Flexible AC Transmission Systems

FACTS is defined by the IEEE as “A power electronic based system and other static
equipment that provide control of one or more ac transmission system parameters
to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability.

From: Power System Small Signal Stability Analysis and Control, 2014

Related terms:

Electric Lines, Power Electronics, Static Synchronous Compensators, Reactive Pow-

er, Transformers, Compensator, Power Flow

View all Topics

Introduction
Abhinav Kumar Singh, Bikash C. Pal, in Dynamic Estimation and Control of Power
Systems, 2019

1.1.3 Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)

FACTS devices are static power-electronic devices installed in AC transmission
networks to increase power transfer capability, stability, and controllability of the
networks through series and/or shunt compensation [19]. These devices are also
employed for congestion management and loss optimization. The static synchro-
nous series compensator (SSSC) and thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC) are
some of the FACTS control devices which provide series compensation to reactance
of the lines to which they are connected, while the static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM) and static VAR compensator (SVC) (where VAR stands for volt–ampere
reactive) are FACTS devices which provide shunt compensation to transmission lines.
FACTS control devices also provide adequate damping of interarea oscillations by
acting as actuators in robust control schemes and PMU-based wide-area control
schemes [7,19].

> Read full chapter

Summary
YIN Jijun, ... LI Peng, in Unified Power Flow Controller Technology and Application,
2017

1.1.3 Typical FACTS Device Classification and Principle

FACTS technology is an energy conversion, transmission and control technology that
uses high power semiconductor switching devices. It is a high-tech area based on the
development of high-voltage and large-current electronic switching devices. Facing
electric power systems, it integrates manufacturing technology, modern control
technology, and the traditional power grid technology, and has become the core of
FACTS. Further development of this technology will lead to a revolutionary change
in power systems, greatly improve the level of security and stability of transmission
lines as well as power transmission capacity, and greatly improve system reliability
and operational flexibility. It can even replace the traditional mechanical breaker
power electronic switches, making the traditional power system as easy to control as
electronic circuits. Based on its structure, a FACTS device can be classified as shunt,
series, and hybrid.

[Link] Shunt FACTS

Shunt FACTS include the SVC, the STATCOM, the magnetic shunt reactor, grading
controllable shunt reactors, the thyristor controlled reactor, the thyristor switched
capacitor, thyristor switched reactors, and others. Taking the SVC and STATCOM,
e.g., the basic principle can be explained as follows:

1. The SVC controls specific parameters of the power system by adjusting the
output of capacitive or inductive current. The SVC has been successfully
applied to improving transient stability of synchronous motors and has be-
come an important technical means of overcoming the bottleneck of power
transmission. There are nearly 20 sets of SVCs put into operation in China,
with a single set of maximum capacity 180 Mvar. SVCs can be applied to
power systems at all levels, improving the transmission capacity and power
transmission efficiency of the grid and thus improving power quality
and grid stability. But when the voltage drops, there will be a problem of
severe compensating capacity shortage and harmonic interference, which is
effectively solved in STATCOM (Fig. 1.1).Figure 1.1. Thyristor control structure
of SVC.
2. The STATCOM is the core of the FACTS family and compared with con-
ventional compensation devices, it is small in size, with good low voltage
characteristics and fast response, making it the hotspot of research in the
reactive power control field. It is a static synchronous generator in parallel
on the system and by controlling the capacitive or inductive output current,
it is able to improve the safety and stability of the power system as well as
bringing huge economic and social benefits to the power industry. Based on
the STATCOM’s damping characteristics, different methods can be designed
for its damping controller, such as pole placement, multivariable feedback
linearization, H∞ control (with good robust design methods), and intelligent
control methods. In 2006, China’s first set of 50 Mvar STATCOM was put into
operation in Shanghai.

[Link] Series FACTS

Series FACTS include the thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC), the thyristor
switched series capacitor, the static synchronous series compensator (SSSC), the fault
current limiter (FCL), the thyristor controlled phase modulator (TCPAR), etc. Taking
TCSC, SSSC, FCL, e.g., to explain the basic principle as follows:

