The University of

Duhok
Tower and signals

Lecture 10
Towers and signals
By: Dr. Farsat Heeto

December, 2018
Earth curvature and refraction
 The effect of earth curvature and refraction
horizon ℎ1 + 𝑅 2 = 𝐿2 + 𝑅2
ℎ12 + 2𝑅ℎ1 + 𝑅2 = 𝐿2 + 𝑅2
90° h1 ℎ1 + 2𝑅 = 𝐿2
L
h1 𝐿2 𝐿2
ℎ1 = → ℎ1 =
2𝑅 + ℎ1 2𝑅
B Ignore because is very small
R 𝒉𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟖𝟓 × 𝑳𝟐
to Radius of the Earth

𝜔
Curvature and refraction P

 Curvature and refraction

𝜔
 𝜃 =∁×𝜓 θ
P1
 ∁ = coefficient of refraction
P1
 𝜃= refraction angle P1
 𝜔= angle between chord and tangent 𝜓

 ∁=0.07 for sights over land, and 0.08 for sight over sea.
 𝜓 = 2𝜔
 𝜃 = 2∁𝜔, error in direction equals double error in angles
ℎ2 ℎ1 𝜃 2∁𝜔
 = → ℎ2 = ℎ1 → ℎ2 = ℎ1 → ℎ2 = 2∁ℎ1
𝜃 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
 ℎ2 = 0.14ℎ1 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
 Combine both effect
 Combine effect of curvature and refraction
 ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2 → ℎ = ℎ1 − 2𝐶ℎ1
 ℎ = ℎ1 1 − 2∁
𝐿2
 ℎ= 1 − 2∁
2𝑅
 ℎ𝑚 = 0.0675 𝐿2 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚

ℎ1 + 𝑅 2 = 𝐿2 + 𝑅2
ℎ12 + 2𝑅ℎ1 + 𝑅2 = 𝐿2 + 𝑅2
h1 ℎ1 + 2𝑅 = 𝐿2
𝐿2 𝐿2
ℎ1 = → ℎ1 =
2𝑅 + ℎ1 2𝑅
 Example
 Example: Two points P1 and P2 represent one line of the triangulation network.
They have the same height above M.S.L and the distance between them 18 km.
Determine the required height for the expected Tower to be build and to be
mutual vision.

A 9 9 B 3
m
18 km 18 km

 ℎ𝐵 = 0.0675 𝐿2 → ℎ𝐵 = 21.87 𝑚
 The line of sight should be taken at least 3 m above the point of tangency of the
Earth’s surface to avoid grazing rays in flat area. And 5m for terrain area. This
vertical distance called safe distance
 ℎ𝐵 = 21.87 𝑚+ 3m = 24.87 .
 For more economic the mid of distance for both station will be taken.
 ℎ = 0.0675 (9)2 → ℎ = 5.47 𝑚 + 3𝑚 = 8.47 ≅ 8.5𝑚
 Towers
 For the purpose of identifying these features and obstacles correctly to come to the
sites in the field must take into account the earth curvature and the impact of
refractions to the line of vision to determine the minimum height of towers that
will be built on these points when necessary.
 To calculate the height of the line of sight to pass correctly above the features to
achieve a sound vision between the two points we follow.
C B
𝐻𝐵 − 𝐻𝐴
A h ℎ = 𝑆1
Hc1 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
Co ℎ = 𝐻𝑐1 + 𝑎 − 𝐻𝐴
HB 𝐻𝐵 − 𝐻𝐴
a 𝐻𝑐1 = 𝐻𝐴 + 𝑆1 −𝑎
s2 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
HA s1 C Bo
Ao Co
𝑎 𝑆2 a
= Ao s1 s2 Bo
𝑆1 (2𝑅 − 𝑎)
R
𝑆1.𝑆2 𝟏
𝑎 = 2𝑅−𝑎 → 𝒂 = 𝟐𝑹 𝑺𝟏. 𝑺𝟐 2R-a
 Tower
 Refraction must taken into account
1−𝐾
 𝑎= 𝑆1. 𝑆2 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 = 2𝐶 = 0.14
2𝑅
𝐻𝐵 −𝐻𝐴 1−𝐾
 𝐻𝑐1 = 𝐻𝐴 + 𝑆1 − 𝑆1. 𝑆2
𝑆1+𝑆2 2𝑅
0.0675

5m
C
B
C1
A Hc1 Hc HB
HA s1 s2
Ao Co
 𝐻𝑐 = 𝐻𝑐1 + 𝑐1𝑐 + 5𝑚 Bo
 𝑐1𝑐 = 𝐻𝑐 − 𝐻𝑐1
Inter-visibility of triangulation stations
The University of

