CLIMATE ANALYSIS

In Partial Fulfilment of Requirements

In Tropical Design

To be presented to

Ar./Enp. Gerelson Ray R. Bernardino uap, piep, mscm

Submitted by:

Dimayuga, Mark Russell B.

Bachelor of Science in Architecture 2B

October 5, 2020

1|Climate Analysis
 ABTRACT

Climate is a predominate meteorological state in a specific region. It is a

measure of the normal pattern of variation in terms of elements such as
temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind over long periods. This has to do
with any consequential changes in the state of climate lasting for an extended
period. The approach of pleasant buildings that ensure the physiological easement
of users is achieved through a deep comprehension regarding the climate and the
human responsiveness to its surrounding. One of the eminent defiance of human
civilization in the 21st century is climate change. Addressing climate change
requires the reduction of carbon dioxide emission by providing an alternative way
in which buildings are designed, constructed, managed, and used.

2|Climate Analysis
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page…………………………………………………………………………….….1
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….2
Introduction……….………………………………………………………………....…3
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………..4
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………..5
Body………………………………………………………………………………….…..6
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….31
Recommendations…………………………………………………………………...31
References…………………………………………………………………………….32

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITILE PAGE

1 Climate Zones 7

2 Climate Types 15

3 Prevailing winds 10

4 Wind Loading 23

5 Pollution Control and Natural Ventilation 23

6 Weather and Climate 26

7 Shading Analysis 26

8 Köppen Climate 28

4|Climate Analysis
INTRODUCTION

A. Background

Climate transmutes, excluded from the range in the past years. it

is coherent that the earth will be much warmer, sea level will rise, and
patterns of rainfall will be unstable. But the future is also undetermined,
there is substantial uncertainty about how we will come up experiencing a
different climate. Climate, which is pertinent in building and designing a
structure, is focused on the increasing effects generally produced over
several years of different atmospheric events on earth. It should be
remembered that all living creatures continue to develop and reproduce, as
their living activities depend on climate conditions. Flexible environmental
weather patterns are usually referred to as the atmosphere over many
years. Architectures response to climate takes into consideration
seasonally such as the movement of the sun (sun path and solar position),
natural shade offered by the local topography, environmental variables
(such as wind, rainfall, humidity), and climate data (temperature, historical
weather patterns, etc.) to build homes that are comfortable and energy-
efficient. Research is done to a particular region's type of environment
which may help to determine the seasons or cycles, which a person may
define as pleasant or unpleasant conditions.

B. Purpose

This paper examines the effect of climate on architectural designs as

well as having a more comprehensive study regarding the thoughts about
buildings under different climatic conditions.

C. Scope

This research study focuses on the effects of climate in buildings. It

covers how architectural design subsists as well as why do climate is an
element to consider in building a structure.

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BODY

Climatic Data

Climate is a condition of which the atmosphere at a particular location over

a long period; it is the long-term rundown of the atmospheric elements that over
short periods constitute weather. These elements are known to be solar radiation,
temperature, humidity, precipitation (type, frequency, and amount), atmospheric
pressure, and wind (speed and direction). Climate is not just the “average weather”
it is an obsolete, and always inadequate, definition. It should state not only the
average values of the climatic elements that prevail at different times but also their
extreme ranges and variability and the frequency of various occurrences. Just as
one year differs from another, decades and centuries are found to differ from one
another by a smaller, but sometimes significant, amount. Climate is therefore time-
dependent, and climatic values or indexes should not be quoted without specifying
what years they refer to. One of the factors that affect the climate is the angle of
the sun's rays. In the tropics, between 23.5° N and 23.5° S, there is at least one
time of year when the noontime sun is directly overhead and its rays hit at a direct
angle. This produces a hot climate with relatively small temperature differences
between summer and winter.

The categories were also influenced by a region’s latitude—the imaginary lines

used to measure our Earth from north to south from the equator. Climate scientists
split the Earth into approximately five main types of climates. They are:

A: Tropical. In this hot and humid zone, the average temperatures are greater
than 64°F (18°C) year-round and there is more than 59 inches of precipitation each
year.

B: Dry. These climate zones are so dry because moisture is rapidly evaporated
from the air and there is very little precipitation.

C: Temperate. In this zone, there are typically warm and humid summers with
thunderstorms and mild winters.

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D. Continental. These regions have warm to cool summers and very cold winters.
In the winter, this zone can experience snowstorms, strong winds, and very cold
temperatures—sometimes falling below -22°F (-30°C)!

E: Polar. In the polar climate zones, it’s extremely cold. Even in summer, the
temperatures here never go higher than 50°F (10°C)!

This is roughly where those climate zones appear on a globe:

Fig. 1

The placing, understanding, and control of the climatic effects at the location
of the building are crucial even before designs are made. The climate of a location
develops by its geographical position on earth, height above sea level, topography,
and flora.

As a product of these conditions, a different climate of different regions

occurs and different climatic design strategies are formulated. Climate conditions
are eminent in the arrangement of building designs, the establishment of
requirements, selection of equipment, and method of building. Planning and
forming the building in accordance with the regional climatic data are based on
enabling the building to get minimum heat during the hottest season of the year

7|Climate Analysis
and lose minimum heat during the coldest season of the year. Different climate
systems generate regional architectural characteristics.

