Chap 12: DNA - Genetic Material

QOD
1.  Draw and label a nucleotide.
2.  What are the 4 bases and how do they pair?
3.  Draw and label a strand of DNA.
Matching
Matching:
a.  Sequence of three bases on transfer RNA
b.  A purine in DNA that pairs only with thymine
c.  Process of making messenger RNA
D 1.  mutagen d.  Examples: ultraviolet light and x-rays
N 2.  thymine e.  A pyrimidine in RNA that pairs only with adenine
A 3.  anticodon f.  Subunit of a DNA molecule, made of a base, a
B 4.  adenine sugar, and a phosphate group
K 5.  cytosine g.  A purine in DNA that pairs only with cytosine
G 6.  guanine h.  A structure in the cytoplasm where proteins are
I 7.  genetic code synthesized
M 8.  replication i.  Manner in which cells store the information that
F 9.  nucleotide they pass from one generation to the next.
E 10. uracil j.  Process of converting genetic code in RNA into
C 11. transcription the amino acid sequence that makes up a
L 12. double helix protein
J 13. translation k.  A pyrimidine in DNA that pairs only with guanine
H 14. ribosome l.  The structure of DNA molecule
m.  Process of making copies of DNA
n.  A pyrimidine in DNA that pairs only with adenine
 Nucleotide: basic unit of nucleic acid
Nitrogen Base
Phosphate

Sugar
 Types of Bases:

Purine Pyrimidine

Adenise Guanine Cytosine Thymine Uracil

The order of bases are the instructions for what

organism you are, and what you look like = your
genetics
Base  Pairing!      
Adenine  with    Thymine  
 -­‐  double  H  bond  
Guanine  with  Cytosine  
 -­‐  triple  H  bond  

This is called:
complimentary base
pairs
 1

3
Sugar Phosphate

Covalent
Bond
Backbone

Hydrogen Bond
Covalent Bond: between the phosphate and sugar,
stronger bond
Hydrogen Bond: between nitrogen bases, weaker
13.1 – THE GENETIC MATERIAL
Finding the molecule…..the material must be…

1. Able to store information that pertains to

the development, structure and metabolic
activities of the cell
2. Stable so that it can be replicated
3. Able to undergo changes (mutations)
1869 – Discovering Nucleic Acids
• Swiss Physician, Johannes Friedrich
Miescher isolated the chemical he called “nuclein”
from the nuclei of pus cells

• Now called nucleic acids

§  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
§  RNA (ribonucleic acid)
THE BIG QUESTION
Is it nucleic acids that contain the genetic
code or is it proteins?

Proteins contain 20 amino acids that can be

organized in countless ways to determine traits

Nucleic acids only contained 4 different nucleotides

TRANSFORMATION OF BACTERIA

Frederick Griffith
attempted to find a
vaccine against
pneumococcus

He found that one type

of bacteria could turn
into another
Figure 13.1a
Figure 13.1b
Figure 13.1c
Figure 13.1d
DNA WAS DETERMINED TO BE THE
TRANSFORMING SUBSTANCE

Conclusions:
• DNA from S strain bacteria causes R strain to
be transformed
• Enzymes that degrade proteins will not stop
the transformation
• Enzymes that degrade DNA does stop the
transformation
Transformation Animation Activity
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
Experiments
Bacteriophages – viruses that infect bacteria

• Consist of a protein capsid

• And a core of DNA (or RNA)
• Experiments used radioactive sulfur to tag the
protein
• And radioactive phosphorous to tag the DNA
• The goal was to see which substance (protein or DNA) moved into the
infected cell
Figure 13.2

[Link]
Figure 13.2a
Figure 13.2b
Figure 13.3a

Conclusion: The radioactive tag on the

DNA went into the bacteria
Figure 13.3b

Conclusion: The radioactive tag on the protein did not

go into the bacteria

Animation of the Hershey and Chase Experiment

THE RACE IS ON!
Who will be the first to discover the structure of
DNA?
The Race to Establish the Structure of DNA
The players::

Secret of life
- Start at 38

Wilkins

cChargaff
Examine the data below. Do you notice
a pattern?
So did Erwin Chargaff...
-noticed that all a species had similar
ratios of A, T, G, C

Chargaff’s Rule

Amount of A, T, G, C varies by species,

but
A=T
G=C
ROSALIND FRANKLIN & WILKENS
Took pictures of DNA using X-RAY DIFFRACTION
DNA
WATSON & CRICK
Figure 13.6d
DNA:
THE DOUBLE HELIX

Steps of ladder are bases

(A, T, G, C)

Sides of ladder are sugar &

phosphate

Both sides held together by

hydrogen bonds
 5' and 3' ends
5'

4'
1'

3' 2'

2' 3'

1' 4'

5'

