------------------------- 
20.68 kN/mm
= 0.82
 4000 4000 254

k2 =  ---------------------------------- = 0.875 k2 =  ---------------------------------------------------- = 0.875

16 in. – 2.0 in. 406.4 mm – 50.8 mm
k2 =  --------------
d f – L e
-
df  16 in. 406.4 mm

k1 k2 Le ( 0.82 ) ( 0.875 ) ( 2 in. ) ( 0.82 ) ( 0.875 ) ( 50.8 mm )

κ v = --------------- ≤ 0.75 κ v = -------------------------------------------------- = 0.192 ≤ 0.75 κ v = ------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.192 ≤ 0.75
468ε fu 468 ( 0.016 ) 468 ( 0.016 )

The effective strain can then be computed

using Eq. (10-6b) as follows:
εfe = 0.192(0.016) = 0.0031 ≤ 0.004 εfe = 0.192(0.016) = 0.0031 ≤ 0.004
εfe = κvεfu ≤ 0.004
Step 3—Calculate the contribution of the
FRP reinforcement to the shear strength

The area of FRP shear reinforcement can be

computed as follows:

Afv = 2nt f wf Afv = 2(1)(0.0065 in.)(10 in.) = 0.13 in.2 Afv = 2(1)(0.1651 mm)(254 mm) = 83.87 mm2
The effective stress in the FRP can be computed
from Hooke’s law.

ffe = εfeEf ffe = (0.0031)(33,000 ksi) = 102 ksi ffe = (0.0031)(227.52 kN/mm2) = 0.703 kN/mm2
The shear contribution of the FRP can be then
calculated from Eq. (10-3).

A f v f fe ( sin α + cos α )d f
V f = (--------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.13 in. ) ( 102 ksi ) ( 1 ) ( 16 in. )-
2
( 83.87 mm ) ( 0.703 kN/mm ) ( 1 ) ( 406.4 mm )
2 2
V f = ----------------------------------------------------
-
sf ( 12 in. ) V f = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
( 304.8 mm )
Vf = 17.7 kips Vf = 78.73 kN
Step 4—Calculate the shear strength of
the section

The design shear strength can be computed

from Eq. (10-2) with ψf = 0.85 for U-wraps.

φVn = φ(Vc + Vs + ψfVf ) φVn = 0.85[36.4 + 19.6 + (0.85)(17.7)] φVn = 0.85[162 + 87.2 + (0.85)(78.73)]
φVn = 60.4 kips > Vn = 60 kips φVn = 268.7 kN > Vn = 267 kN

∴ the strengthened section is capable of sustaining the ∴ the strengthened section is capable of sustaining the
required shear strength. required shear strength.
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-39

14.5—Shear strengthening of an exterior column

A 24 x 24 in. square column requires an additional 60 kips of shear strength (∆Vu = 60 kips). The column is located in an
unenclosed parking garage and experiences wide variation in temperature and climate. A method of strengthening the column
using FRP is sought.
An E-glass/epoxy FRP complete wrap is selected to retrofit the column. The properties of the FRP system, as reported by the
manufacturer, are shown in Table 14.7. The design calculations to arrive at the number of complete wraps required follow.

Procedure Calculation in inch-pound units Calculation in SI metric units

Step 1—Compute the design material
properties

The column is located in an exterior environment

and a GFRP material will be used. Therefore,
per Table 8.1, an environmental-reduction
factor of 0.65 is suggested.

ffu =CE ffu* ffu = (0.65)(80 ksi) = 52 ksi ffu = (0.65)(551.6 N/mm2) = 358.5 N/mm2
εfu = (0.65)(0.020) = 0.013 εfu = (0.65)(0.020) = 0.013
εfu =CE εfu*
Step 2—Calculate the effective strain level
in the FRP shear reinforcement

The effective strain in a complete FRP wrap

can be determined from Eq. (10-6a):

εfe = 0.004 ≤ 0.75εfu εfe = 0.004 ≤ 0.75(0.013) = 0.010 εfe = 0.004 ≤ 0.75(0.013) = 0.010

∴ use an effective strain of εfe = 0.004. ∴ use an effective strain of εfe = 0.004.
Step 3—Determine the area of FRP
reinforcement required
The required shear contribution of the FRP
reinforcement can be computed based on the
increase in strength needed, the strength-
reduction factor for shear, and a partial-
reduction factor of 0.95 for completely
wrapped sections in shear.

