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Digital Governance in Canada

This document discusses how digital technologies are affecting governance in Canada. It notes that governments now have new ways to deliver services to citizens using tools like social media, but also face challenges from phenomena like "fake news." Emerging technologies like artificial intelligence will provide major opportunities but also require rapid regulatory responses. While Canada was once a leader in e-government, it is now seen as lagging behind countries adopting more innovative approaches. The document questions whether Canadian governments, which tend to lag the private sector and citizens in digital adoption, will retain their power and relevance in the digital age.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
171 views19 pages

Digital Governance in Canada

This document discusses how digital technologies are affecting governance in Canada. It notes that governments now have new ways to deliver services to citizens using tools like social media, but also face challenges from phenomena like "fake news." Emerging technologies like artificial intelligence will provide major opportunities but also require rapid regulatory responses. While Canada was once a leader in e-government, it is now seen as lagging behind countries adopting more innovative approaches. The document questions whether Canadian governments, which tend to lag the private sector and citizens in digital adoption, will retain their power and relevance in the digital age.

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Raka DR
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Amanda Clarke Understanding governance in the

Evert A. Lindquist
Jeffrey Roy digital era: An agenda for public
administration research in
Canada

Digital disruptions and opportunities


How are digital technologies affecting democratic governance in Canada,
and how might the digital age bolster or undermine our public institutions
and collective problem-solving capacity in the coming years? Governments
now face new ways to tailor and deliver services to citizens, can use social
media to share information and mobilize or corrode support, and have
access to collaborative platforms to facilitate crowd-sourcing inside and
outside government. Governments can also capitalize on new streams of
evidence to guide policy interventions, not only from “big data” generated
from internal administrative operations and citizens’ and governments’
digital activities, but also from innovation labs, hackathons and advances
in social science thinking, as we have seen with global interest in
“nudging” and behavioural economics.
At the same time, as the digital age produces unprecedented amounts of
data and information that swirl through our societies, we face new balances
in power and control shaped by uneven capacity to interpret and manipu-
late digital data flows. In addition, Clarke and Francoli (2017) identify a
tension between popular enthusiasm for digital-era governance, and obser-
vations in Canadian public administration literature, which frame the digi-
tal age and the frantic pace of information exchange it facilitates as a driver
of short-termism, information control and a politicization of the public ser-
vice (see Marland, Giasson, and Esselment 2017; Marland 2016; Savoie
2003, 2013). Recent concerns over “fake news,” filter bubbles, echo cham-
bers and political bots also complicate the assumption that the Internet and
enriched democracy necessarily move hand in hand (El-Bermawy 2016;
Margetts 2017; McKelvey and Dubois 2017; Owen and Greenspon 2017).

Amanda Clarke is Assistant Professor, School of Public Policy and Administration, Carleton
University, Ottawa, Ontario. Evert A. Lindquist is Professor, School of Public
Administration, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia. Jeffrey Roy is Professor,
School of Public Administration, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. We thank the
reviewers for comments on all of the articles in this collection and Denis Saint-Martin who,
in his capacity as Associate Editor, coordinated the peer-review process.

[Correction added on 7 Dec 2017, after first online publication: The title for Dylan Marando
and Jonathan Craft’s article, “Digital Era Policy Advising: Clouding Ministerial Perspectives”,
has been corrected and indicated by the symbol ^.]
CANADIAN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION / ADMINISTRATION PUBLIQUE DU CANADA
VOLUME 60, NO. 4 (DECEMBER/D ECEMBRE  2017), PP. 457–475
V
C The Institute of Public Administration of Canada/L’Institut d’administration publique du Canada 2017
458 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

Even more dramatic social and economic shifts are on the near horizon
as technologies such as artificial intelligence, automation, robotics, block-
chain and algorithmic decision making hit the mainstream. These develop-
ments offer governments immense opportunities to produce more efficient
and effective services and policies, and might prove crucial in the state’s
response to mounting social and economic challenges, such as aging socie-
ties and climate change that are already highlighting the limits of govern-
ments’ policy capacity. Yet, these emerging technologies, along with
disruptive industries (evident in the so-called “sharing economy” of Uber
and Airbnb) and disrupted industries (such as journalism and traditional
cable television) also place new pressures on governments to develop regu-
latory responses at a rapid pace and with an agility typically lacking in
large hierarchical organizations.
Most advocates for the transformative potential of digital technology
(for example, Tapscott and Williams 2008; Tapscott 1998, 2009, 2010),
acknowledge that governments are generally (but not always) ill-equipped
to embrace the opportunities of digital technologies relative to business,
non-profits and citizens—compare online banking and web-based collec-
tive action with government services and public consultations, for example.
To keep pace with and leverage an increasingly interconnected, tech-savvy
citizenry and non-government actors experimenting with and adopting
new technologies—and to account for dwindling fiscal resources in the
wake of recent financial crises and mounting social challenges— the domi-
nant thinking in the field calls for wholesale public management reforms.
These reforms would see traditional process-heavy, hierarchical machine
bureaucracies become more agile and innovative, and open to collaboration
internally across previously siloed units of government, and externally,
with different levels of government and non-government actors (O’Reilly
2011; Novek 2009, 2015; Margetts and Dunleavy 2013). Still others see an
upcoming generation of citizens, political activists, elected officials and
public servants operating with a new set of values and practices associated
with the digital era – openness, collaboration, peer-production and entre-
preneurialism, for instance. This new ethos will test traditional models of
governance in Canada, but harnessing the potential of a new fleet of
reform-oriented digital-era public servants and citizens may be necessary
to ensure that governments embrace the opportunities and weather the
challenges that governing in the digital age presents.

