Class 10 English Language Set 4

Essay Writing
In this Work Sheet we will deal with Descriptive Essay.

Note: Describe means to “tell about the features of some person, place or thing”. A good description relies
upon careful observation and is something in which you can train yourself. It tends to be a mixture of the
overall view with details added.

MAIN PRINCIPLES
The following notes suggest avenues of thought for dealing with destriptive compositions:
▪ Be sensitive and thoughtful: Use your senses of SIGHT, HEARING, SMELL, TOUCH and TASTE. Many
tend to write on what they see only. Consider all the dimensions of senses.
▪ Lood for significant details:
People: A person may have his own way of walking, speaking, arguing, sitting or eating. He may
have a distinctive smile, frown, nowe or neck. His hair may also give you a clue to his character.
People around.
Place and things: Car, road, building, smell, dirt, clean, broken, river bank, garden, grave yard, birds
singing, dead fish, weeds, stream etc.
▪ Comparisons: Compare objects, scenes, people, things to make details more vivid.
▪ Use vivid words and imagery which brings objects closer to our imaginations.
▪ Be observant in real life: Watch people, listen to sounds, smell, keep your eyes open.

Assignment:
Write an account of a visit you have made to a factory or some other place of work. Concentrate on the
place itself; do not describe the journey.

Guide Lines:
Introduction
➢ Where is the factory or office located?
➢ What work is done there?
The work place
➢ The scene when you enter.
➢ Details of machines and other equipment.
➢ Actions of the workers.
➢ Sounds, types of smell, etc.
General impression and conclusion
➢ Your feelings towards the workers—admiration or pity?
➢ Final impression. (Subjective opinion encouraged)

10 English Language Set 4 page 1

Class 10 Mathematics Set 4
TOPIC: Linear Inequations in one unknown
Assignment
Q.1 If (𝑥 − 2)(8 − 𝑥) > 0 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊, find the solution set.

Q.2 Find the solution set of each of the following in-equations:

1
(i) 4 ( − 𝑥) + 7 ≥ 57, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊
2

1
(ii) 3𝑥 − 5 < (2𝑥 + 1), 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊
2

Q.3 Find the solution set of each of the following in-equations:

(i) −3 < 𝑥 − 2 ≤ 9 − 2𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁

1 2
(ii) (𝑥 − 3) ≥ (6 − 2𝑥), 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
2 3

Q.4 If the replacement set is the set of integers lying between -8 and 6, find the solution
set of:

(i) 9 ≥ 1 − 2𝑦 (ii) 3𝑦 + 5 ≥ 𝑦 − 9

Q.5 A and B are two solution sets of inequations respectively 3𝑥 − 4 > −2𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊
and 4𝑥 − 7 < 10, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊, 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑:

(𝑖)A ∪ B (𝑖𝑖)𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝐴 − 𝐵 (𝑖𝑣)𝐵 − 𝐴 (𝑣)𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ (𝑣𝑖)𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵

Q. 6 Three consecutive natural numbers are such that the difference between one fourth
of the greatest integers and one fifth of the smallest is at least 3. Assuming the
middle number to be x form an inequation satisfying the above statement and hence
find the three numbers.

Q.7 Solve the inequation 3𝑥 + 7 > 43, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊 and graph the solution on a number line.
𝑦
Q.8 Solve − < 4, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅. Graph the solution set on a number line.
3

Q.9 Solve the following inequation and graph the solution set on the number line:
2𝑥 − 3 < 𝑥 + 2 ≤ 3𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

Q.10 Given that 𝐴 = {𝑥 ≔ −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 5, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {𝑥: −4 ≤ 𝑥 < 3, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅}.

Represent the following on different number lines:

(i) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 (ii) 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵
1
 Question Bank for Revision on Banking and GST
Q1 Mr. Dhruv deposits Rs 600 per month in a recurring deposit account for 5 years at the rate of 10%
per annum. Find the amount he will receive at the time of maturity.

Q2 Shilpa has a 4-year recurring deposit account in Bank of Maharashtra and deposits Rs 800 per
month. If she gets Rs 48200 at the time of maturity, find:
(i) the rate of interest,
(ii) the total interest earned by Shilpa.

Q3. Mr. Chaturvedi has a recurring deposit account in Grindlay’s Bank for 412 years at 11% p.a. (simple
interest). If he gets Rs 101418.75 at the time of maturity, find the monthly installment.

Q4. Rajiv Bhardwaj has a recurring deposit account in a bank of Rs 600 per month. If the bank pays
simple interest of 7% p.a. and he gets Rs 15450 as maturity amount, find the total time for which
the account was held.

Q5. A manufacturer sells a T.V. to a dealer for ₹ 18000 and the dealer sells it to a consumer at a profit of
₹ 1500. If the sales are intra state and the rate of GST is 12%, find:
(i) the amount of GST paid by the dealer to the State Government.
(ii) the amount of GST received by the State Government.
(iii) the amount of GST receive by the Central Government.
(iv) the amount that the consumer pays for the T.V.