Nonetheless, many of the buildings in our country today have plans and
forms that consider and were designed without taking the regional climatic data
into consideration.

CLIMATE FACTORS

There are different climate factors that must be considered in civil

operations, building constructions and building designs. The most significant
climate factors are as follows: weather temperature, soil temperature, angle and
intensity of sunlight, relative humidity, direction and wind speed, rainfall and
sunlight. Climate factors cannot be reduced in these items. Rather barometric
pressure and such are also considered as climate factors but they don’t play a big
part in designing and civil operations. Besides, the changes of some climate
parameters are not high over the year so it does not make a big difference

knowing about their time changes. Now, we’ll be dealing with each of these factors.

Weather Temperature

Perhaps weather temperature is the most important climate factor affecting

climate designing. The intended dimensions in designing various points of a
building and also the material in use are determined by the maximum and the
minimum temperature of the region. Therefore, the quantity and quality for
constructing a building are different depending on the type of the region: tropical,
cold and moderate. Glacial region would require taking special decisions on the
choice of materials. In order to prevent energy dissipation in tropical and cold
regions in summer and winter time, body insulation of the buildings must be
considered whereas this issue might not be of priority in moderate regions.

8|Climate Analysis
Soil Temperature

Soil temperature and its changes are of importance over the year. The soil
surface experiences the most changeability of temperature during the year which
is caused by proximity with air and its changes. The more we go to the depth of
the soil, the less changes of temperature we have so that in a specific depth called
depth or attenuation depth temperature, annual changes of soil temperature is
caused. Given the fact that building foundation lies in the soil, knowing about soil
temperature, especially glacial soil and its depth, is of high significance in the
selection of the materials and determining the foundation of a building. Moreover,
knowing about the depth of glacial soil can be effective in the installation of gas,
water... pipes. The depth of glacial soil is a point where the soil does not freeze in
the coldest time of the year. It is clear that in cold regions the depth of installing
such equipment must be lower than the depth of glacial soil so that they become
immune of any frozen state. In order to know about the depth of glacial soil in any
region, one shall refer to long-term climate data provided by meteorological
stations. Now that the question of constructing urban common tunnels is around,
this issue’s importance is doubled.

Sunshine

The rate of receiving sunshine is a function of several factors which include:

latitude (angle of sunshine), the amount of cloud, and sunshine hours. The less
the latitude, the less the angle of the stretch of sunshine with the vertical line to
horizon and the more the receiving sunshine. Sunshine hour is irrelevant with the
amount of cloud, when one increases the other decreases. In areas where the rate
of receiving sunshine by the earth surface is high, temperature is high too. If the
goal is to reduce the amount of sunshine entering the earth surface (this method
has recently been noticed by climatologists and it is one of the strategies for
reducing global warming and earth engineering), we can use reflexive mirrors.

9|Climate Analysis
Relative Humidity

By definition, relative humidity refers to the proportion of the existing amount

of humidity in the air to the maximum amount of acceptable humidity in terms of
percent. The more the rate of relative humidity, the more the possibility for the
formation of water drops on physical objects on the earth surface (including
buildings and other constructions such as bridges, streets, etc.). This means the
acceleration of the effect of humidity on equipment and their rust chemically
(corrosion of metals, oxidation of metals, etc.) and physically (freezing water and
causing crack in building design. In the regions where there is more relative
humidity of weather such as coastal areas and islands, designing and construction
of the buildings take place according to high adverse effects of water. They must
be designed and constructed in a way that physical and chemical adverse effects
of water decrease to the minimum level or even zero. This need is met through the
selection of water and corrosion-resist materials and equipment.

Wind Direction and Speed

Wind direction is a way from which it is blowing. Knowing about the wind
direction of each region, bearing the most frequency from that direction (prevailing
wind), is an important factor in setting the direction of building construction
aerodynamically so that in the state of heavy winds, light buildings wouldn’t be hit.
In ancient times, in order to design the direction of wind wards especially in tropical
regions (Yazd and Kerman), the length of wind ward vents was built in the direction
of prevailing wind so that wind could be used in the best way possible to cool the
building. Wind speed is also important because in the case of high-speed winds,
there is the possibility for the detachment and physical damage to different parts
of building especially light ones. Knowing about the mean of wind speed at the
project site and seasonal and annual distribution of wind speed are important
factors for strengthening against wind power. The more the mean of wind speed
in the region, the more powerful the building must be. In projects where there are
several choices in terms of region, it is a good idea to pick up the one in which

10 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
wind speed is lower than other regions. These regions are identified through wind
pattern plans and measuring wind speed in different points of a region. If the goal
is to use wind power such as establishing wind power plants, the place of the
construction shall be chosen in a way that there is high-speed wind around. It is
clear that, in this case, permanent high-speed wind for most of the year or even all
the year is an upward.

Rain Fall

The amount of rainfall is one of the most determining factors that shall be
considered in building design, especially ceiling design. In rain areas, the ceiling
of buildings must be designed as gable roof so that water erosion is reduced, due
damages are minimized and there would be no water left on the roof. Otherwise,
adverse effects of rain and its penetration into buildings would rise. Knowing about
the rate of rainfall, especially for designing structures like dams (estimation of the
maximum probable rainfall) is necessary so we can determine spillway dimension,
etc. moreover, in order to design surface water disposal system across cities when
it rains, knowing about the maximum urban flood relevant to return period sounds
like essential.