∆V 60 kips 266.9 kN
Vf, reqd = -----------u- Vf, reqd = -------------------------- = 74.3 kips Vf, reqd = -------------------------- = 330.5 kN
φ(ψ) 0.85 ( 0.95 ) 0.85 ( 0.95 )

The required area of FRP can be determined

by reorganizing Eq. (10-3). The required area
is left in terms of the spacing.

V f, reqd s f ( 74.3 kips )s f ( 330.5 kN )s f

Afv, reqd = -----------------------------------------------------
- Afv, reqd = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
- = 0.194sf Afv, reqd = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
ε f e E fe ( sin α + cos α )d f ( 0.004 ) ( 4000 ksi ) ( 1 ) ( 24 in. ) ( 0.004 ) ( 27.6 kN/mm ) ( 1 ) ( 609.6 mm )
2

= 4.91sf
Step 4—Determine the number of plies
and strip width and spacing
The number of plies can be determined in
terms of the strip width and spacing as follows:

A f, reqd 0.194s f s 4.91s f s

n = -------------
- - = 1.90 -----f
n = ---------------------------------- - = 1.90 -----f
n = ----------------------------------
2t f w f 2 ( 0.051 in. )w f wf 2 ( 1.29 mm )w f wf

∴ use two plies (n = 2) continuously along the height of ∴ use two plies (n = 2) continuously along the height of the
the column (sf = wf). column (sf = wf).

Table 14.7—Manufacturer’s reported FRP system

properties*
Thickness per ply tf 0.051 in. 1.29 mm
Guaranteed ultimate tensile strength ffu* 80,000 psi 551.6 N/mm2
Guaranteed rupture strain εfu* 0.020 in./in. 0.020 mm/mm
Modulus of elasticity Ef 4,000,000 psi 27,579 N/mm2
*The reported properties are laminate properties.
440.2R-40 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

CHAPTER 15—REFERENCES Canadian Standards Association (CSA)

15.1—Referenced standards and reports CSA S806-02 Design and Construction of Building Compo-
The standards and reports listed below were the latest nents with Fiber-Reinforced Polymers
editions at the time this document was prepared. Because
these documents are revised frequently, the reader is advised Code of Federal Regulations
to contact the proper sponsoring group if it is desired to refer CFR 16, Part 1500 Hazardous Substances and Articles;
to the latest version. Administration and Enforcement
Regulations
American Concrete Institute (ACI) CFR 49, Chapter C Transportation
201.1R Guide for Making a Condition Survey of Concrete
in Service International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)
216R Guide for Determining Fire Endurance of Concrete AC125 Acceptance Criteria for Concrete and Reinforced
Elements and Unreinforced Masonry Strengthening Using
224R Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures Fiber-Reinforced Composite Systems
224.1R Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in
International Concrete Repair Institute (ICRI)
Concrete Structures
ICRI 03730Guide for Surface Preparation for the Repair of
318-99 Building Code Requirements for Structural Deteriorated Concrete Resulting from Reinforcing
Concrete and Commentary Steel Corrosion
364.1R Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures Prior ICRI 03733Guide for Selecting and Specifying Materials for
to Rehabilitation Repairs of Concrete Surfaces
437R Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Buildings
440R-96 State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced International Federation for Structural Concrete
Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete FIB 2001 Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for
Structures RC Structures
440.1R Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete
Reinforced with FRP Bars These publications may be obtained from these organizations:
503R Use of Epoxy Compounds with Concrete
503.4 Standard Specification for Repairing Concrete American Concrete Institute
with Epoxy Mortars P.O. Box 9094
546R Concrete Repair Guide Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) American National Standards Institute