Q6. A shopkeeper buys an article from a manufacturer for ₹ 12000 and marks up its price by 25%. The
shopkeeper gives a discount of 10% on marked up price. If the sales are intra-state and rate of GST
is 12%, find:
(i) The price of tax(under GST) which the consumer pays for the TV.
(ii) The amount of tax(under GST) paid by the shopkeeper to the State Government.

Q7. Kiran purchases an article for ₹ 5310 which includes 10% rebate on the marked price and 18% tax
(under GST) on the remaining price. Find the marked price of the article.

Q8. For the following transaction from Delhi to Jaipur, fill in the blanks to find the amount of bill:

MRP = Rs. 50,000, Discount % = 20%, GST = 28%

(i)Discount =……. (ii)Selling price (discounted value) =……. (iii).CGST =…….
(iv) SGST =…… (v) IGST =….. (vi) Amount of Bill =…..

2
 TOPIC: Shares and Dividends
Share: To start any company or any business, an individual requires a large
amount of money, which is not possible for one to invest. So the Question is,
What to do?
He invites other people to get together and contribute in his business according
to their interest and capability. They divide the estimated cost into small parts.
Each part is called a Share. A share may have any value as per the estimation.
Nominal Value: The original value of a share is called its nominal value (N.V.) or
Face value (F.V.) or printed value (P.V.). The nominal value of a share always
remains same.

Market Value: The Price of a share at any time is called its market value (M.V.)
or cash value. It changes from time to time.

At Par: If the market value is same as its nominal value, the share is called at
Par.

At Premium or Above Par:

If the market value is more than its nominal value than the share is
called above par or at premium.
Below par or at Discount:

If the market value of a share is less than its nominal value than the share
is called below par or at discount.

Dividend: The profit which a shareholder gets for his investment from the company is
called dividend.

Note 1:

1. The dividend is always expressed as the percentage of the face value of the share.
2. The dividend is always given (by the company) on the face value of the share
irrespective of the market value of the share.

3
Note 2:

Some important Quotations related to Shares:

1. “10% Rs. 100 sharre at Rs. 145” means that:

(i) Face value of one share = Rs. 100
(ii) Market value of one share = Rs. 145
(iii) Div.% of one share = Rs. 10%
(iv) Dividend on one share = 10% of Rs. 100 = Rs.10
(v) Income on one share = Rs. 10 on investing Rs.145
10
(vi) The rate of return(or yield) p.a.=( × 100) = 6.89%
145
2. “12% Rs. 25 shares at a discount of Rs. 5”
(i) Face value of one share = Rs. 25
(ii) Market value of one share = Rs. 25 – Rs. 5 = Rs. 20
(iii) Div.% of one share = Rs. 12%
12
(iv) Dividend on one share = 12% of Rs. 25 =(100 × 25 = 𝑅𝑠. 3) Rs. 3
(v) Income on one share = Rs. 3 on investing Rs.20
3
(vi) The rate of return(or yield) p.a.=( × 100) = 15%
20

Formulae required:

1. Investment:
Money Invested = number of shares x M. V. of one share
2. Income:
(i) Annual Income = no. of shares x rate of div. x F.V. of one share
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒
(ii) Rate of return = ( × 100) %
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
3. Number of Shares
𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒
Number of share purchased = OR
𝑀.𝑉.𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒

4
 Question Bank for Revision on Shares and Dividends
Q.1 A man bought 500 shares, each of face value ₹ 10, of a certain business concern and
during the first year after purchased received ₹ 400 as dividend on his shares. Find
the rate of dividend on shares.

Q.2 A man invests ₹20020 in buying shares of nominal value ₹26 at 10% premium. The
dividend on shares is 15% per annum. Calculate:

(i) the number of shares he buys

(ii) the dividend he receives annually

(iii) the rate of interest he gets on his money.

Q.3 Mr. Parekh invested ₹52000 on ₹100 shares at a discount of ₹20 paying 8% dividend.
At the end on one year he sells the shares at a premium of ₹20. Find

(i) the annual dividend

(ii) the profit earned including his dividend

Q.4 Salman invests a sum of money in ₹50 shares, paying 15% dividend quoted at 20%
premium. If his annual dividend is ₹600, calculate:

(i) the number of shares he bought

(ii) his total investment

(iii) the rate of return on his investment

Q.5 Vivek invests ₹4500 in 8%, ₹10 shares at ₹15. He sells the shares when the price rises
to ₹30, and invests the proceeds in 12% ₹100 shares at ₹125. Calculate

(i) the sale proceeds.

(ii) the number of ₹125 shares he buys

(iii) the change in his annual income from dividend.

Q. 6 By purchasing ₹25 gas shares for ₹10 each, a man gets 4% profit on his investment.
What rate percent is the company paying? What is his dividend if he buys 60 shares?