Does Canada remain an exemplar?


While Canada was seen as an international exemplar in the “e-government”
movement of the late 1990s and early 2000s, and still remains in the top 25 of
the United Nations E-Government Development Index, it is no longer seen as
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 459

one of the very top performers (United Nations 2016; The Stratford Institute
for Digital Media 2012). And outside these rankings, Canada is no longer the
first source of inspiration globally for cutting-edge thinking on digital govern-
ment. Instead, the United Kingdom’s Government Digital Service, and its fol-
lowers in Australia, the United States, and to its credit, Ontario, are praised
for their embrace of user-centred design, agile methodology, for revamping
Information Technology procurement and recruiting a fleet of technologists to
the rank and file of government workforces. Estonia, New Zealand and
Singapore have also leapfrogged early e-government leaders such as Canada,
ushering in world-class digital services. With interest in the role of ICT in
development, countries like Bangladesh are quickly becoming hotbeds of dig-
ital innovation. Playing catch up to these international trends, and responding
to the disastrous Phoenix pay system failure, the federal government intro-
duced a Canadian Digital Service in its 2017 budget. Yet, this effort alone will
likely not suffice to update the federal government’s service offerings at scale
(Clarke 2017).
Beyond the provision of public services, Canada equally appears a lag-
gard in the domain of digitally-enabled citizen engagement. To be sure,
there are pockets of innovation at the municipal level (cities such as
Nanaimo and Edmonton were among the first to release open data) and
the provincial level (for example, the Government of British Columbia’s
Citizen Engagement unit). Following these leaders, open data initiatives
and official Open Government programs have cropped up in cities, provin-
ces, and in the federal government. Canada is a member of the 70-member
Open Government Partnership (Francoli 2014), and so is Ontario. But, Can-
ada is not regarded globally as a first mover on Open Government, despite
its early history as an Access to Information trendsetter, and alongside
global interest in digital-era Open Government, the federal government in
particular has been critiqued for backsliding on its transparency commit-
ments (Legault 2015). Indeed, when discussing digital innovations in citi-
zen engagement and democratic governance, it is countries like Iceland
(which crowdsourced the first draft of its constitution) and Brazil (which
has undertaken novel forms of online citizen engagement) that are fre-
quently cited, not Canada.
On the other hand, while not necessarily globally recognized as first-
movers or as cutting-edge, many federal, provincial, municipal and First
Nations governments are adopting digital technology to address their chal-
lenges, in some cases in potentially transformative ways. Outside govern-
ment, organizations such as Code for Canada (set to work with the Ontario
and federal governments in 2017), Open North, civic tech and open data
communities are also leveraging digital technologies to engage citizens and
solve social challenges, with the potential for impressive transformations to
Canadian governance. The question remains, however, what this digital
460 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

transformation consists of – its scale, relationship to previous and ongoing


non-digital reforms and significance for Canadian democracy writ large
are little understood. Most obviously, we might ask whether Canadian
governments that on average lag behind the private sector, political parties,
lobbying groups and individual citizens in adopting the technologies and
worldviews defining the digital age retain their relevance, legitimacy and
power in the digital age. And, despite deficiencies in some governance
domains, Canadian governments have proven willing and able to embrace
digital technologies to support secretive and largely unaccountable citizen
surveillance undertaken in the name of national security, activities that
compel us to question the rhetoric of democratic renewal and Open Gov-
ernment punctuating popular theories of digital-era governance in Canada
and internationally (Roy 2016; Lindquist 2017).

Canadian scholarship on governance


in the digital era
This collection is not the first foray into this changing landscape. Alexander
and Pal (1998) took an early look at the implications of digital technology
for Canadian democracy, and Allen et al (2001) considered the early experi-
ence of the Canadian government with its “Government Online” initiative.
Roy (2006) examined the emergence of e-government in Canada while Bor-
ins et al.’s (2007) Digital State at the Leading Edge collection provided a wide-
ranging look at different functions and leadership pertaining to informa-
tion management and public administration. Dutil et al.’s (2010) The Service
State offered critical perspectives on new possibilities and quandaries for
service delivery in the digital age. McNutt (2009) explored online consulta-
tion as a means for citizen engagement, and Roy’s (2008) “Beyond West-
minster governance” examined the tensions between Westminster and
digital-network values. While some broached how digital technology
might facilitate new governance possibilities (for example, Bourgon 2011),
others have considered the darker side of the New Political Governance
with prime ministers and governments using new digital tools to assert
control over government communications and micro-target campaigns
(Aucoin 2012; Bakvis and Jarvis 2012; Marland 2016).
Recent research has focused on the uses and effects of new digital policy
instruments, with several articles appearing in Canadian Public Administra-
tion. Examples include McNutt (2012) on the web presence of government
agencies, McNutt (2014) on the implications of social media for govern-
ment, Brown (2013) on the implications of new technology for administra-
tive services and central agencies in government as well as for
accountability, Glenn (2014) on the modernization of the communications
function in different levels of Canadian government, Roy (2008) on mobile
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 461