Z-129.1 Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Precautionary 11 West 42nd Street
Labeling New York, NY 10036

ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
100 Barr Harbor Drive
D 696 Test Method for Coefficient of Linear Thermal West Conshohocken, PA 19428
Expansion of Plastics Between –30 °C and 30 °C
D 2240 Test Method for Rubber Hardness—Durometer Canadian Standards Association
Hardness 178 Rexdale Blvd.
D 2583 Test Method for Indentation Hardness of Rigid Toronto, ON
Body Plastics by Means of a Barcol Impressor M9W 1R3 Canada
D 3039 Test Method for Tensile Properties of Fiber Resin
Composites Code of Federal Regulations
D 3165 Test Method for Strength Properties of Adhesives Government Printing Office
in Shear by Tension Loading of Single Lap Joint 732 N. Capitol St. N.W.
Laminated Assemblies Washington, D.C. 20402
D 3418 Test Method for Transition Temperatures of
Polymers by Thermal Analysis (DTA or DSC) International Conference of Building Officials
D 3528 Test Method for Strength Properties of Double 5360 Workman Mill Road
Lap Shear Adhesive Joints by Tension Loading Whittier, CA 90601-2298
D 4065 Practice for Determining and Reporting Dynamic
Mechanical Properties of Plastics International Concrete Repair Institute
D 4541 Test Method for Pull off Strength of Coatings 3166 S. River Road Suite 132
Using Portable Adhesion Tester Des Plains, IL 60018
E 84 Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics
of Building Materials International Federation for Structural Concrete
E 119 Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Build- Case Postale 88
ing Construction and Materials CH–1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-41

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440.2R-44 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table A1.1—Typical tensile properties of fibers used in FRP systems

Elastic modulus Ultimate strength
Rupture strain,
3 3
Fiber type 10 ksi GPa 10 ksi GPa minimum, %
Carbon
General purpose 32 to 34 220 to 240 300 to 550 2050 to 3790 1.2
High strength 32 to 34 220 to 240 550 to 700 3790 to 4820 1.4
Ultra-high strength 32 to 34 220 to 240 700 to 900 4820 to 6200 1.5
High modulus 50 to 75 340 to 520 250 to 450 1720 to 3100 0.5
Ultra-high modulus 75 to 100 520 to 690 200 to 350 1380 to 2400 0.2
Glass
E-glass 10 to 10.5 69 to 72 270 to 390 1860 to 2680 4.5
S-glass 12.5 to 13 86 to 90 500 to 700 3440 to 4140 5.4
Aramid
General purpose 10 to 12 69 to 83 500 to 600 3440 to 4140 2.5
High performance 16 to 18 110 to 124 500 to 600 3440 to 4140 1.6