Q.7 Mr. Ram Gopal invested ₹8000 in 7% ₹100 shares at ₹80. After a year he sold these
shares at ₹75 each and invested the proceeds (including his dividend) in 18% ₹25
shares at ₹41. Find:

5
 (i) his dividend for the first year

(ii) his annual income in the second year

(iii) the percentage increase in his return on his original investment.

Q.8 A man buys ₹40 shares of a company which pays 10% dividend. He buys the shares at
such a price that his profit is 16% on his investment. At what price did he buy each
share?

Q.9 At what price should a 9% ₹100 share be quoted when the money is worth 6%?

Q.10 Which is better investment:

7% ₹100 shares at ₹120 or 8%₹10 shares at ₹13.5?

Instruction: Please attempt all the questions and also the solved examples of Chapter 3.

6
Class 10 Physics Set 4
Refraction of Light

“Bending of a light ray when it changes its medium i.e. denser to rarer or rarer to denser is called refraction of
light”

Note:

When angle of incidence i = 0 then angle of refraction will

also be 0. There will be no refraction and light ray will enter
into the medium undeviated.

Cause of refractionLaws of refraction:

• In a medium a light ray travels with same speed as

• In air, speed of light = 3x 108 m/s.
• In water, speed of light = 2.25 x 108 m/s.
• In glass, speed of light = 2x 108 m/s.

When a light ray changes its medium, its speed also changes.

Its speed reduces when it goes from rarer to denser and vice-versa.

Therefore, it bends on changing the medium.

Laws of refraction: Snell’s laws:

I law: The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence all three lie in the
same plane.

II law: The ratio of sin of angle of incidence to the angle of refraction is a constant. This constant is
known as refractive index.

10 Physics Set 4 page 1

 Acc. II Law,
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
= 1μ2

Here, 1μ2 = Refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1

Effect on wavelength, frequency and speed of light due to refraction of light:

• Wavelength of light (λ): It decreases, when a light ray passes from rarer to denser medium and vice-
versa.
• speed of light (V): It decreases when a light ray passes from rarer to denser and vice versa
• Frequency of light (f): It remains unchanged even due to change of a medium.
all three are related as,
V=fλ

Refractive index:

• Refractive index is defined as the ratio of sin of angle of incidence of the first medium to the angle of
refraction of the second medium.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
1μ2 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

• It is also defined as the speed of light in the first medium to the speed of light in the second medium.
𝑽𝟏
1μ2 =
𝑽𝟐

10 Physics Set 4 page 2

 • It is also defined as the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the given medium.
𝒄
1μ2 =
𝑽
• Also, it is equal to the ratio of the refractive index of the second medium to the refractive index of
the first medium.
𝛍𝟐
1μ2 =
𝛍𝟏

Factors affecting the refractive index of a medium:

• Nature of the medium:

Less the speed of light, more is the refractive index of the medium.
• Physical conditionsof the medium:
More is the temperature of the medium, more will be the speed and hence, lesser will be the refractive
index.
• The colour or wavelength of light:
In a given medium speed of light is different. Violet colour light travels slowest and red colour light is the
fastest. Therefore, refractive index of a medium for violet colour is the maximum and for red colour is
minimum.
μviolet > μ red

Principle of reversibility of light:

‘’When a light ray goes from one medium to another, its path is reversible’’

As shown in the fig.

• When a light ray goes from medium 1 to medium 2

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
Acc. To the definition of refractive index: 1μ2 = …………… (1)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
• If the same light ray goes from medium 2 to medium .
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒓
Then: 2μ1 = ………………. (2)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
Multiplying both equations: 1μ2 x2μ1 = x
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
Therefore: 1μ2 x2μ1 = 1
𝟏
Or: 1μ2 =
𝟐𝛍𝟏

10 Physics Set 4 page 3

 Note:
If medium 1 is air and medium 2 is glass
𝟏
It means: aμg =
𝐠𝛍𝐚

Example:
When a light ray going from one medium to the other,
reflects back from a plane mirror.

Refraction of light through a glass slab:

Here, because of the presence of glass piece incident

ray is not following the original path whereas it has
been shifted. This shift is called the lateral
displacement or lateral shift.

Factors affecting lateral displacement:-

• Thickness of glass slab:

More is the thickness, more will be the shift or displacement.
• Angle of incidence:
Also, more is the angle of incidence, more will be the shift.
• Refractive index of glass:
Lateral displacement increases as the wavelength of light decreases.
Therefore,
Shift or lateral displacement is more for violet than red colour

Multiple images in a thick glass plate or thick mirror:

If an object is placed in front of a thick glass plate or mirror and is viewed obliquely, a number of images are seen.

Out of all the images the second image is the brightest.

10 Physics Set 4 page 4

 Prism: A prism is a transparent medium having five plane surfaces.

• When a ray of white light falls on one of the

refracting surfaces, it refracts through it and
splits into its constituents colours.

Refraction of light through a glass prism:

In ∆ 𝑀𝑃𝑄

Angle δ = δ1 + δ2 …………………………………(1)

But δ1 = i1 – r1 and δ2 = i2 – r2

Therefore: δ= (i1 – r1) + (i2- r2 )

δ = (i1 + i2) - (r1+ r2 ) …………………………….(2)

Now we have to find the value of (r1+ r2 ).