technologies, Dutil (2015) on crowd-sourcing, and Kernaghan (2013, 2014a,


2014b) variously on managing channel management, and the ethical
dimensions of digital technology and robotics. Work by Canadian scholars
published elsewhere includes Clarke (2014) and Clarke and Margetts
(2014) exploring different aspects of Open Government, big data and public
management reform, Craft (2014) probing the rhetoric and practice with
the “open government” movement, Bennett and Lyon (2008) and Bennett
et al. (2014) on the ever-broadening reach of surveillance of citizens, and
Lindquist (2015) on visualization traditions and policy development.
This is only a sampling of the work done by Canadian public adminis-
tration scholars. It does not reflect the reports of government, think tanks,
and other specialist contributions (but see Flumian [2009a, 2009b] and
Johal, Galley, and Molson 2014 for a good survey of the new possibilities
for digital-era public administration). But even a quick tour of the Cana-
dian public administration literature shows that it is difficult to cut through
the hype to get an accurate picture of what digitization means for the qual-
ity, shape and directions of governments and governance: the research has
diverse points of departure and focuses on distinct issues and trends, offer-
ing little in the way of an integrating framework to put particular tools and
progress in certain domains in perspective.
Part of the challenge is trying to concretely assess how governance prac-
tice has evolved, which requires taking into account actors inside and outside
government, across sectors and across levels of government, including pro-
vincial, local and Indigenous communities.1 Another part of the challenge is
that the nomenclature introduced with the digital era excites interest but
often obfuscates at the same time. What is one to make of Open Government,
open data, social media, and crowd-sourcing when government and big
firms can seem less accountable and more closed than ever? A third element
of the challenge is that there are so many different domains and issues at
play when discussing digital-era governance. Practitioners and researchers
cannot ignore the minutiae of these varied phenomenon, and must grapple
with more specific questions about how digital technology can/is affecting
distinct spheres of government work (policy design, citizen engagement, ser-
vice delivery, regulation, back-room functions such as information manage-
ment and information technology, accountability, etc.). Compounding this
complexity, progress in these areas varies by department, policy issue and
level of government. But alongside these focused domain-specific studies,
we still require answers to broad questions about the trajectory and evolution
of Canadian governance – particularly the Westminster model of the federal
and provincial governments – and the state of Canadian democracy.
To advance thinking in the field and connect the Canadian experience
with active international debates on digital-era governance, we need more
Canadian public administration scholars “on the case” with richer linkages
462 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

to specialists in related disciplines and professions, such as computer and


data sciences, information and library sciences, communications, design
and visual practice, behavioural economics, and foresight. This conversa-
tion must also be pan-Canadian and inter-jurisdictional, in particular
acknowledging that a networked digital age makes possible and in many
cases will necessitate networked jurisdictional solutions. Linking up data,
policy making, service delivery and governance structures across Canada’s
linguistically, geographically and ethnically diverse federal and First
Nations’ system of government represents both a complex challenge and a
significant opportunity that might render the “Canadian experience” an
exemplar (or source of cautionary tales) internationally.
Arguably the pressures now felt and promised by digital technologies
are similar in reach, scope and disruptive potential as those which led to
the Royal Commission on Economic Union and Development Prospects
(1982-85). There is no chance that a government will establish a similar
commission, but we need a cross-Canada conversation among scholars,
practitioners and citizens to appraise the quality of the system of gover-
nance and its constituent institutions and practices that we have brought
into the digital age, and to construct the system of governance, institutions
and practices that take advantage and make the most of what digital tools
can offer; indeed, these tools have already changed the way many parts of
government work, altered the expectations citizens have of governments,
and can reinforce or skew governance in favour of certain interests inside
and outside government.

Getting started: an overview


Acknowledging the need for a national conversation on Canadian digital-
era governance, in 2014 a group of scholars working across universities,
federal and provincial governments, non-profit and private sector institu-
tions and the Institute on Governance joined to launch a multi-year
research and engagement agenda, funded through a Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council Partnership Development Grant. This special
issue of Canadian Public Administration grew out of this grant and the Digi-
tal Governance Partnership it has fuelled.
The collection is comprised of nine papers which explore the potential
and challenges of digital-era tools and approaches in diverse domains of
Canadian governance. The goal was to assess the state of the Canadian lit-
erature, to ascertain if the digital age is producing fundamental challenges
or opportunities for governments in those diverse domains, and whether
these new developments and possibilities are genuinely new or are a con-
tinuation of enduring themes of Canadian public administration. Most
importantly, we sought to identify a program of research that could inform
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 463

a national conversation on Canadian governance in the digital age, looking


across governments to how they intersect with other sectors and citizens.
While intrigued by digital tools, we endeavoured not to be dazzled by
them, recognizing that like all technologies there are upsides and down-
sides to their adoption, and technologies can variously transform or rein-
force existing patterns of governance and public administration.
The first three papers explore different aspects of policy development. In
“The Vestiges and Vanguards of Policy Design in a Digital Context,”
Amanda Clarke and Jonathan Craft consider how digital tools expand and
affect not only the existing tool-kit of policy instruments, but also the pro-
cess of developing policy and the resulting policy mixes. Raising their
sights from policy design per se, Dylan Marando and Jonathan Craft con-
sider how the act of advising ministers is changing in their article “Digital
Era Policy Advising: Clouding Ministerial Perspectives.”^ Taking a broader
look at how advising and engagement have evolved, Justin Longo consid-
ers examples of how governments have adjusted in their use of engage-
ment tools and strategies to seek advice in “Citizen and Stakeholder
Engagement into the Digital Era: From Spicer to #Hashtags.” Not surpris-
ingly there are overlaps in these perspectives, but together they reveal an
exciting range of possibilities, tensions and dilemmas for governments.
The next three papers address several “conventional” areas of public
administration that are no less affected by possibilities and developments of
the digital era. Based on many years observing e-government, Jeffrey Roy
takes stock of how digital tools have intersected with successive public sector
reform movements in “Digital Government and Service Delivery: An Exami-
nation of Performance and Prospects.” Unlike service delivery, which has
received a considerable amount of attention by Canadian scholars, Patrice
Dutil and Julie Williams in “Regulation Governance in the Digital Era: A
New Research Agenda” provide a panoramic view of a governance domain
side-swiped by digital transformations, and where scholarship has failed to
keep up. Similarly, in “Information Governance in Digitized Public Adminis-
tration,” David Brown and Sandra Toze consider the many challenges con-
fronting the Information Management (IM) functions in government, which
not only must keep up with never-ending software and platform technologi-
cal change alongside an explosion of information production, but also must
support all the other functions of government which are increasingly shaped
by IM capacity in the public service.
The final three papers offer broader perspectives. In “Canadian Gover-
nance in Transition: Multilevel Governance in the Digital Era,” Davide
Cargnello and Maryantonett Flumian consider the challenges the digital
age presents to all governments in Canada, depicting governments as part
of distributed governance systems, and exploring the implications for serv-
ing and engaging citizens in new ways. In “Accountability and Monitoring
464 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