Weather Detrimental Phenomena

It refers to so high or so low rate of meteorological factors. For instance,

flood or draught shows very high or low rate of rainfall. What matters about weather
detrimental phenomena in civil operations is so high rates of meteorological
factors. For example, concerning rainfall, its high rate which is flood or heavy
showers is important and draught is unimportant. High warm and cold waves
happening recently in different parts of the world due to climate change are
considered to be important disasters. Tsunami receives high attention in coastal
areas and islands. Dust storm makes limitations in the areas prone to wind slide.
Limit values of weather and climate factors also happen in local conditions which
require local studies and must be analysed before starting the project.

11 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
Weather Forecast

It is essential to know about weather conditions of some days ahead so that

you can adjust civil operations and plan doing different steps of building operation.
The most important example is to know about rainfall occurrence during working
days ahead. Rainfall occurrence would challenge building operations especially in
primary stages of the project and can even strand it. This limitation in later stages
when building constructions take place indoor is by far reduced. One of the
important uses of meteorological forecast is about dam-building workshops. Heavy
rainfall occurrence in lands above the dam can cause flood in the workshop site
and damage the existing equipment and vehicles and even claim human lives.
Forecasting the amount of rainfall in the upper land and estimating the potential
amount of the time of flood discharge, one can inform the workshops appropriately
and prevent financial loss and human death. Wind forecast can also play a big role
in doing civil operations and construction especially about sky scrape buildings.
Wind speed goes up with height increase and the increase in wind speed is
logarithmic. Working in heavy wind conditions especially in highlands would cause
damage to equipment and personnel. That is why it matters.

Philippine Climate

The Climate of the Philippines is either tropical rainforest, tropical savanna

or tropical monsoon, or humid subtropical (in higher-altitude areas) characterized
by relatively high temperature, oppressive humidity and plenty of rainfall. There
are two seasons in the country, the wet season and the dry season, based upon
the amount of rainfall. This is dependent as well on your location in the country as
some areas experience rain all throughout the year. The seven warmest months
of the year are from March to October. The winter monsoon brings cooler air from
November to February. May is the warmest month, and January, the coolest.

There are four recognized climate types in the Philippines, and they are
based on the distribution of rainfall. They are described as follows:

12 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 Type I. Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and
wet during the rest of the year.

Type II. No dry season with a pronounced rainfall from November to

January.

Type III. Seasons are not very pronounced, relatively dry from
November to April, and wet during the rest of the year.

Type IV. Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the

year.

There are three recognized seasons: Tag-init or Tag-araw (the hot season
or summer from March to May), Tag-ulan (the rainy season from June to
November), and Tag-lamig (the cold season from December to February). The
humid southwest monsoon (May-October) is known as "Habagat". The cool and
dry winds of the northeast monsoon (November April) are called "Amihan". These
seasons can seriously get mixed up by the El Niño / La Niña effects. El Niño brings
dry weather and even droughts. La Niña stands for rainy weather and floods.

Climate of the Philippines

The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. It is characterized by

relatively high temperature, high humidity and abundant rainfall. It is similar in
many respects to the climate of the countries of Central America. Temperature,
humidity, and rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are the most important
elements of the country's weather and climate.

Temperature

Based on the average of all-weather stations in the Philippines, excluding

Baguio, the mean annual temperature is 26.6o C. The coolest months fall in
January with a mean temperature of 25.5oC while the warmest month occurs in
May with a mean temperature of 28.3oC. Latitude is an insignificant factor in the
variation of temperature while altitude shows greater contrast in temperature.

13 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
Thus, the mean annual temperature of Baguio with an elevation of 1,500 meters
is 18.3oC. This makes the temperature of Baguio comparable with those in the
temperate climate and because of this, it is known as the summer capital of the
Philippines. The difference between the mean annual temperature of the
southernmost station in Zamboanga and that of the northernmost station in Laoag
is insignificant. In other words, there is essentially no difference in the mean annual
temperature of places in Luzon, Visayas or Mindanao measured at or near sea
level.

Humidity

Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere. Due to high

temperature and the surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines has a high
relative humidity. The average monthly relative humidity varies between 71 percent
in March and 85 percent in September. The combination of warm temperature and
high relative and absolute humidity give rise to high sensible temperature
throughout the archipelago. It is especially uncomfortable during March to May,
when temperature and humidity attain their maximum levels.

Rainfall

Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines. Rainfall

distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending
upon the direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain
systems. The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064
millimeters annually. Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the
greatest amount of rainfall while the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least
amount of rain. At General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is
only 978 millimeters.

The Seasons

Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country can be
divided into two major seasons: (1) the rainy season, from June to November; and

14 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
(2) the dry season, from December to May. The dry season may be subdivided
further into (a) the cool dry season, from December to February; and (b) the hot
dry season, from March to May.

Climate Types

Based on the distribution of rainfall, four climate types are recognized, which
are described as follows:

Fig. 2

Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of

the Philippines. A great portion of the rainfall, humidity and cloudiness are due to
the influence of typhoons. They generally originate in the region of the Marianas
and Caroline Islands of the Pacific Ocean which have the same latitudinal location
as Mindanao. Their movements follow a northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao
from being directly hit by the majority of the typhoons that cross the country. This
makes the southern Philippines very desirable for agriculture and industrial
development.

