Gravitational-wave astronomy

Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging branch of observational

astronomy which aims to use gravitational waves (minute distortions of
spacetime predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity) to
collect observational data about objects such as neutron stars and black
holes, events such as supernovae, and processes including those of the
early universe shortly after the Big Bang.

Gravitational waves have a solid theoretical basis, founded upon the

theory of relativity. They were first predicted by Einstein in 1916;
although a specific consequence of general relativity, they are a common
feature of all theories of gravity that obey special relativity.[3] However,
after 1916 there was a long debate whether the waves were actually
physical, or artefacts of coordinate freedom in general relativity; this was
not fully resolved until the 1950s. Indirect observational evidence for
their existence first came in the late 1980s, from the monitoring of the
Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar (discovered 1974); the pulsar orbit was found
to evolve exactly as would be expected for gravitational wave
emission.[4] Hulse and Taylor were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in
Physics for this discovery.

On 11 February 2016 it was announced that the LIGO collaboration had

directly observed gravitational waves for the first time in September
2015. The second observation of gravitational waves was made on 26
Binary systems made up of two
December 2015 and announced on 15 June 2016.[5] Barry Barish, Kip
massive objects orbiting each
Thorne and Rainer Weiss were awarded the 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics
other are an important source for
for leading this work. gravitational-wave astronomy.
The system emits gravitational
radiation as it orbits, these carry

Contents away energy and momentum,

causing the orbit to shrink.[1][2]
Observations Shown here is a binary white
High frequency dwarf system, an important
source for space-borne detectors
Low frequency
like LISA. The eventual merger of
Intermediate frequencies the white dwarfs may result in a
Scientific value supernova, represented by the
explosion in the third panel.
In cosmic inflation
Development
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Observations
Ordinary gravitational waves'
frequencies are very low and much
harder to detect, while higher
frequencies occur in more dramatic
events and thus have become the
first to be observed.

In addition to a merger of black

holes, a binary neutron star merger
has been directly detected: a
gamma-ray burst (GRB) was
detected by the orbiting Fermi
gamma-ray burst monitor on 2017
August 17 [Link] UTC,
triggering an automated notice
worldwide. Six minutes later a
single detector at Hanford LIGO, a Noise curves for a selection of gravitational-wave detectors as a function
gravitational-wave observatory, of frequency. At very low frequencies are pulsar timing arrays, the
registered a gravitational-wave European Pulsar Timing Array (EPTA) and the future International Pulsar
candidate occurring 2 seconds Timing Array (IPTA); at low frequencies are space-borne detectors, the
before the gamma-ray burst. This formerly proposed Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) and the
currently proposed evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA),
set of observations is consistent
and at high frequencies are ground-based detectors, the initial Laser
with a binary neutron star
Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and its advanced
merger,[7] as evidenced by a multi- configuration (aLIGO). The characteristic strain of potential astrophysical
messenger transient event which sources are also shown. To be detectable the characteristic strain of a
was signalled by gravitational- signal must be above the noise curve.[6]
wave, and electromagnetic
(gamma-ray burst, optical, and
infrared)-spectrum sightings.

High frequency

In 2015, the LIGO project was the first to directly observe gravitational waves using laser interferometers.[8][9]
The LIGO detectors observed gravitational waves from the merger of two stellar-mass black holes, matching
predictions of general relativity.[10][11][12] These observations demonstrated the existence of binary stellar-
mass black hole systems, and were the first direct detection of gravitational waves and the first observation of a
binary black hole merger.[13] This finding has been characterized as revolutionary to science, because of the
verification of our ability to use gravitational-wave astronomy to progress in our search and exploration of dark
matter and the big bang.

There are several current scientific collaborations for observing gravitational waves. There is a worldwide
network of ground-based detectors, these are kilometre-scale laser interferometers including: the Laser
Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), a joint project between MIT, Caltech and the
scientists of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration with detectors in Livingston, Louisiana and Hanford,
Washington; Virgo, at the European Gravitational Observatory, Cascina, Italy; GEO600 in Sarstedt, Germany,
and the Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector (KAGRA), operated by the University of Tokyo in the
Kamioka Observatory, Japan. LIGO and Virgo are currently being upgraded to their advanced configurations.
Advanced LIGO began observations in 2015, detecting gravitational waves even though not having reached
its design sensitivity yet. The more advanced KAGRA started observation on February 25, 2020. GEO600 is
currently operational, but its sensitivity makes it unlikely to make an observation; its primary purpose is to trial
technology.
Low frequency