In quadrilateral APNQ,

Angle A + P + N + Q = 3600 (Here A = angle of prism, Angle P = 900 and Q = 900)

Therefore: A + 900 + N + 900 = 3600 →A + N = 1800 …………………………(3)

Also in ∆ 𝑃𝑁𝑄

Angle r1+ N + r2 = 1800 →N = 1800 – (r1+ r2) …………….(4)

Substituting the value of N in equation (3)

A = (r1+ r2) or (r1+ r2) = A

Putting it in equation (2)

δ = (i1 + i2) - (r1 + r2 )

δ = (i1 + i2) - A

Note: At minimum deviation, i1 = i2 = i

Thus δ = (i + i) – A

δmin = 2i -A

10 Physics Set 4 page 5

Factors affecting the angle of deviation: (Dependence of angle of deviation on the angle of incidence; i-δ graph)

• Curve shows the variation of angle

of deviation (δ) along with angle of
incidence (i).
• For smaller values of angle of
incidence, angle of deviation is
more.
• As angle of incidence is increased,
angle of deviation decreases.
• When angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of emergence, angle of
deviation is minimum (δmin).
• On further increasing angle of incidence, angle of deviation increases sharply.

Dependance of angle of deviation on the materialof prism ( or refractive index).

Angle of deviation ∝ Refractive index of the medium.

Dependance of angle of deviation on the angle of prism(A).

Angle of deviation ∝ angle of Prism (A).

Dependance of angle of deviation on the colour of light (wavelength).

𝟏
Angle of deviation ∝
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝝀)

Worksheet (From your text book)

• Exercise (4A) from question 1 to 29 on page no. 80 to 82.

• Numerical from 1 to 4 on page no. 82.

• Exercise (4B) from question 1 to 19 on page no. 87 and 88.

• Numericals 1 and 2 on page no. 88.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

10 Physics Set 4 page 6

Class 10 Analytical Chemistry Set - 4
Determination of chemical components of a substance is called analysis of that substance. The analysis can
be either Quantitative or Qualitative.
Quantitative analysis involves the determination of the composition of a mixture, whereas, qualitative
analysis involves identification of an unknown substance in a mixture.

Identification of unknown substance during the qualitative analysis is done with the help of reagents.
Alkalis are the important laboratory reagents. A base that is soluble in water is called an alkali. All alkalis
are bases, but all bases are not alkalis.

Example of some alkalis:

Potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide…etc
The most commonly used reagents are sodium hydroxide which is a strong alkali and ammonium hydroxide
which is a weak alkali. These alkalis react with the solution of metal salts to form precipitates of different
coloured hydroxides, which may be soluble or insoluble in excess of these alkalis.

Action of sodium hydroxide on metal salts

Solubility of ppt in
Salts Salt solution + Alkali – metal + salt hydroxide (ppt)
excess of alkali

Calcium salts [Ca2+] Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaOH ⟶ Ca(OH)2↓ + 2NaNO3 Sparingly soluble

Ferrous salts[Fe2+] FeSO4 + 2NaOH ⟶ Fe(OH)2↓ + Na2SO4 Insoluble

Ferric salt [Fe3+] FeCl3 + 3NaOH ⟶ Fe(OH)3↓ + 3NaCl Insoluble

Copper salts [Cu2+] CuSO4 + 2NaOH ⟶ Cu(OH)2↓ + Na2SO4 Insoluble

ZnSO4 + 2NaOH ⟶ Zn(OH)2↓ + Na2SO4

Zinc Salts [Zn2+] Soluble
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH(excess) ⟶ Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O

Lead salts [Pb2+] Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaOH ⟶ Pb(OH)2↓ + 2NaNO3 Soluble

NH4Cl + NaOH ⟶ NaCl + H2O + NH3

Ammonium Salts NH4+
2NH3(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2NH3

10 Chemistry Set 4 page 1

 Action of ammonium hydroxide on metal salts

Salt solution + ammonium hydroxide à metal Solubility of ppt in

Salt
hydroxide + salt excess of NH4OH

No precipitation of Ca(OH)2 even when NH4OH is

Calcium salts
added excess

Ferrous salts [Fe2+] FeSO4 + 2NH4OH ⟶ Fe(OH)2↓ + (NH4)2SO4 Insoluble

FeCl3 + 3NH4OH ⟶ Fe(OH)3↓ + (NH4)Cl

Ferric salts [Fe3⁺] Insoluble
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6NH4OH ⟶ 2Fe(OH)3↓ + 3(NH4)2SO4

CuSO4 + 2NH4OH ⟶ Cu(OH)2↓ + (NH4)2SO4

Copper salts [Cu2+] Soluble
Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 + NH4OH ⟶ [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 + 4H2O