Monsoon in the Philippines

A "monsoon" is a weather pattern; a monsoon has a different name in each

country that it affects. In the Philippines, the Summer Monsoon (West or southwest
winds) is called the Habagat (ha-bag-at) and the Winter Monsoon (North or
northeast winds) is called the Amihan (a-me-han). The word 'monsoon' is believed

15 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
to originate from the Arabic word mawsim (season), via the Portuguese and then
Dutch monsoon. A "monsoon" is a consistent wind pattern generated by a large
weather system, that lasts for a period of months and affects a large area of the
planet.

Summer Southwest Monsoon - Habagat

Summer Monsoon weather is characterized by a strong, generally West or

southwest breeze that is responsible for bringing significant rainfall to the Asian
subcontinent and to South and East Asia. The significant southwest monsoon
rainfall is a by-product of air passing over large areas of warm equatorial ocean,
stimulating increased levels of evaporation from the ocean’s surface; the
southwest monsoon air, now laden with water vapour, cools as it moves north and
as it rises over land; at some point the air is no longer able retain its moisture and
precipitates copious volumes to irrigate rice fields and drench rainforests,
sometimes causing severe flooding below hillsides that have been foolishly
stripped of forest cover by Man. The Summer Monsoon (West or southwest) is the
predominant weather pattern throughout most Asian tropical destinations from late
April through to early October each year.

Winter Northeast Monsoon - Amihan

Winter Monsoon weather features a generally less strong, East or northeast

breeze that is cooler and drier (compared to the Summer Monsoon weather), with
prolonged periods of successive cloudless days. The Winter Monsoon (North or
northeast winds) features cool and dry air that originates in a vast anticyclone - a
weather system with a high barometric pressure - which forms over Siberia,
Mongolia and northern China during each northern winter. The Winter Monsoon
air from the anticyclone pushes outward in a clockwise motion from its centre and
competes with the Summer Monsoon over a period of a week or two, usually
starting in late September and early October, before finally dominating the weather
with a cooler and drier northeast monsoon in most Asian tropical and sub-tropical
destinations through to the following April.

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 There is no specific weather pattern equivalent to a monsoon season in
southern latitudes because there is no continent large enough to create the
anticyclonic conditions similar to those that drive the alternate Winter Monsoon, as
in the North. It could be said that the southern hemisphere is perpetually in varying
degrees of Summer Monsoon condition; Australia, Brazil and parts of equatorial
Africa experience some weather patterns that show some seasonal differences.

Prevailing winds

Prevailing winds are winds that blow consistently in a given direction over a
particular region on Earth. Due to factors such as uneven heating from
the Sun and the Earth's rotation, these winds vary at different latitudes on Earth.
Prevailing winds are important for determining locations of wind farms in order to
generate electricity. Prevailing winds also determine the amount of rainfall that
different regions get. In Southeastern Asia, these winds result in the formation
of monsoons and deserts. The West coast of South and North America receives
abundant rain during the winter due to these winds.

The equator receives the most direct sunlight, resulting in the planet's
warmest temperatures being near the equator. As seen in Figure 1, heat expands
the air, making it less dense which leads to rising air. As the air rises, it cools,
making the air lose its water vapor as rain. This air then circulates around to
roughly 30 degrees north or south. The wind doesn't flow directly up, because the
Earth rotates. This rotation causes the wind to have a higher speed in the Eastern
direction relative to the ground at high latitudes (see Coriolis effect), which results
in a variety of prevailing winds.

Fig. 3
17 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 The trade winds are created by hot air flowing up and away from the
equator, where it gradually cools until it gets to latitudes of about 30 degrees. It
then sinks down towards the surface and flows back towards the low-pressure
zone at the equator. These flows are known as Hadley cells, named after George
Hadley who first described them in 1753. They are responsible for the dry weather
patterns at the 30 degree latitudes, where the majority of the Earth's deserts lie.

Not all of the air moves back towards the equator though. When the air
reaches approximately 60 degrees latitude (North or South), it meets cold air from
the poles. These winds are known as the Westerlies. At this point, the warm air
rises and most of it flows back towards the 30-degree latitude mark. This creates
the Ferrel cells. The final regions are at the poles, from 60 degrees latitude to 90
degrees latitude. This wind cools towards the poles and sinks to the surface, and
recirculates. This creates what is known as the Polar Hadley cell or Polar cell.

Typhoon

A typhoon is a type of large storm system having a circular or spiral system

of violent winds, typically hundreds of kilometres or miles in diameter. The winds
spiral around a region of low atmospheric pressure. "Typhoon" is the name of these
storms that occur in the Western Pacific.

Hurricane

Hurricane is the name given to these storms in the Atlantic Ocean and
Eastern Pacific. In the Indian Ocean, they are called "Tropical Cyclones". For
stronger typhoons, a characteristic structure called the "eye" forms when the
maximum wind speeds exceed about 85 miles per hour, or 140 kilometres per
hour. The eye is a region of clear air with no clouds, and is a few tens of kilometres
in diameter. The energy that powers typhoons comes from the evaporation of
warm ocean water. The water vapor rises to the top of the typhoon along the sides
of the eye, then condenses into clouds. Warmer ocean water produces more
powerful typhoons, which can grow into "super typhoons".