Each side is antiparallel, the numbers

represent the carbons attached in a
ring to make deoxyribose
5’ and 3’ ENDS

Each Side is ANTIPARALLEL

DNA DOUBLE HELIX - origami
Origami template
DNA REPLICATION
-the process by which DNA
makes a copy of itself
-occurs during interphase,
prior to cell division
-location: nucleus

Replication is called semi-

conservative, because one
half of the original strand is
always saved, or
"conserved“
 Helicase DNA Replication
The process:
1. DNA “unwinds” , DNA
“unzips” at the Hydrogen bonds
DNA
− by the enzyme Helicase.
polymerase
2. Complimentary bases added
form 3’ to 5’ end for form a new
half.
-by enzyme DNA polymerase.
− Ligase : enzyme that
connects the fragments
together. glue
 3. Mismatch repair
where damaged DNA is
Helicase
taken out by DNA
nuclease
DNA 4. DNA Polymerase is
polymerase
released. The DNA zips
back up and then
rewinds.

Two identical
strands of
identical DNA
are formed.
Replication fork: There are multiple replication forks all down the strand.
Figure 13.9a
 [Link]

DNA helicase= unzips

replication fork= area were “unzip” occurs
DNA polymerase: adds nucleotides and binds the
sugars and phosphates.
***DNA polymerase travels from the 3' to the 5' end. The
DNA is called the template strand.***

leading strand – side that follows the helicase as it

unwinds.
lagging strand - its moving away from the helicase (in
the 5' to 3' direction).
OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS are bound by DNA LIGASE
Other vocab
Okazaki fragment: a string of nucleotides
added to the lagging size at once

RNA primer: locates the area where DNA

polymerase bind and will start

Telomeres: nonsense DNA at end of

chromosome to protect from loss of
genes
Pg 235
 DNA replication video

[Link]
Figure 13Ac
Animations and Videos of DNA REPLICATION

DNA Replication at [Link]

How Nucleotides are Added in DNA Replication (mcgraw-hill)

DNA Replication Tutorial at [Link]

DNA Replication Fork at [Link]

GENES SPECIFY ENZYMES
QOD

1.  Compare and contrast DNA and RNA

- may want to use a table or visual diagram
2.  Define the following:
Okazaki fragment:
RNA primer:
Telomeres:
There are 2 Types of Nucleic Acids:
DNA RNA
1. Monomers are nucleotides. 1. Monomers are nucleotides.
2. Each nucleotide has 3 parts: 2. Each nucleotide has 3 parts:
a. Phosphate group a. Phosphate group
b. Deoxyribose, a 5-carbon sugar b. Ribose, a 5-carbon sugar
c. Nitrogenous base: c. Nitrogenous base:
*adenine – thymine *adenine – uracil
*cytosine - guanine *cytosine - guanine
3.  Double Stranded 3. Single Stranded
4. Only in nucleus 4. May leave nucleus

Okazaki fragment: a string of nucleotides added to the

lagging size at once
RNA primer: locates the area where DNA polymerase bind
and will start
Telomeres: nonsense DNA at end of chromosome to
protect from loss of genes
!
 Chapter 10
RNA Structure and Function
Cells have three major types of
RNA:
1. mRNA carries the genetic
“message” from the nucleus to
the cytosol.
2. tRNA carries specific amino
acids, helping to form
polypeptides.
3. rRNA is the major component
of ribosomes.
GENES SPECIFY PROTEINS
Figure 14.3

RNA is a lot like DNA,

except:

1. Ribose
2. Uracil
3. Single Strand

*Can leave the nucleus,

carries the "message"
The Central
Dogma

DNA

RNA

Amino Acid
(Protein)
Figure 14.5

Every 3 bases on
mRNA (messenger
RNA) is called a
CODON

Each CODON
specifies one AMINO
ACID

Chains of amino acids

are proteins
(ex. hemoglobin)
Protein Synthesis: Transcription
The Process:
1.  RNA polymerase attaches to the
DNA molecule at the promoter –
the “start signal”.
The DNA “unwinds” and
“unzips” in one region,
exposing the gene.
(-Gene: a piece of DNA that
codes for a protein.)
2. Complimentary bases form a
new mRNA molecule.
3. RNA polymerase reaches the
termination signal or mRNA
transcript- the “stop signal”.
4.  The DNA “re-winds” and “re-
zips” The mRNA can now leave
the nucleus..
Transcription

gene

RNA
molecules

DNA
Transcription Questions
4. DNA mRNA

A-
1.  Where does transcription occur?
T-
2.  What is the main idea of transcription? T-
3.  What is the name of the enzyme that C-
catalyzes transcription? C-
4. What would the complimentary mRNA A-
bases for the DNA (to the right) molecule T -
be?
A-
C-
G-
T-
A-
Transcription Questions 4.
DNA mRNA
1. Where does transcription occur? A- U
In the nucleus. T- A
2. What is the main idea of transcription? T - A
DNA is copied onto a complementary C - G
strand of mRNA.
C- G
3. What is the name of the enzyme that
A- U
catalyzes transcription?
T- A
RNA polymerase.
A- U
4. What would the complimentary mRNA
bases for the DNA (to the right) C- G
molecule be? G- C
T- A
A- U
Transcription Animations
[Link]
[Link]
Transcription: [Link]
Transcription: [Link]
 Levels of Protein Structure –

1. Primary Protein Structure- The

sequence of the amino acid chain."