ZnSO+4+ 2NH4OH ⟶ Zn(OH)2↓ + (NH4)2SO4

Zinc salts[Zn2+] Zn(OH)2↓ + (NH4)2SO4 + 2NH4OH ⟶ [Zn(NH3)4]SO4 Soluble
ZnCl2 + 2NH4OH ⟶ Zn(OH)2↓ + 2NH4Cl

Lead Salts [Pb2+] Pb(NO3)2 + 2NH4OH ⟶ Pb(OH)2↓ + 2NH4NO3 Insoluble

10 Chemistry Set 4 page 2

 Amphoteric oxides
Metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known
as amphoteric oxides. Amphoteric oxides include lead oxide and zinc oxide, among many others.
Below are the action of zinc and aluminium oxides and hydroxides on sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide:

▪ ZnO + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2ZnO2 + H2O (sodium zincate)

▪ ZnO + 2HCl ⟶ ZnCl2 + H2O (zinc Chloride)

▪ Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O (sodium zincate)

▪ Zn(OH)2 + 2KOH ⟶ K2ZnO2 + 2H2O (potassium zincate)

▪ Al2O3 + 2NaOH ⟶ 2NaAlO4 + H2O (sodium aluminate)

▪ Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O (Aluminium Chloride)

▪ Al(OH)3 + NaOH ⟶ NaAlO2 + 2H2O (sodium aluminate)

▪ Al(OH)3 + KOH ⟶ KAlO2 + 2H2O (potassium aluminate)

10 Chemistry Set 4 page 3

 Worksheet

Ques. 1. Match column ‘A’ with column ‘B’ [5]

Metal ions Colour with sodium hydroxide

a. Fe+2 1. Deep Blue
b. Cu+2 2. Dirty Green
c. Fe+3 3. Gelatinous white
d. Zn+2 4. Dull white
e. Ca+2 5. Reddish Brown

Ques. 2. Write the probable colour of the following salts?

(a) Ferrous salts
(b) Ammonium salts
(c) Cupric salts
(d) Calcium salts
(e) Aluminium salts

Ques. 3. Name:
(a) A metallic hydroxide soluble in excess of NH4OH.
(b) A metallic oxide soluble in excess of caustic soda solution.
(c) Two colourless metal ions.
(d) Two coloured metal ions.

Ques. 4. What happens when ammonia solution is added first drop-wise and then in excess to the
following solutions:
(a) CuSO4
(b) ZnSO4
(c) FeCl3

Ques. 5. What do you observe when caustic soda solution is added to the following solution: first a
little and then in excess?
(a) FeCl3 (b) ZnSO4 (c) Pb(NO3)2 (d) CuSO4

Ques. 6. What are amphoteric metal oxides? Explain with reaction that oxides of zinc and aluminium
are Amphoteric in nature.

Ques. 7. Select the correct answers:

(a) Colour of an aqueous solution of copper sulphate is
(i) Green (ii) Brown (iii) Blue (iv) Yellow
(b) Colour of the precipitate formed on adding NaOH solution to iron (II) sulphate solution is
(i) White (ii) Brown (iii) Green (iv) Pale blue
(c) A metal which produces hydrogen on reacting with alkali as well as with acid.
(i) Iron (ii) Magnesium (iii) Zinc (iv) Copper
(d) The salt solution which does not react with ammonium hydroxide is
(i) Calcium nitrate (ii) Zinc nitrate (iii) Lead nitrate (iv) Copper nitrate

Ques. 8. You are provided with two reagent bottles marked A and B. One of which contains NH 4OH
solution and the other contains NaOH solution. How will you identify them by a chemical
test?

10 Chemistry Set 4 page 4

Class 10 Biology Set 4
TRANSPIRATION

-The loss of water in the form of water vapours from the aerial (living) parts of the plants is called
transpiration.
-CoCl2 paper method is used to compare the rates of transpiration. Moisture coming out from stomata
turns blue CoCl2 paper pink.
-There are three types of transpiration → stomatal, cuticular & lenticular
Stomatal transpiration: occurs through stomata
Cuticular transpiration: occurs through cuticle of leaves & green herbaceous stems.
Lenticular transpiration: occurs through lenticels present on woody stems.

-Ganong’s Potometer methods of measuring the transpiration are based on the assumption that the
rate of absorption of water is approximately equal to the rate of transpiration.
Transpiration is more rapid during day then night because stomata close during night.
Limitation of Potometer
-It does not measure water lost by transpiration
-It requires accuracy
-Introduction of air bubble is not very easy

Mechanism of stomatal transpiration can be briefly describe in the following points – (i) The water
from saturated cells of spongy parenchyma evaporates and comes into intercellular spaces. (ii) The
water vapours from the intercellular spaces diffuse into outer environment through stomata. (iii)
Parenchymatous cells draw water from adjoining cells. Thus, it continues till they draw water from
treachery elements.
There are various adaptations in plants to reduce transpiration like some plants reduce the surface
area for the transpiration, thicker cuticle and outer waxy coating on leaves slow transpiration, thick
fleshy leaves can store water. Many arid climate plants have specialized form of photosynthesis is
called CAM photosynthesis. In these plants, the stomata remain shut during the day to reduce
evaporation but open at night to collect carbon dioxide.
Many chemicals (anti-transpirants) have been found to reduce the rate of transpiration without
affecting CO2 update, e.g. Phenyl mercuric acetate (a fungicide), abscisic acid (ABA) & CO2. Silicon
emulsion & low viscosity waxes cover stomata as a film, allow CO2& O2 exchange but resist diffusion of
water.
Guttation is the loss of water in the form of liquid drops. It usually occurs due to root pressure.
Bleeding is the exudation of sap or watery solution from the cut or injured parts of the plants.