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Cyclones

Cyclones can be the most intense storms on Earth. A cyclone is a system

of winds rotating counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere around a low-
pressure center. The swirling air rises and cools, creating clouds and precipitation.

There are two types of cyclones: middle latitude (mid-latitude) cyclones and
tropical cyclones. Mid-latitude cyclones are the main cause of winter storms in the
middle latitudes. Tropical cyclones are also known as hurricanes.

An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone. An anticyclone’s winds rotate

clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere around a center of high pressure. Air comes
in from above and sinks to the ground. High pressure centers generally have fair
weather.

Tropical depression

Tropical depression is the first stage of a tropical weather event is called a

tropical depression. Meteorologists sometimes refer to these formations as a
tropical wave, disturbance, feature, system or disturbance. Tropical depressions
are cyclones with winds that gust at 38 miles per hour (33 knots) or less. While
cyclones aren’t as strong as tropical storms or hurricanes, they can bring
significant amounts of rain, thunderstorms and devastating floods.

Tropical storm

Tropical storm Meteorologists upgrade a tropical depression to a tropical

storm when the cyclone’s circulation is more organized and has sustained wind
speeds of 39 to 73 miles per hour (34 to 63 knots). Tropical storms produce large
amounts of rain, and can cause enough wind and wave activity to damage boats
and erode beaches. When a weather event qualifies as a tropical storm,
meteorologists categorize it according to the Saffir-Simpson Scale.

19 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
Weather

Weather is the mix of events that happen each day in our atmosphere.
Weather is different in different parts of the world and changes over minutes,
hours, days and weeks. Most weather happens in the troposphere, the part of
Earth’s atmosphere that is closest to the ground.

Air Pressure and Weather

The weather events happening in an area are controlled by changes in air

pressure. Air pressure is caused by the weight of the huge numbers of air
molecules that make up the atmosphere. Typically, when air pressure is high there
skies are clear and blue. The high pressure causes air to flow down and fan out
when it gets near the ground, preventing clouds from forming. When air pressure
is low, air flows together and then upward where it converges, rising, cooling, and
forming clouds. Remember to bring an umbrella with you on low pressure days
because those clouds might cause rain or other types of precipitation.

Wind

Wind is air moving from a place that has higher pressure to one that has
lower pressure. Air pressure isn’t exactly the same everywhere at the Earth’s
surface because the Sun heats some places more than others. In the places where
air is warmed most, it rises. This leaves a little less air near the Earth’s surface
than in surrounding areas that didn’t get as warm. There is still air everywhere, but
the air molecules are more widely spaced in some areas and more tightly packed
in others. The places with more air molecules have higher pressure. The areas
with fewer air molecules have lower pressure. Air whooshes into the area with
lower pressure. That’s wind. So, when you let the air out of a balloon, you are
making a little bit of wind.

Wind Strength

Sometimes wind is just a light breeze and other times it is strong enough
to blow the roofs off buildings. To describe the strength of wind, weather reports

20 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
often use words like Light Wind, Strong Wind, and Gale. The Beaufort Scale
assigns a number between zero and twelve to describe the strength of wind. Zero
of the Beaufort Scale is complete calm. Twelve describes the powerful winds found
in hurricanes. Winds are also described with the direction they blow. Easterly winds
blow from the east, while westerly winds blow from the west.

Global Wind Patterns

There are steady winds that always blow in the same direction because of
the pattern of how air moves through the atmosphere over the entire planet. For
centuries sailors have depended on these predictable winds known as the Trade
Winds, Westerlies, and Polar Easterlies. These winds turn to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere because of
Earth’s spin, a phenomenon known as the Coriolis Effect.

Specialized Wind Types

Sometimes wind is very strong but lasts only a short time. For example,
thunderstorms can create high winds including microbursts and tornadoes. While
the wind from a microburst flows down and away from a thunderstorm, wind from
a tornado flows up and into a thunderstorm. Monitoring tools such as Doppler radar
and the Low-Level Windshear Alert System are used to spot microbursts and
tornadoes.

Microbursts form when air, cooled rapidly within a storm, zooms downward
at high speeds because it is denser than the surrounding air. When it gets to the
ground it spreads across the Earth’s surface as straight-line winds moving at
speeds over 100 miles per hour. They only last a few minutes but can be deadly.
Tornadoes form when there is a difference in air pressure between the centre of
the tornado and its outer edge. The centre has very low pressure and the outer
edge has very high pressure, creating winds that can blow at over 200 miles per
hour.

21 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
Wind Analysis

As worldwide temperatures rise, global weather patterns are following suit.

Wind, or wind power, is one of the most critically affected factors of changing
weather patterns. While global warming has some experts hypothesizing that wind
strength across the world will decrease, others claim it will intensify in the Southern
hemisphere while weakening in the Northern, along with various other schools of
thought. As it is still too soon to determine the true consequences of global
warming, wind pattern changes are already upon us. This poses a number of
problems including decreasing the amount of power generated by wind farms,
along with increasing conscientious construction of buildings that are experiencing
fluctuating wind velocities. As this problem progresses, wind engineering is
becoming an extremely important consideration for engineers, city planners, and
architects alike.

Wind analysis can include but is not limited to evaluating comfort, wind
loading on structures, as well as pollution and natural ventilation. Below, further
explanation and real-life wind evaluations and wind simulations will be discussed.