An alternative means of observation is using pulsar timing arrays (PTAs). There are three consortia, the
European Pulsar Timing Array (EPTA), the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves
(NANOGrav), and the Parkes Pulsar Timing Array (PPTA), which co-operate as the International Pulsar
Timing Array. These use existing radio telescopes, but since they are sensitive to frequencies in the nanohertz
range, many years of observation are needed to detect a signal and detector sensitivity improves gradually.
Current bounds are approaching those expected for astrophysical sources.[14]

Intermediate frequencies

Further in the future, there is the possibility of space-borne detectors. The European Space Agency has
selected a gravitational-wave mission for its L3 mission, due to launch 2034, the current concept is the evolved
Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA).[15] Also in development is the Japanese Deci-hertz
Interferometer Gravitational wave Observatory (DECIGO).

Scientific value
Astronomy has traditionally relied on electromagnetic radiation. Originating with the visible band, as
technology advanced, it became possible to observe other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio to
gamma rays. Each new frequency band gave a new perspective on the Universe and heralded new
discoveries.[16] During the 20th century, indirect and later direct measurements of high-energy, massive,
particles provided an additional window into the cosmos. Late in the 20th century, the detection of solar
neutrinos founded the field of neutrino astronomy, giving an insight into previously inaccessible phenomena,
such as the inner workings of the Sun.[17][18] The observation of gravitational waves provides a further means
of making astrophysical observations.

Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics for showing that the orbital
decay of a pair of neutron stars, one of them a pulsar, fits general relativity's predictions of gravitational
radiation.[19] Subsequently, many other binary pulsars (including one double pulsar system) have been
observed, all fitting gravitational-wave predictions.[20] In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to
Rainer Weiss, Kip Thorne and Barry Barish for their role in the first detection of gravitational
waves.[21][22][23]

Gravitational waves provide complementary information to that provided by other means. By combining
observations of a single event made using different means, it is possible to gain a more complete understanding
of the source's properties. This is known as multi-messenger astronomy. Gravitational waves can also be used
to observe systems that are invisible (or almost impossible to detect) to measure by any other means. For
example, they provide a unique method of measuring the properties of black holes.

Gravitational waves can be emitted by many systems, but, to produce detectable signals, the source must
consist of extremely massive objects moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light. The main source is a
binary of two compact objects. Example systems include:

Compact binaries made up of two closely orbiting stellar-mass objects, such as white dwarfs,
neutron stars or black holes. Wider binaries, which have lower orbital frequencies, are a source
for detectors like LISA.[24][25] Closer binaries produce a signal for ground-based detectors like
LIGO.[26] Ground-based detectors could potentially detect binaries containing an intermediate
mass black hole of several hundred solar masses.[27][28]
 Supermassive black hole binaries, consisting of two black holes with masses of 105–109 solar
masses. Supermassive black holes are found at the centre of galaxies. When galaxies merge,
it is expected that their central supermassive black holes merge too.[29] These are potentially
the loudest gravitational-wave signals. The most massive binaries are a source for PTAs.[30]
Less massive binaries (about a million solar masses) are a source for space-borne detectors
like LISA.[31]
Extreme-mass-ratio systems of a stellar-mass compact object orbiting a supermassive black
hole.[32] These are sources for detectors like LISA.[31] Systems with highly eccentric orbits
produce a burst of gravitational radiation as they pass through the point of closest approach;[33]
systems with near-circular orbits, which are expected towards the end of the inspiral, emit
continuously within LISA's frequency band.[34] Extreme-mass-ratio inspirals can be observed
over many orbits. This makes them excellent probes of the background spacetime geometry,
allowing for precision tests of general relativity.[35]

In addition to binaries, there are other potential sources:

Supernovae generate high-frequency bursts of gravitational waves that could be detected with
LIGO or Virgo.[36]
Rotating neutron stars are a source of continuous high-frequency waves if they possess axial
asymmetry.[37][38]
Early universe processes, such as inflation or a phase transition.[39]
Cosmic strings could also emit gravitational radiation if they do exist.[40] Discovery of these
gravitational waves would confirm the existence of cosmic strings.