Advantages of transpiration-
A-causes transpirational pull which helps in the absorption of water
B-produces cooling effect
C-helps in acent of sap
D-stimulates root growth
E-induces plant resistance
10 Biology Set 4 page 1
 Disadvantages of transpiration
A-Excessive loss of water causes wilting.
B-Stunted growth
C-premature fall of leaves

Factors affecting Transpiration

Internal Factors:
A-Water content-Increase in water content increases transpiration and if the water content is less then
transpiration also reduces.
B-Leaf area –Leaf area increases transpiration rate.
C-Leaf structure –Presence of cuticle or wax coat restricts the loss of water through transpiration.
D-Succulence –presence of latex reduces in the stem and leaf tissues reduces transpiration rate.
E-rolling, twisting and curling of leaves also reduces transpiration.

External Factors
A-Intensity of light causes opening and closing of stomata, more transpiration occurs during day than
the night.
B-Temperature increases the rate of transpiration when the temperature is reduced the rate of
transpiration also reduced.
C-Wind velocity also increases the transpiration
D-More humidity reduces the rate of transpiration as water vapour around the leaves and in the air is
high and it enhances more saturation and thereby less transpiration. Less humidity in the air increases
transpiration.
E-Increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere promotes stomatal closing while decreased
favours.
F-Increased atmospheric pressure decreases the rate of transpiration and vice versa.

Bleeding Exudation
Exudation of plant sap from the injured part of the plant .Bleeding occurs due to root pressure.
1. Experiment to demonstrate the transpiration phenomenon with the bell jar method:
Requirements: Bell jar, well-watered potted plant, rubber sheet, glass plate, Vaseline.
Method:
a) Take a well-watered, healthy potted plant and
cover the pot with the help of rubber sheet.
Only aerial parts of the plant should remain uncovered.
b) Keep the potted plant on a glass plate and cover it
with a bell jar.
c) Apply Vaseline at the base of the bell jar to prevent
the outer air to pass in the bell jar.
d) Keep the whole apparatus in light and observe for
some time.
e) Set another experiment exactly in the same way
except that the pot should be without any plant.

Observations:

Water drops appear inside the wall of the bell jar containing a potted plant while there is no drop in the
another bell jar which is without any plant.
10 Biology Set 4 page 2
Results:

Because water drops appear only in the bell jar in which pot is having a plant with its only aerial parts
exposed, so it can be concluded that these drops appeared due to the process of transpiration from the
aerial parts of the plant. The same can also be concluded by the observations of the control apparatus, in
which no water drop appears due to the absence of plant in the pot.

2. Experiment to demonstration of Transpiration by Cobalt-Chloride Screen:

Requirements: Filter paper, cobalt-chloride solution, a potted plant and clip.

Experiment: Some pieces of the filter paper are dipped in cobalt chloride solution and then dried off. They
are blue coloured. Now, two such pieces of filter paper are taken and pressed on both the surfaces of the
leaf of a potted plant with the help of a clip. This apparatus is kept for some time as such.

Observation:

After a few hours, when it is observed, the cobalt chloride paper of the lower surface of the leaf becomes
pink coloured.

Explanation: The dried blue colored cobalt chloride paper turns red as it becomes moist. The stomata are
confined mostly on the lower surface of the leaf, and therefore, the cobalt chloride paper of that surface
becomes moist and turns red. The paper of the upper side of the leaf may also become pink to some
extent, as few stomata are found on this side.

3. Experiment to demonstration of Transpiration by Four-Leaf Experiment:

Requirements: Four leaves, Vaseline and a string.

Experiment: To demonstrate the transpiration from the

leaf surface, four banyan leaves are taken. Both the

surfaces of the A leaf, lower surface (with stomata)

of B leaf, upper surface (without stomata) of C leaf are

vase lined. The Vaseline is not applied on the D leaf. Now, as shown in the figure the leaves are hanged so
that they may transpire freely.

10 Biology Set 4 page 3

Observation and Explanation: When the observations are taken after a day or two, they are as follows —
the A leaf, which is vaselined on its both the surfaces, looks fresh and green, as no surface transpires. The B
leaf is vaselined on its lower surface (with stomata), and transpiration takes place only from the upper
surface which is negligible. This leaf also remains turgid and green like the A leaf.

If few stomata are present on the upper surface of the leaf, then it shrivels to some extent. The C leaf is
vaselined on its upper surface, which contains less number of stomata or no stomata. The transpiration
takes place from the lower stomatal surface, and the leaf shrivels to a large extent.

The D leaf is not vaselined and both the surfaces transpire freely releasing much water. The leaf wilts
completely in this case. This experiment proves that the rate of stomatal transpiration is fairly higher than
the cuticular transpiration.

4-Experiment to measure the rate of transpiration by using Ganong’s potometer:

Requirements: Ganong’s potometer, twig, water, beaker, grease, stop watch.

Ganong’s potometer: It consists

of a graduated tube dipped into
the beaker containing water. The
graduated tube is connected
with a vertical arm bearing a cork
on its mouth. The cork contains
one hole through which a twig is
inserted in the water of the
vertical arm. Vertical arm is also
attached with a stop cork
connected with a water reservoir
(Fig. 31).

Method:

1. Fill the apparatus with water

through the water reservoir.

2. Insert a freshly cut twig in the

water of the vertical arm through the hole of the cork.

3. Make all the joints air-tight by applying grease.

4. Insert an air bubble in the graduated tube and keep the whole apparatus in sunlight.

5. Note the initial and final readings of the bubble in given time in different conditions like sunlight, shade,
darkness and by placing the plant in front of a fan in sunlight.

10 Biology Set 4 page 4

Observations:

Results:

The observations of above table indicate that the largest

distance is travelled by the bubble in a given time when the
apparatus is placed in front of a fan in sunlight and the distance
travelled is least in the shade. There is no change in the
position of bubble when the apparatus is placed in darkens.

WORKSHEET-4 (Answer the following questions)

1-Name the following:

a-The waxy layer on the epidermis of the leaf meant to reduce transpiration.

b-the small pores present on the leaves.

c-Small opening on the woody barks present on the woody stems.

d-The chemicals used to prevent excessive transpiration.

e-The apparatus used to prevent transpiration in plants.

2- State the functions of the following.

Lenticles, stomata, hydathodes, guard cells

3- Ditinguish between the following: (Give two points of differences)

Stomata and lenticels transpiration and guttation

4-Explain bleeding in plants.

5-Mention two limitations of photometer.

6-Explain the mechanisms of stomatal transpiration.

7-Explain how the rate of transpiration is affected on a

a-a windy day b- a foggy day

8-How does sunlight affect the rate of transpiration.

9-With a help of an experiment show the process of transpiration.

10-What are the adaptations in plants to reduce transpiration.

10 Biology Set 4 page 5

Class X Civics Set 4
The Supreme Court

The Constitution of India provides a Single Integrated System of courts for the Union and the States. A
Single Integrated Judiciary System implies that the Supreme Court is the head of the Judiciary. It supervises
and exercises control over the functioning of other courts. There is a single civil as well as criminal system
that operates throughout the country. All cases coming from the Lower Courts can be taken to the Upper
Court by way of appeal.

Composition of Supreme Court

The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice of India and not more than 30 other judges, until
Parliament by law prescribes a larger number of judges. Originally the strength was fixed to 8. (one Chief
Justice and seven other Judges).

Qualification of Judges

A person is eligible to be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court if:

• He/She is a citizen of India.

• He/She has been for at least five years a Judge of a High Court or of two or more such courts in
succession, or has been for at least 10 years an advocate of a High Court or two or more such courts
in succession or He/She should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

Appointment of Judges
The Chief Justice of India is appointed by the President of India, after consulting Judges of the Supreme
Court and of the High Courts, he deems fit.
In case of appointing other Judges in the Supreme Court, the Chief Justices shall be consulted.
The other judges are appointed by the President after consultation with Chief Justice and such other
judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts as he deems necessary.
Usually, the senior most, Judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the Chief Justice of India. If the Chief
Justice is unable to perform the duties of the office, the President may appoint another Judge of the
Supreme Court as acting Chief Justice of India.
The Chief Justice may appoint a Judge of the High Court as an ad hoc (Temporary) Judge of the Supreme
Court for a period as may be necessary.
Salaries and Emoluments
The salaries and other emoluments are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India. The salaries and
allowances of a Judge shall not be changes to his/her disadvantage during the term of office except during
a financial emergency.
Term of Office