1. The TCSC is based on the conventional Series Compensation technology.

When used to improve system stability and line transmission capacity, it can
also damp SSR and low frequency oscillation and reduce line losses. China
began research on TCSC technology in the 1990s, and the first localization
TCSC project was successfully put into operation at the end of 2004. So far,
more than 33 sets of TCSC have been independently developed and used in
China, with a total capacity up to 10.87 Gvar (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3).Figure 1.2.
Basic structure of [Link] 1.3. Basic structure of TCSC.
2. The SSSC has no external power supply, and its output voltage vector is orthog-
onal to the line current, so the voltage and current control are independent.
The power transmission is controlled by increasing or reducing the inductive
voltage. Transient energy storage devices may be included in the SSSC and
when the additional instantaneous active power is compensated for to enhance
the system’s dynamic performance, the resistive voltage of the transmission
line may also increase or decrease. There are no separate SSSC devices in the
world, but they have been widely used in various studies of power oscillation
damping and power flow control in the grid (Fig. 1.4).Figure 1.4. Structure of
SSSC.
3. The basic principle of FCL is developed on the basis of a series reactor. In
order to overcome the shortcomings of conventional series reactors, the switch
is closed and no reactance is put into the system during normal operating
conditions. When a fault occurs, the switch is quickly disconnected and the
reactor is set to limit the power flow. From the perspective of developments
in recent decades, FCL power electronics are divided into electronic and those
based on new material. Developed by China Electric Power Research Institute
and East China Power Grid Co, the series thyristor protection compensator
(Thyristor Protected Series Compensation, TPSC), was installed in East China
Power Grid 500 kV Pingyao substation to limit the total short-circuit current
to below 47 kA. This device is put into operation to improve transient stability
of EHV (extra high voltage) systems, reduce the maximum swing angle of the
generator, and suppress voltage fluctuation (Fig. 1.5).Figure 1.5. The principle
of FCL.

[Link] Hybrid FACTS

Hybrid FACTS include the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), the Interline Power
Flow Controller (IPFC), the Convertible Static Compensator (CSC), etc. Taking UPFC,
IPFC, as examples to explain the basic principle:

1. The UPFC is a combination of STATCOM and SSSC, aimed at achieving the

two-way power flow between series and shunt sides. Without external power
storage, it can provide a series line active and reactive current compensation.
By injecting a series voltage, a UPFC can independently control voltage, line
impedance, and transmission angle, as well as selectively control the active and
reactive power flow in the line. In addition, the UPFC can provide controllable
shunt reactive power compensation, which makes UPFCs the most promising
FACTS controllers. Currently, there are three UPFC devices that have been
successfully put into operation; they are the UPFC project at the Inez substation
in the United States, the CSC project at the Marcy substation in the United
States, and the UPFC project at the Kangjin substation in South Korea (Fig.
1.6).Figure 1.6. Basic structure of UPFC.
2. The IPFC is the latest development of applied power electronics technology,
and it is made up of several DC/AC converters with all the DC sides connected
together; each converter is able to provide active power to the DC link capacitor
through lines connected to it. In this configuration, each converter provides
SSSC series compensation to connected lines, provides flexible control of the
power flow, and thus greatly improves the transmission capacity and stability
and reliability of the power system (Fig. 1.7).Figure 1.7. Basic structure of IPFC.

> Read full chapter

Flexible AC Transmission Systems

E.H. Watanabe, ... G. SantosJr., in Power Electronics Handbook (Third Edition), 2011
[Link].1 Basic Switching Control Techniques
In FACTS applications, the power ratings of the converters are in the range of some
MW to hundreds of MW and the switching frequency is lower when compared with
the switching frequency used in industrial application converters to avoid excessive
switching losses. However, there are various switching control types. The most
known so far are as follows:

• Multipulse converters switched at line frequency, as in [18, 19];

• Pulse width modulation (PWM) with harmonic elimination technique [20];

• Sinusoidal PWM [6];

• Cascade converters [21].

> Read full chapter

Flexible AC Transmission Systems

Edson H. Watanabe, ... Gilson SantosJr., in Power Electronics Handbook (Fourth
Edition), 2018

Basic switching control techniques

In FACTS applications, the power ratings of the converters are in the range of some
MW to hundreds of MW, and the switching frequency is lower than the switching
frequency used in industrial application converters to avoid excessive switching
losses. However, there are various switching control types. The most known so far
are as follows:

• Multipulse converters switched at line frequency, as in Refs. [19,20]

• Pulse-width modulation (PWM) with harmonic elimination technique [21]

• Sinusoidal PWM [7]

• Cascade converters [22], including the multilevel modular converter (MMC)

[23]

> Read full chapter

Application of FACTS Controller

Debasish Mondal, ... Aparajita Sengupta, in Power System Small Signal Stability
Analysis and Control, 2014

7.2 FACTS technology [6]

The FACTS controller is defined as “a power electronic based system and other static
equipment that provide control of one or more ac transmission system parameters.”
FACTS could be connected in series with the power systems (series compensation) and
in shunt with the power systems (shunt compensation) or both in series and shunt
with the power systems.

7.2.1 Series compensation

In series compensation, the FACTS devices are connected in series with the power
system transmission line and work as a controllable voltage source. In long trans-
mission lines, series inductance occurs that causes a large voltage drop when a large
current flows through it. To compensate it, series capacitors (XC) are connected in
transmission network (Figure 7.1a), which modify line reactance (X) by decreasing
its value so as to increase the transmittable active power. However, more reactive
power must be provided. The expression for active and reactive power flow through
the transmission line is given by

Figure 7.1a. Transmission network and phasor diagram.