Government in the Digital Era: Promise, Realism and Research for Digital-
Era Governance in Canada,” Evert Lindquist and Irene Huse survey how
different streams of research, variously centered on digital technologies or
on the state of public administration and governance, have started to con-
verge and point to the need for research on new forms of interactive,
dynamic, and citizen-initiated accountability in continuous real-time envi-
ronments. Given the scope of these papers, we need an overarching view
of how these developments work together and where they might take gov-
ernments and democratic governance in the future. Answering this call, in
the final paper, Peter Jones introduces us to foresight methods and sensibil-
ities in “The Futures of Canadian Governance: Foresight Competencies for
Public Administration in the Digital Era,” which we believe to be an apt
way to conclude this collection of primarily exploratory, agenda-setting
papers.
Each paper offers panoramic views of possibilities and the literature in
their respective domains. It is daunting to look across these domains and
consider what they mean for the future of government and governance in
Canada. They point to the need for a large systematic program of empirical
research on how governments have been evolving and where governance
might go as our societies experience rapid changes in the digital age. This
is a big task, which is why we have established the Digital Government
Partnership. Building on the Partnership’s work so far, this collection of
papers intends to kick-start a much-needed conversation on the present
state and future possibilities for Canadian digital-era governance.

Comprendre la gouvernance a  l’e


re
nume 
rique : Etude theorique
canadienne pour l’administration
publique
s nume
Perturbations et possibilite riques
Quelles sont les repercussions des technologies numeriques sur la gouver-
nance democratique au Canada, et de quelles manieres l’^age numerique
peut-il renforcer ou saper nos institutions publiques et la capacite collective
de resolution de problemes dans les annees a venir? Les gouvernements
sont maintenant confrontes a de nouvelles façons d’adapter et de fournir
les services aux citoyens, peuvent utiliser les medias sociaux pour diffuser
l’information et mobiliser ou corrompre le soutien, ainsi qu’avoir acces a
des plateformes collaboratives afin de faciliter l’externalisation ouverte au
sein et a l’exterieur du gouvernement. Les gouvernements sont aussi en
mesure de tirer parti de nouveaux courants de preuves pour diriger les
interventions de politiques; et ceci non seulement a partir de « megadonnees »
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 465

produites par les operations administratives internes et les activites


numeriques des citoyens et des gouvernements, mais aussi par des labora-
toires d’innovation, des hackathons et des progres de reflexion dans les sci-
ences sociales, comme en temoigne l’inter^et mondial en « petit coup de
coude » et en economies comportementales.
Parallelement, alors que l’^age numerique fournit des quantites de
donnees et d’information sans precedent tourbillonnant dans nos societes,
nous sommes confrontes a de nouveaux equilibres de pouvoir et de con-
tr^ole qui sont definis par une capacite inegale d’interpreter et de manipuler
les flux de donnees numeriques. En outre, Clarke et Francoli (2017) distin-
guent une tension existant entre l’enthousiasme populaire pour la gouver-
nance de l’ere numerique, et les observations faites dans la litterature sur
l’administration publique canadienne, qui formulent l’^age numerique et
son rythme effrene d’echange d’information comme un imperatif de politi-
que  a court terme, de contr^ ole d’information et une politisation du service
public (voir Marland, Giasson, et Esselment 2017; Marland 2016; Savoie
2003, 2013). Les recentes preoccupations concernant les « fausses informa-
tions », les bulles de filtres, les caisses de resonance et les robots politiques
compliquent aussi l’hypothese qu’Internet et l’enrichissement de la
democratie vont de pair (El-Bermawy 2016; Margetts 2017; McKelvey et
Dubois 2017; Owen et Greenspon 2017).
Des changements sociaux et economiques encore plus spectaculaires se
profilent dans un futur proche, alors que des technologies comme l’intelli-
gence artificielle, la robotique, les cha^ınes de blocs et la prise de decision
algorithmique touchent le grand public. Pour les gouvernements, ces
developpements offrent d’enormes possibilites pour fournir des services et
politiques plus efficaces et efficients, et pourraient s’averer decisifs dans la

reponse de l’Etat aux defis sociaux et economiques croissants, tels que le
vieillissement de la population et le changement climatique qui soulignent
dej
a les limites des gouvernements en matiere de capacite d’elaboration
des politiques. Neanmoins, ces technologies emergentes, ainsi que les
industries perturbatrices (dont fait preuve la soi-disant « economie de parta-
ge » d’Uber et AirBnB) et les industries perturbees (telles que le journalisme
et la c^ablodistribution traditionnelle) exercent aussi de nouvelles pressions
sur les gouvernements pour elaborer de nouvelles interventions
reglementaires avec rapidite et avec une agilite qui fait generalement
defaut dans les grandes organisations hierarchiques.
La plupart des defenseurs du potentiel d’evolution attribue a la techno-
logie numerique (p. ex. Tapscott et Williams 2008; Tapscott 1998, 2009,
2010), reconnaissent que les gouvernements sont generalement (mais pas
toujours) mal equipes pour saisir les occasions presentees par les technolo-
gies numeriques concernant les affaires, les organismes a but non lucratif et
les citoyens – a comparer par exemple, la banque en ligne et les actions
466 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