Duhok
 Inter-visibility of triangulation stations
 Determination of inter-visibility of triangulation stations
Case I: Inter-visibility not obstructed by intervening ground
 The distance of visible horizon from the station of known elevation is
calculated from the following formula.
𝐷2
 ℎ= (1 − 2𝐶)
2𝑅
h = height of the station above datum
D = distance of visible horizon.
R = Earth’s mean radius, and
C = mean coefficient of refraction taken as 0.07 for sights over land,
and 0.08 for sight over sea.
 Substituting the values of m as 0.071 and R as 6370 km in previous
Eq., the value of h in meters is given by
 h = 0.06735 D2 , where D is in kilometers
 Example
 Example: In Fig. below, the distance between two stations A
and B of heights hA and hB , respectively,. If DA and DB are
the distances of visible horizon from A and B, respectively, we
have.
ℎ𝐴
 𝐷𝐴 = = 3.853 ℎ𝐴
0.06735

Inter-visibility not obstructed by

intervening ground
 We have D = DA + DB or DB = D − DA
 For the known distance of visible horizon DB as above, the height of
station B is computed. If the computed value is h'B , then
 h'B = 0.06735 DB2
Example cont.
 The computed value of height h'B is compared with the
known value hB as below:
 If hB ≥ h'B , the station B will be visible from A, and
 If hB <h'B, the station B will not be visible from A.
 If B is not visible from A, (h'B−hB) is the required amount of
height of signal to be erected at B.
 While deciding the inter-ivisibility of various stations, the
line of sight should be taken at least 3 m above the point
of tangency T of the Earth’s surface to avoid grazing rays.
Case II
Case II: Inter-visibility obstructed by intervening ground
 Example: Two stations A and B, 80 km apart, have elevations 15
m and 270 m above mean sea level, respectively. Calculate the
minimum height of the signal at B.
 Solution: (Fig. below) it is given that
 hA = 15 m ; hB = 270 m; D = 80 km
Case II cont.
 From previous equation, we get.

𝐷𝐴 = 3.853 ℎ𝐴 = 3.853 ∗ 15 = 14.92 𝑘𝑚

 𝐷𝐵 = 𝐷 − 𝐷𝐴 = 80 -14.92 = 65.08 m
 Therefore, ℎ′𝐵 = 0.06735 𝐷𝐵2
 ℎ′ 𝐵 = 0.06735 ∗ (65.08)2 = 𝟐𝟖𝟓. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎
 Since the elevation of B is 270 m,
 The height of signal required at B, is = 285.25 -270 = 15.5 m
 Station mark
Stabilization and signalization of Horizontal control points
 The triangulation stations should be permanently marked on the ground so that the
theodolite and signal may be centered accurately over them.
The following points should be considered while marking the exact
position of a triangulation station.
1. The station should be marked on perfectly stable foundation or rock.
2. A hole 10 to 15 cm deep is made in the rock and a copper or iron bolt is fixed
with cement.
10 m
R.M.W R.M.E
10 m
10 m
25 cm dia.
Monument 10 m
10 cm

Tablet
Stone 10 m
Signal
 Signals are centered vertically over the station mark, and the observations are
made to these signals from other stations.
 The accuracy of triangulation is entirely dependent on the degree of accuracy of
centering the signals.
 Therefore, it is very essential that the signals are truly vertical, and centered
over the station mark.
 A signal should fulfil the following requirements :
1. It should be conspicuous and clearly visible against any background. it needs
at least 75 cm above the station mark.
2. It should be capable of being accurately centered over the station mark.
3. It should be suitable for accurate bisection from other stations.
4. It should be free from phase, or should exhibit little phase
 Classification of signals
 Non-luminous signal
 Pole signal
 Target signal
used during day time
 Pole and brush signal
and for short distances
 Stone cairn
 Beacons
Pole signal Target signal
 Luminous signals
 Sun signals
White
 Night signals. 3m
Red 1.7 m
 oil lamps for sights less than 80 km.
 Acetylene lamp for sight more than 80km
 Magnesium lamp, for long sights
Beacon Pole and
 Drummond’s light brush signal Stone cairn
 Electric lamp
Towers
 A tower is erected at the triangulation station when the station or the signal or
both are to be elevated to make the observations possible form other stations in
case of problem of intervisibility.
Lamp
 The height of tower depends upon
windows
 the character of the terrain and
 the length of the sight.
Screen
 E.g. Bibly tower, USA, 30-40 m height and weight 30 ton
Outer tower
(with Bracings)
Inner tower
Setting out
(without Bracin
Theodolite

