Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles

Summary Notes
(Content in bold is for physics only)

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Radioactivity

An atom consists of:

• A positively charged nucleus made of:
o Positive protons
o Neutral neutrons
• Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Isotopes are forms of an element’s
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide 𝐴𝑍𝑋:
• X is the symbol of the element
• A is the mass (nucleon) number (number of neutrons and protons)
• Z is the atomic (proton) number (number of protons)

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a more stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a random process which means one cannot know what
nucleus will decay and when it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

• Alpha:
o A heavy nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴−4 4
𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝛼
o They are highly ionising and weakly penetrating. They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
• Beta:
oA neutron turns into a proton and emits a beta particle (electron)
oThe nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌 + −10𝛽 −
o They are moderately ionising and moderately penetrating. They are stopped by a
thin sheet of aluminium.
• Gamma:
o After a previous decay, a nucleus with excess energy emits a gamma particle.
o Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
o They are lowly ionising and highly penetrating. They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
• Neutron radiation:
o In neutron-rich nuclides, occasionally one or more neutrons are ejected. They are
also emitted during nuclear fission.
o The nucleus becomes a new isotope of the original element according to the
following equation: 𝐴𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴−1𝑍𝑋 + 10𝑛

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Some ways of detecting radiation include:
• Photographic film:
o The more radiation absorbed by the film, the darker it gets (the film is initially white).
o They are worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
• Geiger-Muller tube:
o A Geiger-Muller tube is a tube which can detect radiation.
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound. The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.

Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation. Sources
of background radiation include:
• From space:
o Cosmic rays such as high-energy charged particles penetrating the atmosphere
• From Earth:
o Radioactive rocks which give off radioactive radon gas
o Food and drink which is radioactive
o Fallout from nuclear weapons testing
o Medical sources such as x-rays from MRI scanners
o Nuclear power plants which produce radioactive waste

The activity of a radioactive source is the number of decays which occur per unit time and is
measured in becquerels (Bq where 1 Bq = 1 decay/s). The activity of a radioactive source
decreases over a period of time.

The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for

half the nuclei to decay, or the time taken for the
activity to halve. It is different for different
radioactive isotopes.
• In the graph, the count rate drops from 80
to 40 counts per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is around 2 days.
• Background radiation must be subtracted
before attempting to perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
• Industry
o Smoke detectors
▪ Long half-life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors.
▪ Alpha particles cause a current in the alarm.
▪ If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed and
the current drops, triggering the alarm.
o Thickness monitoring
▪ Long half-life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal
sheets.
▪ A source and receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its
production. If there is a drop or rise in the number of beta particles detected,
then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be adjusted.
• Medicine
o Sterilisation of equipment
▪ Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is
safe for operations.

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 o Diagnosis and treatment
▪ Short half-life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers
in medicine as they concentrate in certain parts of the body.
▪ The half-life must be long enough for diagnostic procedures to be performed,
but short enough to not remain radioactive for too long.
▪ Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to destroy tumours
with a high dose of radiation.

Contamination occurs when a radioactive source has been introduced into or onto an object. The
contaminated object will be radioactive for as long as the source is in or on it.

Irradiation occurs when an object is exposed to a radioactive source which is outside the object.
The irradiated object does not become radioactive.

Exposure to radiation can destroy living cell membranes by ionisation, causing the cells to die, or
damage DNA which causes mutations that could lead to cancer.

Safety measures include:

• Minimising the time of exposure to radiation, keeping as big a distance from the radioactive
source as possible, and using shielding against radiation.
• Radioactive waste from nuclear reactors must be disposed of carefully, usually by burying it
in sealed drums deep underground and remotely handling it.

Fission and fusion

Nuclear fission:
• The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission.
• When a uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron, it splits into two daughter nuclei and 2 or
3 neutrons, releasing energy in the process as kinetic energy of the fission products.
• The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a chain reaction by striking other
uranium-235 nuclei.
• In a nuclear reactor:
o Control rods (usually made of boron)
are used to absorb neutrons and
keep the number of neutrons such
that only one fission neutron per
event goes on to induce further
fission.
o The moderator (usually water) slows
down neutrons by collisions so that
they are moving slow enough to be
absorbed by another uranium-235
nucleus.
o The reactor core is a thick steel
vessel which withstands the high
pressures and temperatures and
absorbs some of the radiation. The
whole core is kept in a building with
thick reinforced concrete walls that
act as radiation shields to absorb all
the radiation that escapes the reactor
core.

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Nuclear fusion:
• The process of fusing two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion.
• There is a loss of mass in the process, accompanied by a release of energy.
• Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy.
• Nuclear fusion does not happen at low temperatures and pressures because the
electrostatic repulsion of the protons is too great.

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