Wind Comfort

Wind comfort, also known as pedestrian wind comfort, is the evaluation of

wind effect at a passer-by level. Factors included in this assessment range from
wind direction and speed to air pollution. Comfort is tested by investigating outdoor
climate changes caused by the presence of a building, which has a lasting impact
on its surroundings.

Wind Loading

Wind loading is essentially wind pressure acting upon buildings and

structures. This force is most effective when the surface in question provides a flat
face and the torsional directions are greater than zero, when the wind force in the
along-wind direction is a maximum. Wind loading, in turn, impacts the model or

22 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
natural frequency of a structure, as well as creates vortex shedding that must be
evaluated, or otherwise cause vibrations in the building.

Fig. 4

Pollution Control & Natural Ventilation

Air pollution remains a great threat within the built environment and indoor
spaces. Ventilation is necessary to prevent this, and wind force is especially
powerful in natural ventilation systems. These types of systems rely on air moving
through spaces based on air pressure differences and wind power.

Fig. 5

Humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. Too much or too little
humidity can be dangerous. For example, high humidity combined with hot
temperatures is a combination that can be a health risk, especially for the very
young and the very old. It plays an important role in our daily weather. Without
water vapor in the air, our weather might be like the weather on Mars. When

23 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
weather forecasters talk about humidity, they talk about two different terms:
absolute humidity and relative humidity. Absolute humidity is the amount of water
vapor divided by the amount of dry air in a certain volume of air at a particular
temperature. The hotter the air is, the more water vapor it can hold.

Relative Humidity

Relative humidity is the ratio of the current absolute humidity to the highest
possible absolute humidity, which will depend upon the current air temperature.
Relative humidity is the term weather forecasters use most often. A relative
humidity of 100% means that the air can't hold any more water vapor. It's totally
saturated. When this occurs, it can rain. In fact, the relative humidity must be 100%
where clouds are forming for it to rain. However, at ground level where the rain
lands, the relative humidity can be less than 100%. Humans are sensitive to
changes in humidity, because our skin uses the air around us to get rid of moisture
in the form of sweat. If the relative humidity is very high, the air is already saturated
with water vapor and our sweat won't evaporate. When this happens, we feel hotter
than the actual temperature.

Likewise, very low humidity can make us feel cooler than the actual
temperature. This happens because the dry air helps sweat evaporate more
quickly than usual. If the temperature outside is 75° F (23.8° C), humidity can make
it feel warmer or cooler. A relative humidity of 0% would make it feel like it's only
69° F (20.5° C). On the other hand, a relative humidity of 100% would make it feel
like it's 80° F (26.6° C). Studies have shown that we tend to feel most comfortable
at a relative humidity of around 45%. Some people use special machines called
humidifiers (add humidity) or dehumidifiers (remove humidity) to keep indoor
humidity at a comfortable level.

Weather and Climate

Weather is basically the way the atmosphere is behaving, mainly with

respect to its effects upon life and human activities. The difference between
weather and climate is that weather consists of the short-term (minutes to months)

24 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
changes in the atmosphere. Most people think of weather in terms of temperature,
humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, and atmospheric
pressure, as in high and low pressure. Weather is what conditions of the
atmosphere are over a short period of time, and climate is how the atmosphere
"behaves" over relatively long periods of time. Climate change is about changes in
long-term averages of daily weather. If summers seem hotter lately, then the recent
climate may have changed. In various parts of the world, some people have even
noticed that springtime comes earlier now than it did 30 years ago. An earlier
springtime is indicative of a possible change in the climate. In addition to long-term
climate change, there are shorter term climate variations. This so-called climate
variability can be represented by periodic or intermittent changes related to El
Niño, La Niña, volcanic eruptions, or other changes in the Earth system.

Weather is basically the way the atmosphere is behaving, mainly with

respect to its effects upon life and human activities. The difference between
weather and climate is that weather consists of the short-term (minutes to months)
changes in the atmosphere. Most people think of weather in terms of temperature,
humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, and atmospheric
pressure, as in high and low pressure. In most places, weather can change from
minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate,
however, is the average of weather over time and space. An easy way to
remember the difference is that climate is what you expect, like a very hot summer,
and weather is what you get, like a hot day with pop-up thunderstorms.
Climate is the description of the long-term pattern of weather in a particular
area. Some scientists define climate as the average weather for a particular region
and time period, usually taken over 30-years. It's really an average pattern of
weather for a particular region, looking at averages of precipitation, temperature,
humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms,
and other measures of the weather that occur over a long period in a particular
place. After looking at rain gauge data, lake and reservoir levels, and satellite data,
scientists can tell if during a summer, an area was drier than average. If it continues

25 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
to be drier than normal over the course of many summers, than it would likely
indicate a change in the climate.

Fig. 6

Shading Analysis

Shading analysis is one of the most essential steps in phase of solar

energy system design or analysis. In photovoltaics it is important to analyse
shading caused by surrounding objects and/or vegetation. In special cases like
analysis or design of BIPV systems, exact analysis of shadow-voltaic systems
(overhangs, vertical shading fins, awnings etc.) is also very important. Similar
analysis is also part of passive house or solar house design - overhangs must
also be planned very carefully in such case.

For different simple cases it is in general not difficult to calculate

shadows for particular day and time. Below you will find some formulae's end
equations which may help you to calculate shadows for most common particular
cases in engineering practice.