Gravitational waves interact only weakly with matter. This is what makes them difficult to detect. It also means
that they can travel freely through the Universe, and are not absorbed or scattered like electromagnetic
radiation. It is therefore possible to see to the center of dense systems, like the cores of supernovae or the
Galactic Centre. It is also possible to see further back in time than with electromagnetic radiation, as the early
universe was opaque to light prior to recombination, but transparent to gravitational waves.[41]

The ability of gravitational waves to move freely through matter also means that gravitational-wave detectors,
unlike telescopes, are not pointed to observe a single field of view but observe the entire sky. Detectors are
more sensitive in some directions than others, which is one reason why it is beneficial to have a network of
detectors.[42] Directionalization is also poor, due to the small number of detectors.

In cosmic inflation

Cosmic inflation, a hypothesized period when the universe rapidly expanded during the first 10−36 seconds
after the Big Bang, would have given rise to gravitational waves; that would have left a characteristic imprint
in the polarization of the CMB radiation.[43][44]

It is possible to calculate the properties of the primordial gravitational waves from measurements of the patterns
in the microwave radiation, and use those calculations to learn about the early universe.

Development
As a young area of research, gravitational-wave astronomy is still in development; however, there is consensus
within the astrophysics community that this field will evolve to become an established component of 21st
century multi-messenger astronomy.[45]
Gravitational-wave observations complement observations in the
electromagnetic spectrum.[46][45] These waves also promise to yield
information in ways not possible via detection and analysis of
electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves can be absorbed and
re-radiated in ways that make extracting information about the
source difficult. Gravitational waves, however, only interact weakly
with matter, meaning that they are not scattered or absorbed. This
should allow astronomers to view the center of a supernova, stellar
nebulae, and even colliding galactic cores in new ways.

Ground-based detectors have yielded new information about the The LIGO Hanford Control Room
inspiral phase and mergers of binary systems of two stellar mass
black holes, and merger of two neutron stars. They could also detect
signals from core-collapse supernovae, and from periodic sources such as pulsars with small deformations. If
there is truth to speculation about certain kinds of phase transitions or kink bursts from long cosmic strings in
the very early universe (at cosmic times around 10−25 seconds), these could also be detectable.[47] Space-
based detectors like LISA should detect objects such as binaries consisting of two white dwarfs, and AM CVn
stars (a white dwarf accreting matter from its binary partner, a low-mass helium star), and also observe the
mergers of supermassive black holes and the inspiral of smaller objects (between one and a thousand solar
masses) into such black holes. LISA should also be able to listen to the same kind of sources from the early
universe as ground-based detectors, but at even lower frequencies and with greatly increased sensitivity.[48]

Detecting emitted gravitational waves is a difficult endeavor. It involves ultra-stable high-quality lasers and
detectors calibrated with a sensitivity of at least 2·10−22 Hz−1/2 as shown at the ground-based detector,
GEO600.[49] It has also been proposed that even from large astronomical events, such as supernova
explosions, these waves are likely to degrade to vibrations as small as an atomic diameter.[50]

See also
Gravitational wave background
Gravitational-wave observatory
List of gravitational wave observations
Matched filter

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Further reading
Cutler, Curt; Thorne, Kip S. (2002), "An overview of gravitational-wave sources", in Bishop,
Nigel; Maharaj, Sunil D. (eds.), Proceedings of 16th International Conference on General
Relativity and Gravitation (GR16), World Scientific, p. 4090, arXiv:gr-qc/0204090 ([Link]
rg/abs/gr-qc/0204090), Bibcode:[Link].....4090C ([Link]
qc.....4090C), ISBN 978-981-238-171-2
Thorne, Kip S. (1995), "Gravitational radiation", Particle and Nuclear Astrophysics and
Cosmology in the Next Millennium: 160, arXiv:gr-qc/9506086 ([Link]
86), Bibcode:[Link]..160T ([Link]
Gravitational Wave Astronomy ([Link]
[Link]/elementary/gravWav), Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived
from the original ([Link] on 6 February 2013,
retrieved 24 January 2013
Schutz, B. F. (1999), "Gravitational wave astronomy", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 16 (12A):
A131–A156, arXiv:gr-qc/9911034 ([Link]
Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A.131S ([Link]
doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/307 ([Link]
F307), S2CID 19021009 ([Link]
LIGO Magazine ([Link] LIGO Scientific Collaboration

External links
 LIGO Scientific Collaboration ([Link]
AstroGravS: Astrophysical Gravitational-Wave Sources Archive ([Link]
s/[Link])
Video (04:36) – Detecting a gravitational wave ([Link]
[Link]), Dennis Overbye, NYT (11 February 2016).
Video (71:29) – Press Conference announcing discovery: "LIGO detects gravitational waves"
([Link] National Science Foundation (11 February
2016).

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