Table A1.2—Tensile properties of FRP laminates with fiber volumes of 40 to 60%

Young’s modulus Ultimate Tensile strength
Property at 0 degrees Property at 90 degrees Property at 0 degrees Property at 90 degrees
FRP-system description Rupture strain at
(fiber orientation) 103 ksi (GPa) 103 ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) 0 degrees, %
High-strength carbon/epoxy,
degrees
0 15 to 21 (100 to 140) 0.3 to 1 (2 to 7) 150 to 350 (1020 to 2080) 5 to 10 (35 to 70) 1.0 to 1.5
0/90 8 to 11 (55 to 76) 8 to 11 (55 to 75) 100 to 150 (700 to 1020) 100 to 150 (700 to 1020) 1.0 to 1.5
+45/–45 2 to 4 (14 to 28) 2 to 4 (14 to 28) 25 to 40 (180 to 280) 25 to 40 (180 to 280) 1.5 to 2.5
E-glass/epoxy, degrees
0 3 to 6 (20 to 40) 0.3 to 1 (2 to 7) 75 to 200 (520 to 1400) 5 to 10 (35 to 70) 1.5 to 3.0
0/90 2 to 5 (14 to 34) 2 to 5 (14 to 35) 75 to 150 (520 to 1020) 75 to 150 (520 to 1020) 2.0 to 3.0
+45/–45 2 to 3 (14 to 21) 2 to 3 (14 to 20) 25 to 40 (180 to 280) 25 to 40 (180 to 280) 2.5 to 3.5
High-performance aramid/
epoxy, degrees
0 7 to 10 (48 to 68) 0.3 to 1 (2 to 7) 100 to 250 (700 to 1720) 5 to 10 (35 to 70) 2.0 to 3.0
0/90 4 to 5 (28 to 34) 4 to 5 (28 to 35) 40 to 80 (280 to 550) 40 to 80 (280 to 550) 2.0 to 3.0
+45/–45 1 to 2 (7 to 14) 1 to 2 (7 to 14) 20 to 30 (140 to 210) 20 to 30 (140 to 210) 2.0 to 3.0
Notes:
FRP composite properties are based on FRP systems having an approximate fiber volume of 50% and a composite thickness of 0.1 in. (2.5 mm). In general, precured systems have
fiber volumes of 40 to 60%, while wet layup systems have fiber volumes of 25 to 40%. Because the fiber volume influences the gross-laminate properties, precured laminates usually
have higher mechanical properties than laminates created using the wet layup technique.

Zero degrees represents unidirectional fiber orientation.

Zero/90 degrees (or +45/–45 degrees) represents fiber balanced in two orthogonal directions, where 0 degrees is the direction of loading, and 90 degrees is normal to the direction of
loading.

Tension is applied to 0 degrees direction.

APPENDIXES approximately 40 to 60%. Properties are based on gross-

APPENDIX A—MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF laminate area (Section 3.3.1). The properties are shown for
CARBON, GLASS, AND ARAMID FIBERS unidirectional, bidirectional, and +45/–45 degree fabrics.
Table A1.1 presents ranges of values for the tensile Table A1.2 also shows the effect of varying the fiber orientation
properties for carbon, glass, and aramid fibers. The tabulated on the 0 degree strength of the laminate.
values are based on the testing of impregnated fiber yarns Table A1.3 gives the tensile strengths of some commercially
or strands in accordance with Suppliers of Advanced available FRP systems. The strength of unidirectional laminates
Composite Materials Association test method 16-90. The is dependent on fiber type and dry fabric weight.
strands or fiber yarns are impregnated with resin, cured, These tables are not intended to provide ultimate strength
and then tested in tension. The tabulated properties are values for design purposes.
calculated using the area of the fibers; the resin area is ignored.
Hence, the properties listed in Table A1.1 are representative of APPENDIX B—SUMMARY OF STANDARD
unidirectional FRP systems whose properties are reported TEST METHODS
using net-fiber area (Section 3.3.1). ASTM test methods that quantify the structural behavior
Table A1.2 presents ranges of tensile properties for of FRP systems bonded to concrete are in preparation.
CFRP, GFRP, and AFRP laminates with fiber volumes of Certain existing ASTM test methods are applicable to the
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS 440.2R-45