Fig. 7
26 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
Köppen Climate

Köppen climate widely used, vegetation-based, empirical climate

classification system developed by German botanist-climatologist Wladimir
Köppen. Other climatologists have modified portions of Köppen’s procedure on the
basis of their experience in various parts of the world. Based on a subdivision of
terrestrial climates into five major types, which are represented by the capital
letters A, B, C, D, and E. Each of these climate types except for B is defined by
temperature criteria. Type B designates climates in which the controlling factor on
vegetation is dryness (rather than coldness). Aridity is not a matter of precipitation
alone but is defined by the relationship between the precipitation input to the soil
in which the plants grow and the evaporative losses. Since evaporation is difficult
to evaluate and is not a conventional measurement at meteorological stations,
Köppen was forced to substitute a formula that identifies aridity in terms of a
temperature-precipitation index (that is, evaporation is assumed to be controlled
by temperature). Dry climates are divided into arid (BW) and semiarid (BS)
subtypes, and each may be differentiated further by adding a third code, h for warm
and k for cold.

Temperature defines the other four major climate types. These are
subdivided, with additional letters again used to designate the various subtypes.
Type A climates (the warmest) are differentiated on the basis of the seasonality of
precipitation: Af (no dry season), Am (short dry season), or Aw (winter dry season).
Type E climates (the coldest) are conventionally separated into tundra (ET) and
snow/ice climates (EF). The mid-latitude C and D climates are given a second
letter, f (no dry season), w (winter dry), or s (summer dry), and a third symbol (a,
b, c, or d [the last subclass exists only for D climates]), indicating the warmth of the
summer or the coldness of the winter. Although Köppen’s classification did not
consider the uniqueness of highland climate regions, the highland climate
category, or H climate, is sometimes added to climate classification systems to
account for elevations above 1,500 metres (about 4,900 feet).

27 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 Fig. 8

Tropical Design

Tropical Design is the strategic arrangement of elements in buildings and

structures to respond to specific conditions of weather, sun and climate prevalent
in the Tropic Region.

Characteristic of Tropical Climate:

1. Tropical (Hot-Wet)

2. Dry (Hot-Dry / Dessert)

3. Moderate Climate – mild temperatures that can get hot during the
summer. Average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in summer and between
−3 and 18 °C (27 and 64 °F) during winter.

4. Continental Climate – characterized by important annual variation in

temperature due to the lack of significant bodies of water nearby.

5. Polar Climate – characterized by a lack of warm summers. Average

temperature below 10 °C (50 °F).

-The sun shines 24 hours in the summer, and none in the winter.

28 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 -Polar climate results in treeless tundra, glaciers, or a permanent or semi-
permanent layer of ice.

DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DIFFERENT CLIMATES:

HOT-HUMID CLIMATE:

Maximize wind exposure

Maximize internal airflow

Minimize radiant heat gain

HOT-DRY CLIMATE:

Minimize radiant heat gain

Moderate wind resistance

Moderate internal airflow

COOL CLIMATE:

Maximize thermal retention

Maximize radiant heat gain

Minimize wind resistance

TEMPERATE CLIMATE:

Moderate thermal retention

Moderate radiant heat gain

Slight wind exposure (for humidity control)

Moderate internal airflow

29 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
Tropical architecture

Tropical architecture consists of buildings specifically designed for tropical

climates, with the objective of producing pleasant living conditions while reducing
the buildings’ energy consumption, particularly the cooling load.

Some of the most important architectural principles which apply to

tropical architecture are simple to enumerate:

(1) Shading the sun and protecting from the rain using eaves, roof
overhangs, verandas etc.;

(2) Using a double roof system to limit heat gain and to allow hot air
to escape;

(3) Making sure that high thermal mass materials (materials that
retain heat and release it slowly) are properly shaded;

(4) Limiting exposure to the sun on the east and west sides, so that
the rising/setting sun does not penetrate and heat up the house;

(5) Opening the house to the prevailing breezes to facilitate the

passage of cooling breezes;

(6) Placing openings in the ceiling to allow hot air to rise;

(7) Raising the structure above ground to avoid invasions by insect,

pests, and floods.

The following 30 strategies to consider in the design of sustainable building in the

tropical climate can be outlined:

1. Site analysis: Assess the local context including the topography of the
site. Collect data on temperature, relative humidity, wind’s speed and
direction, solar path and radiation.

30 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 2. Building footprint: The footprint of the building should ideally cover not
more than 60% of the plot.

3. Building orientation: Design the long axis of the building to be along

East–West to minimize direct solar radiation penetration in the building and
reduce heat gain.

4. Building shape: Design it according to climatic zone. For hot-humid

region, use narrow plans to maximize natural light, cross-ventilation and
minimize heat gain. For hot-arid regions, use compact forms with courtyards
to retain cold air in the building and minimize heat gain. Give preference to
multi-storey building to increase density and maximize resources.

5. Allocation of spaces within the building: Services, e.g. toilets,

staircases, lift, lobbies to be located on the East- and West-facing walls to
act as buffer zones against heat gain but benefiting from daylighting.

6. Opening: Window sizing to be designed according to prevailing climatic

conditions and placement preferably on North and South walls; window to
wall ratio (WWR) should not exceed 40%. Glazing walls should be avoided,
unless using special treated glass.