2. Secondary Protein Structure-

Twisting of the amino acid chain."

3. Tertiary Protein Structure- folding of

the amino acid chain."

4. Quaternary Protein Structure-

consists of more than one amino acid
chain. "
Translation: process by which protein
is built from the mRNA
tRNA is used
to build an
amino acid
chain

Each 3 bases
on mRNA
codes for a
single amino
acid.
3 bases on mRNA
= a codon

Matching 3 bases
on tRNA
= anticodon

tRNA has a single

attached amino
acid
 UUU AAA

CAG GUC

AUG

AUG is the codon that codes to start transcription

Amino Acid from mRNA codon
2nd Base

1st 3rd base

base

U
C
A
G

Phenylalanine
Serine
Tyrosine
Cysteine
U

Phenylalanine
Serine
Tyrosine
Cysteine
C

U

Leucine
Serine
Stop Codon
Stop codon
A

Leucine
Serine
Stop Codon
Tryptophan
G

Leucine
Proline
Histidine
Arginine U

Leucine
Proline
Histidine
Arginine
C

C

Leucine
Proline
Glutamine
Arginine
A

Leucine
Proline
Glutamine
Arginine
G

Isoleucine
Threonine
Asparagine
Serine
U

Isoleucine
Threonine
Asparagine
Serine
C

A

Isoleucine
Threonine Lysine
Arginine
A

Methionine
Threonine
Lysine
Arginine
G

Valine
Alanine
Aspartic Acid
Glycine
U

Valine
Alanine
Aspartic Acid Glycine
C

G

Valine
Alanine Glutamic Acid Glycine
A

Valine
Alanine
Glutamic Acid
Glycine
G

Translation occurs on the ribosome

mRNA is threaded through the small and large subunit

Figure 14.10b
All genes start
with AUG, also
called the START
CODON

It attaches to
anticodon UAC
and the amino
acid methionine
Translation
The process:
1. Initiation- mRNA attaches to a
ribosome- tRNA attaches to the
start codon
2. Elongation-A tRNA with an amino
acid joins with mRNA according
to complementary base pairing
(codons to anticodons)
-The amino acid joins the peptide
chain by forming a peptide bond.
Elongation (cont.)- The tRNA is
released into the cytoplasm
-The next tRNA is positioned, the
polypeptide chain grows.
3. Termination- the process ends
when a stop codon is reached
(4). Disassembly- the ribosome falls
apart and the protein is released.
2. Elongation-A tRNA with an amino acid joins with mRNA according
to complementary base pairing (codons to anticodons)
-The amino acid joins the peptide chain by forming a peptide
bond.
Elongation (cont.)- The tRNA is released into the cytoplasm
-The next tRNA is positioned, the polypeptide chain grows.

Figure 14.12
Figure 14.13

3. Termination- the
process ends
when a stop
codon is
reached
(4). Disassembly-
the ribosome
falls
apart and the
protein is
released.

[Link]
The Big Picture (aka The Central Dogma)
DNA èRNA èProtein
Figure 14.4
Animations of Translation
Translation: [Link]

Translation: University of Nebraska

Translation: [Link]
Introns: “noncoding” lie between exons, are cut out before the
gene is translated
Complete mRNA contains:
Exons: “coding mRNA” the parts of the gene that will represent
the codons for creating the protein “exit the nucleus”
poly(A) tail: protects the mRNA molecule from enzymatic
degradation in the cytoplasm and aids in transcription
termination
Start and stop codons
 RNA
Transcript:
In between step
of RNA that
include introns
and exons
Aka
pre-mRNA

Exon - RNA sequences in the primary transcript that are found in the mRNA
Intron - RNA sequences between exons that are removed by splicing, not in final mRNA
AUG
CAG
GGC
 Translation in Prokaryotes

Transcription & translation are simultaneous in bacteria

DNA is in
cytoplasm
no mRNA
editing
ribosomes
read mRNA
as it is being
transcribed
Translation: prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes
Differences between prokaryotes & eukaryotes
time & physical separation between processes
takes eukaryote ~1 hour
from DNA to protein
no RNA processing
 Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote genes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
DNA in cytoplasm DNA in nucleus
circular chromosome linear chromosomes
naked DNA DNA wound on histone
proteins
no introns introns vs. exons

intron = noncoding (inbetween) sequence

eukaryotic
DNA

exon = coding (expressed) sequence

QOD

6. What process does this picture show?

7. Is this a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell?