8/30/2014 Nomogram - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Nomogram
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A nomogram (from Greek νόμος
nomos, "law" and γραμμή grammē,
"line"), also called a nomograph,
alignment chart or abaque, is a
graphical calculating device, a two-
dimensional diagram designed to allow
the approximate graphical computation
of a function. The field of nomography
was invented in 1884 by the French
engineer Philbert Maurice d’Ocagne
(1862-1938) and used extensively for
many years to provide engineers with
fast graphical calculations of
complicated formulas to a practical
precision. Nomograms use a parallel
coordinate system invented by
d'Ocagne rather than standard
Cartesian coordinates.
A nomogram consists of a set of n
scales, one for each variable in an A typical parallel-scale nomogram. This example calculates the value
equation. Knowing the values of n-1 of T when S = 7.30 and R = 1.17 are substituted into the equation.
variables, the value of the unknown The isopleth crosses the scale for T at just under 4.65.
variable can be found, or by fixing the
values of some variables, the relationship between the unfixed ones can be studied. The result is obtained by
laying a straightedge across the known values on the scales and reading the unknown value from where it
crosses the scale for that variable. The virtual or drawn line created by the straightedge is called an index line or
isopleth.
Nomograms flourished in many different contexts for roughly 75 years because they allowed quick and accurate
computations before the age of pocket calculators, making such calculations available to people who did not
normally use slide rules, and who didn’t know algebra or were not competent at substituting numbers into
equations to obtain results. Results from a nomogram are obtained very quickly and reliably by simply drawing
one or more lines, and the user does not even need to know the actual equation used to calculate the result. In
addition, nomograms naturally incorporate implicit or explicit domain knowledge into their design. For example,
to create larger nomograms for greater accuracy the nomographer usually takes the care to only include scale
ranges that are reasonable and of interest to the problem. Many nomograms include other useful markings such
as reference labels and colored regions. All of these provide useful guideposts to the user.
Like a slide rule, a nomogram is a graphical analog computation device, and like the slide rule, its accuracy is
limited by the precision with which physical markings can be drawn, reproduced, viewed, and aligned. Most
nomograms are used in applications where an approximate answer is appropriate and useful. Alternatively, a
nomogram may be used to check an answer obtained from another exact calculation method. The slide rule is
intended to be a general-purpose device, while a nomogram is designed to perform a specific calculation, with
tables of values effectively built into the construction of the scales.
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Note that other types of graphical calculators such as intercept charts, trilinear diagrams and hexagonal
charts are sometimes called nomograms. Another such example is the Smith chart, a graphical calculator used
in electronics and systems analysis. Thermodynamic diagrams and tephigrams, used to plot the vertical structure
of the atmosphere and perform calculations on its stability and humidity content, are also occasionally referred to
as nomograms. These do not meet the strict definition of a nomogram as a graphical calculator whose solution is
found by the use of one or more linear isopleths.
Contents
1 Description
2 Applications
3 Examples
3.1 Parallel-resistance/thin-lens nomogram
3.2 Chi-squared test computation nomogram
3.3 Food risk assessment nomogram
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Description
A nomogram for a three-variable equation typically has
three scales, although there exist nomograms in which
two or even all three scales are common. Here two
scales represent known values and the third is the scale
where the result is read off. The simplest such equation
is u1 + u2 + u3 = 0 for the three variables u1, u2 and u3.
An example of this type of nomogram is shown on the
right, annotated with terms used to describe the parts of
a nomogram.
More complicated equations can sometimes be
expressed as the sum of functions of the three variables.
For example, the nomogram at the top of this article
could be constructed as a parallel-scale nomogram
because it can be expressed as such a sum after taking
logarithms of both sides of the equation.
The scale for the unknown variable can lie between the
other two scales or outside of them. The known values Components of a parallel-scale nomogram
of the calculation are marked on the scales for those
variables, and a line is drawn between these marks. The
result is read off the unknown scale at the point where the line intersects that scale. The scales include 'tick
marks' to indicate exact number locations, and they may also include labeled reference values. These scales may
be linear, logarithmic, or have some more complex relationship.
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The sample isopleth shown in red on the nomogram at the top of this article calculates the value of T when S =
7.30 and R = 1.17. The isopleth crosses the scale for T at just under 4.65; a larger figure printed in high
resolution on paper would yield T = 4.64 to three-digit precision. Note that any variable can be calculated from
values of the other two, a feature of nomograms that is particularly useful for equations in which a variable
cannot be algebraically isolated from the other variables.
Straight scales are useful for relatively simple calculations, but for more complex calculations the use of simple or
elaborate curved scales may be required. Nomograms for more than three variables can be constructed by
incorporating a grid of scales for two of the variables, or by concatenating individual nomograms of fewer
numbers of variables into a compound nomogram.
Applications
Nomograms have been used in an extensive array of applications. A sample includes
The original application by d'Ocagne, the automation of complicated "cut and fill" calculations for earth
removal during the construction of the French national railway system. This was an important proof of
concept, because the calculations are non-trivial and the results translated into significant savings of time,
effort, and money.
The design of channels, pipes and weirs for regulating the flow of water.
The work of Lawrence Henderson, in which nomograms were used to correlate many different aspects of
blood physiology. It was the first major use of nomograms in the United States and also the first medical
nomograms anywhere. Nomograms continue to be used extensively in medical fields.
Ballistics calculations prior to fire control systems, where calculating time was critical.
Machine shop calculations, to convert blueprint dimensions and perform calculations based on material
dimensions and properties. These nomograms often included markings for standard dimensions and for
available manufactured parts.
Statistics, for complicated calculations of properties of distributions and for operations research including
the design of acceptance tests for quality control.
Operations Research, to obtain results in a variety of optimization problems.
Chemistry and chemical engineering, to encapsulate both general physical relationships and empirical data
for specific compounds.
Aeronautics, in which nomograms were used for decades in the cockpits of aircraft of all descriptions. As
a navigation and flight control aid, nomograms were fast, compact and easy-to-use calculators.
Astronomical calculations, as in the post-launch orbital calculations of Sputnik 1 by P.E. Elyasberg.[1]
Engineering work of all kinds: Electrical design of filters and transmission lines, mechanical calculations of
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stress and loading, optical calculations, and so forth.
Military, where complex calculations need to be made in the field quickly and with reliability not
dependent on electrical devices.
Examples
Parallel-resistance/thin-lens nomogram
The nomogram below performs the computation
This nomogram is interesting because it performs a useful nonlinear
calculation using only straight-line, equally-graduated scales.
A and B are entered on the horizontal and vertical scales, and the result is
read from the diagonal scale. Being proportional to the harmonic mean of
A and B, this formula has several applications. For example, it is the
parallel-resistance formula in electronics, and the thin-lens equation in
Parallel electrical resistance
optics.
nomogram
In the example, the red line demonstrates that parallel resistors of 56 and
42 ohms have a combined resistance of 24 ohms. It also demonstrates that an object at a distance of 56 cm
from a lens whose focal length is 24 cm forms a real image at a distance of 42 cm.
Chi-squared test computation nomogram
The nomogram below can be used to perform an approximate
computation of some values needed when performing a familiar statistical
test, Pearson's chi-squared test. This nomogram demonstrates the use of
curved scales with unevenly-spaced graduations.
The relevant expression is
The scale along the top is shared among five different ranges of observed
values: A, B, C, D and E. The observed value is found in one of these
ranges, and the tick mark used on that scale is found immediately above
it. Then the curved scale used for the expected value is selected based on
the range. For example, an observed value of 9 would use the tick mark
above the 9 in range A, and curved scale A would be used for the
expected value. An observed value of 81 would use the tick mark above
81 in range E, and curved scale E would be used for the expected value.
This allows five different nomograms to be incorporated into a single
diagram.
Chi-squared distribution
In this manner, the blue line demonstrates the computation of nomogram
(9 − 5)2/ 5 = 3.2
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and the red line demonstrates the computation of
(81 − 70)2 / 70 = 1.7
In performing the test, Yates's correction for continuity is often applied, and simply involves subtracting 0.5 from
the observed values. A nomogram for performing the test with Yates's correction could be constructed simply
by shifting each "observed" scale half a unit to the left, so that the 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, ... graduations are placed where
the values 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, ... appear on the present chart.
Food risk assessment nomogram
Although nomograms represent mathematical relationships, not all are
mathematically derived. The following one was developed graphically to
achieve appropriate end results that could readily be defined by the
product of their relationships in subjective units rather than numerically.
The use of non-parallel axes enabled the non-linear relationships to be
incorporated into the model.
The numbers in square boxes denote the axes requiring input after
appropriate assessment.
The pair of nomograms at the top of the image determine the probability
of occurrence and the availability, which are then incorporated into the
bottom multistage nomogram.
Lines 8 and 10 are ‘tie lines’ or ‘pivot lines’ and are used for the
transition between the stages of the compound nomogram.
Food risk assessment nomogram
The final pair of parallel logarithmic scales (12) are not nomograms as
such, but reading-off scales to translate the risk score (11, remote to
extremely high) into a sampling frequency to address safety aspects and other ‘consumer protection’ aspects
respectively. This stage requires political ‘buy in’ balancing cost against risk. The example uses a three-year
minimum frequency for each, though with the high risk end of the scales different for the two aspects, giving
different frequencies for the two, but both subject to an overall minimum sampling of every food for all aspects
at least once every three years.
This risk assessment nomogram was developed by the UK Public Analyst Service with funding from the UK
Food Standards Agency for use as a tool to guide the appropriate frequency of sampling and analysis of food
for official food control purposes, intended to be used to assess all potential problems with all foods, although
not yet adopted.
See also
Coordinate system
Log-log graph
Semilog graph
References
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1. ^ [Link] Memories ([Link] at the website of Russian state archive
for scientific-technical documentation
D.P. Adams, Nomography: Theory and Application, (Archon Books) 1964.
H.J. Allcock, J. Reginald Jones, and J.G.L. Michel, The Nomogram. The Theory and Practical Construction of
Computation Charts, 5th ed., (London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.) 1963.
S. Brodestsky, A First Course in Nomography, (London, G. Bell and Sons) 1920.
D.S. Davis, Empirical Equations and Nomography, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.) 1943.
M. d'Ocagne: Traité de Nomographie, (Gauthier-Villars, Paris) 1899.
M. d'Ocagne: (1900) Sur la résolution nomographique de l'équation du septième degré. Comptes rendus
(Paris), 131, 522–524.
R.D. Douglass and D.P. Adams, Elements of Nomography, (New York: McGraw-Hill) 1947.
R.P. Hoelscher, et al., Graphic Aids in Engineering Computation, (New York: McGraw-Hill) 1952.
L. Ivan Epstein, Nomography, (New York: Interscience Publishers) 1958.
L.H. Johnson, Nomography and Empirical Equations, (New York: John Wiley and Sons) 1952.
M. Kattan and J. Marasco. (2010) What Is a Real Nomogram?, Seminars in oncology, 37(1), 23–26.
A.S. Levens, Nomography, 2nd ed., (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) 1959.
F.T. Mavis, The Construction of Nomographic Charts, (Scranton, International Textbook) 1939.
E. Otto, Nomography,(New York: The Macmillan Company) 1963.
H.A. Evesham The History and Development of Nomography, (Boston: Docent Press) 2010. ISBN
9781456479626
T.H. Gronwall, R. Doerfler, A. Gluchoff, and S. Guthery, Calculating Curves: The Mathematics, History, and
Aesthetic Appeal of T. H. Gronwall's Nomographic Work, (Boston: Docent Press) 2012. ISBN 9780983700432
External links
Weisstein, Eric W., "Nomogram" Wikimedia Commons has
([Link] MathWorld. media related to
Nomograms.
The Art of Nomography
([Link] Look up nomogram in
nomography-i-geometric-design/) describes the design of Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
nomograms using geometry, determinants, and transformations.
The Lost Art of Nomography ([Link]
the-umap-journal/) is a math journal article surveying the field of nomography.
Nomograms for Wargames ([Link] but also of general
interest.
PyNomo ([Link] – open source software for constructing nomograms.
Java Applet ([Link] for constructing simple
nomograms.
Nomograms for visualising relationships between three variables ([Link]
[Link]/RUG/2011/10/user-2011-jonathan-rougier-nomograms-for-visualising-relationships-
between-three-variables/) - video and slides of invited talk by Jonathan Rougier for useR!2011.
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Retrieved from "[Link]
Categories: Charts Analog computers Mathematical tools Theory of computation Diagrams
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