7. Daylighting: Design buildings according to climatic region, with openings

on North and South walls, narrow plants to maximize daylighting, use light
shelves in deep spaces. Window should be at least one-tenth of the floor
area. The depth of the room should not exceed 2.5 times the height of the
room.

8. Solar protection: Use sun shading devices, e.g. overhangs, vertical,

horizontal shading elements, balconies, screens and vegetation to minimize
heat gain.

[Link] ventilation: Ensure that cross-ventilation is provided by the

openings. Make use of roof vents and openings, thermal chimneys and

31 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 clerestory windows. Make use of insulation materials under the roof sheet
and design ventilated roofs.

10. Cooling: Integrate passive cooling systems by designing water bodies

and features for evaporative cooling (just in hot and arid regions). Ensure
that buildings using air condition appliances are well insulated to limit heat
gains and reduce energy demand.

11. Heating: In highland region, enhance passive heat gain. Design passive
solar heating strategies to ensure maximum sun penetration during cold
season.

12. Building envelope materials: Always consider the carbon footprint

content while choosing building materials. Give preferences to locally
available building materials that are more appropriate with low energy
content. Consider recyclable and reusable materials with low toxic
emissions. Give preference to envelops (wall and roofs) with low U-value or
low heat transmittance properties.

[Link] finishes: Make use of light-coloured materials on external

facades and roofs to reflect solar radiation in excess, while also
incorporating green and living walls, vertical gardens provided with
vegetation that grows on the facades.

[Link] energy: Integrate solar energy (thermal and electricity)

such as photovoltaic and solar water heaters; wind energy, biogas and other
available renewable energy systems into the building design.

[Link] conservation and efficiency: Design rainwater harvesting

systems. Recycle grey water. Use water-efficient appliances and water-
saving fixtures.

16. Drainage: Provide appropriate drainage technique to mitigate storm

water run-off and facilitate replenishment of water table through rainwater
infiltration.

32 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 17. Sanitation: In the absence of municipal sewage system, design on-site
wastewater treatment facilities with production of biogas, compost and
reused of water for irrigation.

18. Solid waste management: Design provisions for waste separation with
on-site sorting facilities. Introduce innovative systems that encourage the
3R actions: reduce, recycle and reuse.

19. Landscaping: Design soft landscaping (greening site) with indigenous

plants that require minimal irrigation and hard landscaping with paving
materials that allow rainwater permeability. Limit paved areas around the
building to reduce heat island effects.

20. Energy-efficient appliances and energy demand management:

Incorporate energy-saving appliances in the building design. Make use of
energy-saving bulbs, light level sensors, occupancy and motion sensors.
Encourage behaviour change. Ensure that energy demand management
principles are given top priorities by the building occupants.

21. Well-balanced public spaces: Fifty per cent of spaces should be

allocated to streets, roads, public spaces, gardens and parks (30% far
streets, 15% open space).

22. Mixed land use: Avoid zoning by combining economic, administrative

and residential activities. This reduces the need to travel and ensures the
use of public space.

23. Mixed social structure: Promote social integration and diversity.

Encourage cosmopolitan values and the need to live together and avoid
gated communities. Twenty to fifty per cent of residential space should be
allocated to affordable housing.

24. Adequate density and compact design: High density

neighbourhoods that are enough to trigger economies of scale and ensure
livability.

33 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 25. Connectivity: Design street patterns and networks that connect the
different parts of the city and ease the access to goods and services.

26. Urban form matters: Support mixed use, street life and walkability by
designing compact blocks and buildings.

27. Walkability: Favour pedestrian mobility by emphasizing on walking

distances, mixed use and public transport.

28. Active mobility: Street design should provide for pedestrians and
cyclist lanes. Cycling extends reach of public transport.

29. Promote the “shift”: Encourage modal shift from energy-intensive

modes, (cars) to walking, cycling and using public transport. Make cycling
and walking safe and attractive.

30. Promote vehicle efficiency: Promote green transport by promoting the

shift from fossil fuel-dependent vehicles to hybrid and electric cars.

34 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 CONCLUSION

Architecture is an art which can project a phenomenological scope

into intellectual depth. And it is subjected to the human senses and has to
do with visuals, sounds, smell, and touch, etc… The language of
architecture is rich with various elements such as spatial qualities,
orchestration of spaces, progressions through the spaces, etc… using
these elements, an architect is expected to encourage perception so that
meaning is reached. Architecture is the unity of art and science. Therefore,
the designers need to harmonize the two opposing topics to come up with
the best solution that will lead to a meaningful product.

RECOMMENDATION

• To architecture students to consider the factors of climate on planning and

designing their plates and using of materials in designing their plans in Tropical
Design class.

• To the future architecture students, for the improvement of their observation

and awareness not only in designing the structure but how they analyse the
climate.

• To all the students to be more aware not only the design of the structure but also
give importance to the factors of weather and climate that may affect the
structure.

• To all the Architecture Instructors/ Professionals, they could prepare individuals

to give emphasize by discussing to the students to be more aware to the climate

• To University of Batangas Lipa, they can put up a program or contest wherein all
architecture students participate to show their ability and skills in planning
tropical design structure.

35 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s
 REFERENCES

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solar-architecture

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[Link]
what-are-the-differences/

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[Link]

36 | C l i m a t e A n a l y s i s