(7.1)

or

(7.2)

where ; 0 ≤ Kc ≤ 1 is the degree of compensation of the transmission line reactance.

It is to be noted that sending end voltage (Vs) = receiving end voltage (Vr) = V (say)
for or a loss less line.
The reactive power supplied by the series capacitor is given by Qc = I2Xc. From the
phasor diagram (Figure 7.1b), the expression for line current is

Figure 7.1b. Series compensation.

(7.3)

Therefore,

(7.4)

After simplification, this gives

(7.5)

As the series capacitor is used to cancel part of the reactance of the line, it increases
the maximum power, reduces the transmission angle at a given level of power
transfer, and increases the virtual natural load. Since effective line reactance is
reduced, it absorbs less of the line-charging reactive power, so shunt reactors may
be needed. A line with 100% series compensation would have a resonant frequency
equal to the power frequency, and since the damping in power systems is low, such
a system would be hypersensitive to small changes. For this reason, the degree of
series compensation is limited in practice to about 80%.

7.2.2 Shunt compensation

In shunt compensation, FACTS are connected in parallel with the power system
transmission line. It works as a controllable current source. A reactive current is
injected into the line to maintain constant voltage magnitude by varying shunt
impedance. Therefore, the transmittable active power is increased but at the expense
of increasing the reactive power demand. There are two methods of shunt compen-
sations:

(i) Shunt capacitive [Link] method is used improve the power factor.
Whenever an inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor
lags because of lagging load current. To compensate it, a shunt capacitor is (ii)
connected, which draws current leading to the source voltage. The net result
is improvement in power factor.
Shunt inductive [Link] method is used either when charging the
transmission line or when there is very low load at the receiving end. Due to
very low or no load, a very low current flows through the transmission line.
Shunt capacitance in the transmission line causes voltage amplification (Fer-
ranti effect). The receiving end voltage (Vr) may become double the sending end
voltage (Vs) (generally in case of very long transmission lines). To compensate
it, shunt inductors are connected across the transmission line.

Figure 7.2a and b show the arrangement of the ideal midpoint shunt compensator,
which maintains a voltage, Vc, equal to the bus bar voltage such that Vs = Vr = Vc = V.
Each half of the line is represented by a π equivalent circuit. The synchronous
machines at the ends are assumed to supply or absorb the reactive power for
the leftmost and rightmost half sections, leaving the compensator to supply or
absorb only the reactive power for the central half of the line. It can be seen that
the compensator does not consume real power since the compensator voltage, Vc
and its current, Ic, are in quadrature. If the compensator can vary its admittance
continuously in such a way as to maintain midpoint voltage Vc = V, then in the steady
state, the line is sectioned into two independent halves. The power (P) transferred
from the sending end to the midpoint is equal to the power transferred from the
midpoint to the receiving end and is given by
Figure 7.2. Shunt compensation (a) Voltage phasor, (b) Voltage and current phasor.

(7.6)

The maximum transmissible power is , twice the steady-state limit of the uncom-
pensated line. It is reached when /2 = π/2, that is, with a transmission angle or 90°
across each half of the line and a total transmission angle of 180° across the whole
line. The reactive power generated by the compensator, (Qp), is generally given by
the relation Qp = IcVc = IcV. From the phasor diagram, Ic can be expressed in terms
of Isc and :

(7.7)

Therefore,

(7.8)

This can be rearranged as

(7.9)

> Read full chapter

The Roles of Filters in Power Systems

and Unified Power Quality Condition-
ers
Mohammad A.S. Masoum, Ewald F. Fuchs, in Power Quality in Power Systems and
Electrical Machines (Second Edition), 2015

Development of FACTS Controllers

The first generation of FACTS (e.g., SVC, TSSC, TCSC, thyristor controlled phase
shifters, etc) use thyristor controlled switches as control devices. The second gener-
ation (e.g., STATCOM, SSSC, UPFC, IPFC, etc) are converter-based devices and use
switching static converters as fast controllable voltage and current sources.

The application of FACTS devices is increasing as their advantages become more

evident to power system engineers and researchers. FACTS controllers are primarily
designed to operate at fundamental power frequency under sinusoidal conditions
and do not necessarily improve the quality of electric power. In fact, most FACTS
controllers use switching devices that inject current and voltage harmonics into
power systems. Corrective approaches (e.g., sinusoidal PWM techniques) have been
proposed to minimize their limitations.