Table A1.3—Ultimate tensile strength* of some Table B1.1—Test methods for FRP-material
commercially available FRP systems systems
Ultimate FRP form Property Test method
Fabric weight strength† Tensile strength, strain
FRP-system description ISIS, ASTM D 3039
elastic modulus
(fiber type/saturating resin/fabric type) oz/yd3 g/m3 lb/in. kN/mm
Sheet to sheet-adhesive shear ISIS
General purpose carbon/epoxy 6 200 2600 500
unidirectional sheet Sheet to concrete-adhesive shear ISIS
12 400 3550 620
Sheet and Sheet to concrete-adhesive tension ISIS
7 230 1800 320
High-strength carbon/epoxy prepreg Coefficient of thermal expansion ASTM D 696
9 300 4000 700
unidirectional sheet Glass-transition temperature ASTM D 4065
18 620 5500 960
ASTM D 2583, D 2240,
High-modulus carbon/epoxy Surface hardness
9 300 3400 600 D 3418
unidirectional sheet
Hoop-ring strength ISIS
General-purpose carbon/epoxy 9 300 1000 180
balanced sheet Tensile strength, strain,
ISIS, ASTM D 3039
elastic modulus
27 900 4100 720
E-glass/epoxy unidirectional sheet ISIS, ASTM D 3165,
10 350 1300 230 Flatstock to flatstock-adhesive shear D 3528
E-glass/balanced fabric 9 300 680 120 Flatstock to concrete-adhesive shear ISIS
Aramid/epoxy unidirectional sheet 12 420 4000 700 Flat stock Flatstock to concrete-adhesive tension ISIS
High-strength carbon/epoxy precured,
unidirectional laminate 70‡ 2380‡ 19,000 3300 Coefficient of thermal expansion ASTM D 696
Glass-transition temperature ASTM D 4065
E-glass/vinyl ester precured,
unidirectional shell 50‡ 1700‡ 9000 1580 ASTM D 2583, D 2240,
Surface hardness
* D 3418
Values shown should not be used for design.
†
Ultimate tensile strength per unit width of sheet or fabric. Tensile strength, strain, elastic
ISIS, ASTM D 3039
‡Precured laminate weight. modulus

Shell to shell-adhesive shear ISIS, ASTM D 3165,

Pre- D 3528
FRP material. FRP materials can be tested in accordance
molded Shell to concrete-adhesive shear ISIS
with the methods listed in Table B1.1 as long as all exceptions shell
to the method are listed in the test report. Durability-related Shell to concrete-adhesive tension ISIS
tests use the same test methods but require application specific Coefficient of thermal expansion ASTM D 696
preconditioning of specimens. Acceptance of the data Glass-transition temperature ASTM D 4065
generated by the listed test methods can be the basis for
FRP-material system qualification and acceptance.

APPENDIX C—AREAS OF FUTURE RESEARCH • Effects of concrete strength on behavior of FRP

As pointed out in the body of the document, future research is strengthened members;
needed to provide information in areas that are still unclear • Effects of lightweight concrete on behavior of FRP
or are in need of additional evidence to validate performance. strengthened members;
The list of topics presented in this appendix has the purpose • Behavior of flexural members with tension and
of providing a summary. compression FRP reinforcement;
Materials • Maximum crack width and deflection prediction and
• Confirmation of normal (Gaussian) distribution repre- control of concrete reinforced with FRP systems; and
senting the tensile strength of a population of FRP • Long-term deflection behavior of concrete flexural
strengthening systems; members reinforced with FRP systems.
• Methods of fireproofing FRP strengthening systems; Shear
• Behavior of FRP strengthened members under elevated • Concrete contribution to shear resistance of members
temperatures; strengthened with FRP systems;
• Behavior of FRP strengthened members under cold • Effective strain of FRP systems that do not completely
temperatures; wrap around the section; and
• Fire rating of concrete members reinforced with • Use of FRP systems for punching shear reinforcement
FRP bars; in two-way systems.
• Effect of different coefficients of thermal expansion Detailing
between FRP systems and member substrates; • Performance of FRP anchors.
• Creep-rupture behavior and endurance times of FRP The design guide specifically indicated that test methods
systems; and are needed to determine the following properties of FRP
• Strength and stiffness degradation of FRP systems in bars:
harsh environments. • Bond characteristics and related bond-dependent
Flexure/axial force coefficients;
• Compression behavior of noncircular members • Creep-rupture and endurance times;
wrapped with FRP systems; • Fatigue characteristics;
• Behavior of members strengthened with FRP systems • Coefficient of thermal expansion;
oriented in the direction of the applied axial load; • Shear strength; and
• Refinement of effective strain for flexure; • Compressive strength.