Bibly tower
Error in station mark
∆𝛼″×𝐿
 𝑟𝑠 =
𝜌″

∆𝛼″
𝑛

 Least reading in the theodolite 1″, if distance 1000 000 m

1″ ×1000000
 𝑟𝑠 = = 4.8𝑐𝑚 ≈ 5𝑐𝑚
206265
 Diameter= 2*5=10 cm
 Phase of a Signal
S
1. Observation made on bright portion
θ
 β = the phase correction r P
1
A
 𝛼2 − 𝛼1 θ
2 C
1 F
 𝜷 = 𝛼1 + 𝛼 → 𝛽 = 𝛼1 + (𝛼2 − 𝛼1 ) B
2
1
α Face correction
 𝜷= (𝛼1 + 𝛼2 ) β
2
𝑟
 From Δ OAP ; 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 = α1
𝐷 D
𝒓 α2
 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 ≅ 𝛼2 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 → 𝜶𝟐 =
𝑫
𝐵𝐹
 From Δ BFO; 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 =
𝐷
S
 𝑩𝑭 = 𝒓 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽)
𝒓×𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟗𝟎−𝜽)
θ
 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 = ; 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 = 𝛼1 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝐷
1 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟 180° O
 𝜷= + = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑 × = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
2 𝐷 𝐷 𝜋
Phase of a Signal
2. Observations made on the bright line
SC//S1O
𝛼 = 180° − 𝜃 − 𝛽
1 θ
𝛾 = 180° − 𝛼
2
1
𝛾=180° − 180° − 𝜃 − 𝛽 γφ
2
1 α
𝛾=90° + 𝜃−𝛽
2
1
𝜑=180° − 𝛽 + 𝛾 ; 𝜑=180° − 𝛽 + 90° + 𝜃−𝛽
2
1
𝜑=90° − 𝛽+𝜃 , 𝛽 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙
2
1
𝜑=90° − 𝜃, from ΔCFP, CF= r sinφ
2
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = ;
𝐷
PF being very small compared to OP, OF may be taken as OP
Phase correction cont.
1
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 90−2𝜃 𝜃
 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 − = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 P
𝐷 2
𝜃
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = = value in radian
𝐷 S1
 The phase correction β is applied to the Observed
β
horizontal angles in the following manner
θ′1 θ′2
S1, S2, P, and O are four stations. The observer is at O, S2
and the angles S1OP and POS2 have been measured from O θ1 θ2
as θ1′ and θ′2 , respectively.
If the required corrected angles are θ1 and θ2 , then
𝜃1 = 𝜃′1 + 𝛽 O
𝜃2 = 𝜃′1 + 𝛽
when β is the phase correction. While applying the corrections
the directions of the phase correction, and the observed stations with respect to the
line OP, must be noted carefully.
Questions
1. If the length of measured base line=30201.245 m and computed base line =
30201.372 m. standard error for every points 0.015m for each 50 km.
Determine the strength of figure network. Calculate the standard error in
logarithm of side which comes after three figures form the net consider the
figures are the same.
2. Compute the effect of sag per tape length for the two tapes using tension of 20
and 40 lb and distance between supports of 25 and 100 ft.
3. A line measured with the tape being supported at interval of 50 ft and the pull
being 20 lb the measured and variation in tension and determine the correct
length of the line.
4. A cylindrical signal of diameter 4 m, was erected at station B. Observations were
made on the signal from station A. Calculate the phase corrections when the
observations were made
1. on the bright portion, and
2. on the bright line.
Consider the distance AB as 6950 m, and the Azimuth of the sun and the station B as
315° and 35°, respectively. (Not included leave it.)
Quiz 14/01/2018
1. Two stations A and B, 80 km apart, have elevations 15 m and 270
m above mean sea level, respectively. Calculate the minimum
height of the signal at B.

2. The signal leaves the EDM at 0° phase on point A, goes

thru 641 number of full phases on its way to and from the
reflector at point B, and returns to the EDM at 60º angle
between 0° and 360° creating a partial wavelength. If the
velocity of the wave length in a vacuum at frequency of 50 MHz,
calculate the adjusted distance between EDM and reflector.
Quiz 14/01/2018
 There are two stations P and Q at elevations of 200 m and
995 m, respectively. The distance of Q from P is 105 km. If
the elevation of a peak M at a distance of 38 km from P is 301
m, determine whether Q is visible from P or not. If not, what
would be the height of tower required at Q so that Q becomes
visible from P ?