> Read full chapter

IGBT Applications
B. Jayant Baliga, in The IGBT Device, 2015

16.4.1 FACTS
The concept of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) was proposed to provide
stability and increased power handling capacity by injection of reactive power using
power electronically controlled elements connected either in series or in parallel with
the lines [17]. Static VAR compensators (SVCs) and STATCOMs are utilized for pro-
viding the reactive energy [18]. The parameters that determine power flow along the
transmission line are magnitude and phase angle of the voltages at the ends of the
line and the impedance of the line. These parameters must be dynamically controlled
to ensure stable operation even in the presence of disturbances. High-speed FACTS
devices damp down power oscillations and stabilize the end-point voltages in the
transmission network.

The two basic FACTS approaches for stabilization of the AC power transmission
network [18] are shown in Fig. 16.9. The first approach is shunt compensators where
the capacitor banks and inductors are connected in a shunt configuration to inject
reactive power. The second approach makes use of capacitor banks connected in
series with the network line that can be switched in and out by using power devices.
Figure 16.9. Basic FACTS device options.

Until the turn of the twenty-first century, the silicon-power thyristor was the only
semiconductor device capable of handling the power levels required for FACTS
devices. In 1995, the authors state [18]: “One fundamental limitation to the use of
the conventional thyristor is that the device can only be turned-off at the next current
zero crossing. Successful development of turn-on, turn-off devices, which have a high
unit power capability, high switching speeds (greater than say 1 kHz) and low unit
losses will see a new phase of advanced FACTS devices which can greatly reduce
equipment size by eliminating the need for large capacitor banks and inductors, and
provide harmonic current cancellation using pulse width modulation techniques.”
The situation indeed changed after the availability of devices that can both turn-on
and turn-off current such as GTOs at first and then IGBTs.

> Read full chapter

Modern flexible AC transmission sys-

tem (FACTS) devices
K. Wang, M.L. Crow, in Electricity Transmission, Distribution and Storage Systems,
2013

7.2.1 The cascaded converter

A cascaded multilevel FACTS converter is shown in Fig. 7.10. This converter uses
several full bridges in series to synthesize staircase waveforms. Because every full
bridge can have three output voltages with different switching combinations, the
number of output voltage levels is 2N + 1 where N is the number of full bridges in
every phase. The converter legs are identical and therefore modular.
7.10. Cascaded multilevel converter.

The cascaded converter has several attractive features (Rodriguez et al., 2002). One
such feature is that it can be easily controlled to mitigate the charge balancing
problems that plague many multilevel converter topologies. A charge imbalance
originates from the uneven charging and discharging of the multiple DC sources
at different voltage levels, causing a voltage imbalance. A DC voltage imbalance
will degrade the quality of the voltage output; in severe cases, this could lead to
the complete collapse of the power conversion system. The output voltage is a
staircase waveform synthesized by alternating the contributions of the multiple
H-bridges at each half cycle. Since during each half cycle, the conduction time
for each battery is different, the batteries will have different charge and discharge
intervals. In the cascaded converter, the imbalance can be mitigated by introducing
a rotated switching scheme in which the conduction period of each voltage source
is interchanged with the adjacent voltage sources in the subsequent half cycle (Du et
al., 2006). Therefore each capacitor will have the same charge and discharge period
over the complete cycle, thus balancing the voltage.

The cascaded converter also has the attractive feature that it can be reconfigured
to exploit the modularity of the converter topology. A five-level cascaded converter
with unequal voltage levels can be converted into a nine-level converter (Liu et al.,
2000). For example, if the batteries of the five-level converter are rearranged such
that the DC voltages V1 and V2 are unequal, then a nine-level staircase output voltage
waveform can be synthesized. By careful selection of the DC voltages, the nine-level
converter can provide superior harmonic performance. The corresponding nine-lev-
el output waveform for V1 = 0.6 V and V2 = 0.4 V is shown in Fig. 7.11.
7.11. Nine-level waveform constructed from five-level cascaded converter.

> Read full chapter

Smart Grids
DrC.R. Bayliss CEng FIET, B.J. Hardy CEng FIET, in Transmission and Distribution
Electrical Engineering (Fourth Edition), 2012

27.4.1 FACTS Devices

Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) devices may be used to
maximize the capacity of new and existing Transmission and Distribution networks.
The advantages from FACTS device installation include:

• steady-state and dynamic reactive power compensation and voltage regula-

tion;
• steady-state and dynamic stability enhancement;

• increasing power transfer capability of existing assets;

• reduced fault current;

• reduced transmission losses;

• improving power quality.

 FACTS devices are not new, but huge advances have been made over the last 20
years in the associated power semiconductor technologies. Some examples of FACTS
power devices to meet these demands are described in Chapters 24–26Chapter
24Chapter 25Chapter 26. The challenge is to lower the costs of such equipment and
to cost effectively widen their application to distribution voltage levels.

> Read full chapter

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