collectives sur le Web avec les services gouvernementaux et les consulta-


tions publiques. Afin de suivre et de miser sur des citoyens et des interven-
ants non gouvernementaux de plus en plus interconnectes, experts en
technologie et qui adoptent les nouvelles technologies – tout en tenant
compte des ressources monetaires en baisse decoulant des recentes crises
financieres, et des defis sociaux croissants – les idees dominantes dans le
domaine en appellent a des reformes generalisees du management public.
Ces reformes tendraient a transformer les bureaucraties hierarchiques tra-
ditionnelles aux procedures lourdes afin qu’elles deviennent plus agiles et
novatrices, ouvertes a la collaboration a l’interne par le biais d’unites gou-
vernementales prealablement cloisonnees et, a l’externe, par le biais d’inter-
venants gouvernementaux et non gouvernementaux a differents paliers
(O’Reilly 2011; Noveck 2009, 2015; Margetts et Dunleavy 2013). D’autres
voient encore une nouvelle generation de citoyens, de militants politiques,
d’elus et de fonctionnaires œuvrant avec un nouvel ensemble de valeurs et
de pratiques liees  a l’ere numerique : par exemple, ouverture, collabora-
tion, production collaborative et esprit d’entreprise. Bien que cette nouvelle
ethique mette  a l’epreuve les modeles traditionnels de gouvernance au
Canada, il pourrait ^etre necessaire d’exploiter le potentiel d’un nouveau
groupe de fonctionnaires et de citoyens axes sur la reforme de l’ere
numerique, cela afin d’assurer que les gouvernements saisissent les occa-
sions et surmontent les defis que la gouvernance presente a l’^age
numerique.

fe
Le Canada reste-t-il une re rence?
Alors que le Canada etait considere comme un exemple de reference inter-
national lors du mouvement du « cybergouvernement » a la fin des annees
1990 et au debut des annees 2000, et qu’il reste toujours parmi les 25 pre-
miers sur l’Index de developpement de l’E-gouvernement des Nations
Unies, il n’est plus perçu comme l’un des plus performants (United
Nations 2016; Stratford Initiative 2012). En dehors de ces classements, le
Canada n’est plus la premiere source d’inspiration du gouvernement
numerique de pointe sur le plan mondial. En revanche, le Government Digi-

tal Service du Royaume-Uni et ses adeptes en Australie, aux Etats-Unis, et
c’est tout a son honneur, en Ontario, sont couverts d’eloges pour avoir
adopte un concept axe sur l’utilisateur, une methodologie agile, pour mo-
derniser l’approvisionnement en technologies de l’information et pour
recruter des groupes de technologues dans le personnel de base des effec-
tifs gouvernementaux. L’Estonie, la Nouvelle-Zelande et Singapour sont
aussi passes par-dessus les leaders du cybergouvernement de la premiere
heure comme le Canada, en inaugurant des services numeriques de classe
internationale. Interesses par le r^
ole des TIC pour le developpement, des
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 467

pays comme le Bangladesh sont rapidement en train de devenir des foyers


de l’innovation numerique. Pour essayer de rattraper ces tendances inter-
nationales, et en reponse a l’echec desastreux du systeme de paie Phenix, le
gouvernement federal a introduit un Service Numerique Canadien dans
son budget de 2017. Cependant, ce seul effort ne suffira pas a remettre a
niveau les offres de services du gouvernement federal (Clarke 2017).
Au-del a de la prestation des services publics, le Canada semble aussi
^etre a la tra^ıne dans le domaine de l’engagement des citoyens adaptes au
numerique. Il est certain qu’il existe des poches d’innovation au niveau
municipal ([Link]., des villes comme Nanaimo et Edmonton qui ont ete
parmi les premieres a diffuser des donnees ouvertes) et au niveau provin-
cial ([Link]., le Citizen Engagement unit du gouvernement de Colombie-Britan-
nique). Sur les pas de ces chefs de file, des initiatives de donnees ouvertes
et des programmes officiels de gouvernement ouvert ont apparu dans les
villes, les provinces, et au sein du gouvernement federal. Le Canada est
l’un des 70 membres du Partenariat pour un gouvernement ouvert
(Francoli 2014), de m^eme que l’Ontario. Cependant, malgre son passe de lan-
ceur de tendances concernant l’acces a l’information, le Canada n’est pas
generalement considere comme un precurseur du gouvernement ouvert; et
quoiqu’etant interesse par un gouvernement ouvert de l’ere numerique, le
gouvernement federal en particulier a reçu des critiques pour faire marche
arriere sur ses engagements de transparence (Legault 2015b). En effet, lors-
qu’on parle d’innovations numeriques dans l’engagement des citoyens et la
gouvernance democratique, ce sont des pays comme l’Islande (qui a fait
appel  a l’externalisation ouverte pour le premier projet de sa constitution) et
le Bresil (qui a entrepris de nouvelles formes d’engagement citoyen en ligne)
qui sont souvent cites, et non pas le Canada.
En revanche, bien que non necessairement perçus comme precurseurs
ou  a la pointe de la technologie a l’echelle mondiale, de nombreux gou-
vernements federal, provinciaux, municipaux et des Premieres Nations
adoptent la technologie numerique pour repondre a leurs defis, et ce, de
manieres transformatrices dans certains cas. En dehors du gouvernement,
des organismes tels que Code for Canada (pr^et a travailler avec les gou-
vernements Ontarien et federal en 2017), Nord Ouvert, des communautes
civiques de technologie et de donnees ouvertes tirent aussi parti des tech-
nologies numeriques pour impliquer les citoyens et resoudre les problemes
sociaux, avec la possibilite d’apporter des changements impressionnants
dans la gouvernance canadienne. Neanmoins, une question persiste : en
quoi consiste cette evolution numerique – son envergure, sa relation avec
les reformes non numeriques precedentes et actuelles, et sa portee pour la
democratie canadienne dans son ensemble sont peu connues. Il para^ıt
evident de se demander si, en adoptant les technologies et les visions du
monde qui definissent l’^age numerique, les gouvernements canadiens
468 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

generalement devances par le secteur prive, les partis politiques, les


groupes de pression et les citoyens particuliers garderont leur pertinence,
leur legitimite et leur pouvoir a l’^age numerique. Enfin, malgre des lacunes
dans certains secteurs de gouvernance, les gouvernements canadiens se
sont montre disposes a adopter les technologies numeriques pour soutenir
des activites de surveillance des citoyens, secretes et en grande partie non
imputees, au nom de la securite nationale; des activites qui nous forcent a
questionner la rhetorique du renouveau democratique et du gouvernement
ouvert ponctuant les theories populaires de la gouvernance a l’ere
numerique au Canada et a l’international (Roy 2016; Lindquist 2017).

Bourse de recherche canadienne pour la


gouvernance a l’e
re nume
rique
Cette collection d’articles n’est pas la premiere incursion dans cet environ-
nement en evolution. Roy (2006) a etudie l’emergence du cybergouverne-
ment au Canada, alors que la collection Digital State at the Leading Edge par
Borins et coll. (2007) a offert une ample etude des differentes fonctions et
du leadership concernant la gestion de l’information et l’administration
publique. The Service State par Dutil et coll. (2010) a presente des perspec-
tives critiques sur les possibilites et les dilemmes pour la prestation de
services  age numerique. McNutt (2009) a etudie la consultation en ligne
a l’^
comme moyen d’engagement citoyen, et dans “Beyond Westminster
gouvernance”, Roy (2008) a etudie les tensions entre les valeurs de type
Westminster et celles du reseau numerique. Alors que certains ont aborde
la maniere dont la technologie numerique pourrait faciliter de nouvelles
possibilites de gouvernance ([Link]. Bourgon 2011), d’autres ont envisage le
c^
ote plus sombre de la Nouvelle Gouvernance Politique qui permet aux
premiers ministres et aux gouvernements de faire usage de nouveaux ou-
tils numeriques pour avoir la mainmise sur les communications gouverne-
mentales et les campagnes precisement ciblees (Aucoin 2012; Bakvis et
Jarvis 2012; Marland 2016).
Des etudes de recherche recentes se sont penchees sur les utilisations et
les repercussions des nouveaux instruments de politique numeriques, dont
plusieurs articles ont ete publies dans Administration publique du Canada.
Parmi ces exemples, on compte McNutt (2013) sur les implications des
medias sociaux pour le gouvernement, Brown (2013) sur les consequences
de la nouvelle technologie pour les services administratifs et les organismes
centraux du gouvernement, ainsi que pour l’imputabilite, Glenn (2014) sur
la modernisation de la fonction de communication a divers paliers du gou-
vernement canadien, Roy (2013) sur les technologies mobiles, Dutil (2015)
sur l’externalisation ouverte, et enfin Kernaghan (2013, 2014a, 2014b)
differemment, sur la gestion des modes de prestation, et sur les dimensions
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 469

ethiques de la technologie numerique et de la robotique. Parmi les travaux


d’universitaires publies ailleurs, on trouve Clarke (2014) et Clarke et
Margetts (2014) qui etudient differents aspects du Gouvernement ouvert,
les megadonnees et la reforme du management public, Craft (2014) investi-
guant la rhetorique et la pratique liees au mouvement du « gouvernement
ouvert », Bennett et coll. (2014) traitant de la portee sans cesse croissante de
la surveillance des citoyens, et Lindquist (2015) sur les traditions de visuali-
sation et l’elaboration de politiques.
Ceci ne represente qu’un echantillon du travail accompli par les
erudits de l’administration publique canadienne. Il ne reflete pas les
rapports du gouvernement, les groupes de reflexion, et autres contribu-
tions de specialistes (voir Sunil et Galley, 2014, pour une excellente vue
d’ensemble des nouvelles possibilites pour l’administration publique a
l’ere numerique). Cependant, m^eme une revue rapide de la litterature
de l’administration publique canadienne montre la difficulte de
depasser la surmediatisation afin d’obtenir une image precise de ce que
represente la numerisation pour la qualite, la forme et les orientations
des gouvernements et de la gouvernance : les documents de recherche
ayant des points de depart varies et se concentrant sur des questions et
des tendances distinctes, offrent peu en matiere de cadre integre pour
mettre en perspective les outils et progres specifiques dans certains
domaines.
Une partie du defi consiste a evaluer concretement l’evolution de la pra-
tique de gouvernance, ce qui implique de tenir compte des intervenants a
l’interieur et 
a l’exterieur du gouvernement, dans tous les secteurs, a tous
les paliers de gouvernement, et en incluant les communautes au niveau
provincial, local et autochtone.2 Une autre partie du defi est le fait que la
nomenclature introduite avec l’ere numerique stimule l’inter^et tout en
creant de la confusion. Que doit-on penser du gouvernement ouvert,
donnees ouvertes, medias sociaux, et externalisation ouverte alors que le
gouvernement et les grandes societes semblent moins imputables et plus
fermees que jamais? Le troisieme element du defi est le fait qu’il y a tant de
secteurs et de problemes differents en jeu lorsqu’on parle de gouvernance a
l’ere numerique. Ne pouvant ignorer les menus details de ces differents
phenomenes, les praticiens et les chercheurs sont confrontes a des ques-
tions plus specifiques : quelles sont les incidences de la technologie
numerique sur les domaines distincts du travail gouvernemental (concep-
tion des politiques, engagement citoyen, prestation de services,
reglementation, fonctions de soutien comme la gestion de l’information et
la technologie de l’information, imputabilite, etc.). Aggravant cette com-
plexite, les progres dans ces domaines varient selon le ministere, l’enjeu
politique et le palier de gouvernement. Mais a c^ ote de ces etudes
specifiques concentrees sur un secteur, nous avons encore besoin de
470 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

reponses  a de grandes questions sur la trajectoire et l’evolution de la gou-


vernance canadienne – en particulier le modele Westminster des gouverne-
ments federal et provinciaux – et l’etat de la democratie canadienne.
Afin de faire progresser la reflexion dans le domaine et de relier
l’experience canadienne avec les debats animes de la scene internationale
sur la gouvernance a l’ere numerique, nous avons besoin de plus de
chercheurs-boursiers en administration publique canadienne, ayant des
liens plus approfondis avec des specialistes dans les disciplines et profes-
sions connexes, telles que les sciences en informatique, les sciences de
l’information et en bibliotheconomie, les communications, la pratique de
conception et de visualisation, l’economie comportementale, et la
prevision. Cette discussion doit aussi ^etre pancanadienne et intergouverne-
mentale, en portant une emphase particuliere sur le fait que l’^age
numerique reseaute rend possible et exigera des solutions juridictionnelles
reseautees, dans de nombreux cas. La liaison de donnees, prises de
decisions, prestation de services et structures de gouvernance a travers un
systeme de gouvernement canadien federal et des Premieres Nations qui
est linguistiquement, geographiquement et ethniquement varie represente

a la fois un defi fort complexe, et une possibilite considerable qui pourrait
rendre  a l’« experience canadienne » son statut d’exemple (ou devenir
source d’avertissements) a l’echelle internationale.
Il est probable que les pressions ressenties et promises par les technolo-
gies numeriques soient similaires en portee, en envergure et en potentiel de
perturbation que celles qui ont mene a la Commission royale sur l’union
economique et les perspectives de developpement du Canada (1982-85). Il
n’y a aucune chance qu’un gouvernement fonde une telle commission,
mais il est necessaire d’avoir une discussion pancanadienne entre cher-
cheurs, praticiens et citoyens afin d’evaluer la qualite du systeme de gou-
vernance et de ses institutions et pratiques constituantes que nous avons
amenes dans l’^ age numerique; et aussi dans le but de construire un systeme
de gouvernance, d’institutions et de pratiques qui profitent des outils
numeriques et en tirent le meilleur parti. En effet, ces outils ont deja change
la maniere dont travaillent de nombreux secteurs du gouvernement, modi-
fie les attentes des citoyens envers les gouvernements, et sont capables de
renforcer ou de fausser la gouvernance en favorisant certains inter^ets inter-
nes et externes du gouvernement.

marrage : une vue d’ensemble


Point de de
En 2014, apres avoir reconnu la necessite d’avoir une discussion nationale
sur la gouvernance canadienne a l’ere numerique, un groupe de chercheurs
travaillant dans les universites, les gouvernements federal et provinciaux,
des institutions a but non lucratif du secteur prive et l’Institut sur la
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 471

gouvernance se sont unis pour lancer un programme de recherche et


d’engagement s’etalant sur plusieurs annees, et finance par une bourse de
developpement en partenariat avec le Conseil de recherches en sciences
humaines. Ce numero special d’ Administration publique du Canada est le
produit de cette bourse et du Partenariat pour la gouvernance numerique
qu’il a soutenu.
La collection comprend neuf documents de travail qui etudient les possi-
bilites et les defis des outils de l’ere numerique et leurs approches dans
differents domaines de la gouvernance canadienne. L’objectif etait d’evaluer
la litterature canadienne, pour determiner si l’^age numerique entra^ıne des
defis ou des possibilites essentiels pour les gouvernements au sein de ces
domaines, et si ces nouveaux developpements et possibilites sont
veritablement nouveaux, ou bien une continuation des sujets durables de
l’administration publique canadienne. Avant tout, nous avons cherche a
identifier un programme de recherche capable d’informer une discussion
nationale sur la gouvernance canadienne a l’^age numerique, en etudiant
comment les gouvernements convergent avec les autres secteurs et les citoy-
ens. Bien qu’intrigues par les outils numeriques, nous nous sommes efforces
de ne pas nous laisser eblouir en reconnaissant le fait qu’avec toutes les tech-
nologies, il y a des avantages et des inconvenients, et que les technologies
peuvent en fait transformer ou renforcer, de manieres differentes, les mo-
deles existants de la gouvernance et de l’administration publique.
Les trois premiers documents de travail se penchent sur differents aspects
de l’elaboration de politiques. Dans ‘The Vestiges and Vanguards of Policy
Design in a Digital Context’, Amanda Clarke et Jonathan Craft examinent
comment les outils numeriques diversifient et ont une incidence non seule-
ment sur les instruments de politiques existants, mais aussi sur les processus
d’elaboration de politiques et les melanges de politiques qui en resultent.
Dylan Marando et Jonathan Craft, visant plus haut que la conception de politi-
ques en soi, examinent la façon dont le conseil aux ministres subit des change-
ments dans leur article ‘Digital Era Policy Advising: Clouding Ministerial
Perspectives’.^ Dans une perspective plus vaste sur l’evolution du conseil et
de la participation, Justin Longo examine des exemples sur l’adaptation des
gouvernements dans leur utilisation d’outils de participation en ligne et de
strategies pour trouver des conseils dans ‘Citizen and Stakeholder Engage-
ment into the Digital Era: From Spicer to #Hashtags’. Il n’est pas etonnant
qu’il y ait des chevauchements dans ces perspectives, mais elles revelent
ensemble une gamme interessante de possibilites, de tensions et de dilemmes
pour les gouvernements.
Les trois prochains articles abordent plusieurs secteurs « conventionnels »
de l’administration publique qui ne sont pas moins affectes par les possi-
bilites et les developpements de l’ere numerique. Dans ‘Digital Government
and Service Delivery: An Examination of Performance and Prospects’,
472 AMANDA CLARKE, EVERT A. LINDQUIST, JEFFREY ROY

fonde sur de nombreuses annees d’observation du gouvernement


electronique, Jeffrey Roy fait le point sur la maniere dont les outils
numeriques ont intersecte des mouvements de reforme successifs du sec-
teur public. Contrairement a la prestation de services, qui a fait l’objet de
beaucoup d’attention de la part de chercheurs canadiens, dans ‘Regulation
Governance in the Digital Era: A New Research Agenda’, Patrice Dutil et
Julie Williams offrent une vue panoramique d’un secteur de gouvernance
qui a ete ebranle par les transformations numeriques, et a ete laisse de c^
ote
par les erudits. De m^eme, dans ‘Information Governance in Digitized Public
Administration’, David Brown et Sandra Toze examinent les nombreux
defis qui confrontent les fonctions de la gestion de l’information au sein du
gouvernement, qui non seulement doivent suivre l’evolution technologique
sans fin des logiciels et des plateformes, doublee d’une explosion de pro-
duction d’information, mais qui doivent aussi appuyer toutes les autres
fonctions du gouvernement qui sont de plus en plus determinees par la
capacite de gestion d’information dans la fonction publique.
Les trois derniers articles offrent des perspectives plus vastes. Dans
‘Canadian Governance in Transition: Multilevel Governance in the Digital
Era’, Davide Cargnello et Maryantonett Flumian etudient les defis
presentes par l’^ age numerique a tous les gouvernements du Canada; ils
decrivent les gouvernements comme faisant partie de systemes de gouver-
nance distribues, et analysent les implications de servir et d’engager les ci-
toyens de nouvelles façons. Dans ‘Accountability and Monitoring
Government in the Digital Era: Promise, Realism and Research for Digital-
Era Governance in Canada’, Evert Lindquist et Irene Huse examinent com-
ment differents domaines de recherche axes de manieres variees sur les
technologies numeriques ou sur l’etat de l’administration publique et de la
gouvernance, ont commence a converger et indiquent le besoin de
rechercher de nouvelles formes d’imputabilite interactive, dynamique et a
l’initiative des citoyens, dans des environnements continus en temps reel.

Etant donne l’envergure de ces documents de travail, il est necessaire
d’avoir une perspective globale sur la façon dont ces developpements peu-
vent se concilier et o u ils meneront les gouvernements et la gouvernance
democratique dans l’avenir. En reponse a cet appel, le dernier article de
Peter Jones et Nenad Rava ‘The Futures of Canadian Governance: Foresight
Competencies for Public Administration in the Digital Era’, nous introduit
aux methodes et sensibilites de prevision, ce qui nous semble ^etre une
façon appropriee de conclure cette collection de documents de travail
preliminaires et etablissant un programme.
Chaque document de travail offre une vision generale de possibilites et
des ecrits dans leurs domaines respectifs. Il est intimidant de regarder
l’ensemble de ces secteurs et de peser leur signification pour l’avenir du
gouvernement et de la gouvernance au Canada. Les auteurs soulignent le
GOVERNANCE IN THE DIGITAL ERA 473

besoin de developper un grand programme systematique de recherche


empirique sur la façon dont les gouvernements ont evolue, et ce qu’il
adviendra de la gouvernance alors que nos societes subissent des change-
ments acceleres a l’^age numerique. Cela represente une enorme t^ache et la
raison pour laquelle nous avons fonde le Partenariat pour un gouverne-
ment numerique. En s’appuyant sur le travail du Partenariat accompli a
date, cette collection d’articles a pour objectif d’amorcer une discussion fort
necessaire sur l’etat present de la gouvernance canadienne a l’ere
numerique, et sur ses possibilites d’avenir.

Notes
1 Think of citizens, communities, elected leaders with governments versus those in opposi-
tion, firms, interest groups and associations, watchdogs, consultants and experts, univer-
sities, service providers, public service institutions (and departments and agencies),
media, data holders (producers, custodians, users), etc.
2 Penser a citoyens, communautes, dirigeants elus avec les gouvernements plut^ ot que ceux
en opposition, les entreprises, groupes d’inter^ets et associations, chiens de garde, consul-
tants et experts, universites, fournisseurs de services, institutions de la fonction publique
(ministeres et organismes gouvernementaux), medias, detenteurs de donnees (produc-
teurs de donnees, depositaires de donnees, utilisateurs), etc.

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