10 Civics Set 4 page 1

A Judge of the Supreme Court holds office until he attains the age of 65 years or by submitting his
resignation letter to the President.
A Judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his office on the ground of proved misbehavior or
incapacity by the President. The President can pass such an order, only after the passage of a resolution by
the Parliament with a special majority, of not less than 2/3rd of the members of the House.
Independence of the Judiciary from the Control of Executive and Legislature
The independence of the Judiciary is ensured through the following:
Every Judge of Supreme Court is appointed by the President after consulting the other Judges of the
Supreme Court and the High Court.
The salaries and other emoluments of the Judges cannot be changes to their disadvantage during their
term of office, except in case of financial emergency.
The Judges have complete freedom to announce their decisions and discuss in the court chambers.
The Supreme Court can punish for the contempt of court if a person/authority makes an attempt to lower
its authority and dignity.
The court is free to decide its own procedure of work. The Constitution declares Delhi as the seat of
Supreme Court. But, it also authorizes the Chief Justice of India to appoint other place or places as seat of
the Supreme Court.
Need for an Independent Judiciary: India opted for a Federal System of administration. To protect the
constitutional division of powers, an independent and supreme judiciary is an essential requirement. It is
an essential requisite for ensuring human rights and protecting democracy.
In a representative democracy, administration of justice assumes special significance in view of the rights
of individuals, which needs protection against executive or legislative interference. This type of right makes
judiciary free from the organs of the government.
Jurisdiction and Powers of the Supreme Court: Jurisdiction is the power that a court of law exercises to
carry out judgments and enforce laws. The Supreme Court is the protector and final interpreter of the
Constitution.
Original Jurisdiction: It refers to the power to hear and determine a dispute in the first instance. It happens
in the cases, which cannot be moved in any court other than the Supreme Court. These include:
Dispute between two States or between Government of India and one or more States.
The Center and any State or States on one side and one or more states on the other side.
Writ Jurisdiction: The Constitution has constituted the Supreme Court as the guarantor and defender of
the fundamental rights of the citizen.
The Supreme Court and High Courts are empowered to issue writs for the enforcement of the fundamental
rights, which are as follows:
Habeas Corpus - The Latin term habeas corpus means ‘you must have the body ‘and a writ for securing the
liberty was called habeas corpus ad subjiciendum. By this writ the court directs the person or authority
who has detained another person to bring the body of the prisoner before the court so as to enable the
court to decide the validity, jurisdiction or justification for such detention. The principal aim of the writ is
10 Civics Set 4 page 2
to ensure swift judicial review of alleged unlawful detention on liberty or freedom of the prisoner or
detention.
Mandamus– Mandamusis a command issued by a court to an authority directing it to perform a public
duty imposed upon it by law. For example, when a body omits to decide a matter which it is bound to
decide, it can be commanded to decide the same.
Writ of Prohibition- These writs are designed to prevent the excess of power by public authorities.
Formerly these writs were issued only to judicial and quasi-judicial bodies. Certiorari and Prohibition are
regarded as general remedies for the judicial control of both quasi-judicial and administrative decisions
affecting rights.
Quo-Warranto- The term Quo-Warranto means what is your authority. The writ of quo warranto is used to
judicially control executive action in the matter of making appointments to public offices under relevant
statutory provisions. The writ is also used to protect a citizen from the holder of a public office to which he
has no right. The writ calls upon the holder of a public office to show to the court under what authority he
is holding the office in question.
Writ of Certiorari- ‘Certiorari’is a Latin word being passive form of word “certiorari” meaning inform. A
writ of certiorari or a writ in the nature of certiorari can only be issued by the Supreme Court under Art. 32
and a High Court under Art. 226 to direct, inferior courts , tribunals or authorities to transmit to the court
the record of proceedings disposed of or pending therein for scrutiny , and , if necessary , for quashing the
same.
Appellate Jurisdiction
The Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court extends to constitutional, civil and criminal cases. Any
matter that involves important points of law and needs interpretation of the Constitution can be brought
before the Supreme Court. Few types of cases can be appealed in the Supreme Court, which are as follows:
Civil Cases : Appeals in civil matters lie to the Supreme Court, if the High Court certifies either that the case
involves a substantial question of law of general importance or that the question needs to be decided by
the Supreme Court.
Criminal Cases : Two appeals in criminal cases lie to the Supreme Court:
These are as follows:
i. Cases without the certificate of the High Court.
ii. Cases with the certificate of the High Court.
Constitutional Cases: An appeal lies to the Supreme Court against the decision of the High Court, if the
latter certifies that the case involves an interpretation of the Constitution. If the High Court refuses to give
such a certificate, the Supreme Court may grant special leave of appeal.
Advisory Jurisdiction
The President may ask for the advice of the Court in any matters relating to public importance or on any
question of law. Such opinion of the court is not binding on the President and also the court is not
bounded to render advice.

10 Civics Set 4 page 3

Disputes related to the Pre-constitutional treaties and agreements are excluded from original jurisdiction
by Article 131.
Any person can file a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in the Supreme Court, under some special grievance of
women, children and other weaker sections by simply writing them on a postcard.
Judicial Review
The Supreme Court us the sole interpreter of the Constitution. It has the power to review any laws by the
Union or State Legislature. If any law passed by the legislature is against the spirit of the Constitution or
contravenes any provision of the Constitution, the Supreme Court can declare such a law as null and void.
Need for Judicial Review
The Constitution has provided for a balance of powers between the Centre and the States. The power of
review is essential to prevent any encroachment to each other’s domains.
The legislature may not possess the wisdom, experience and impartiality, which are needed to explain
what the law means. This function can be best performed by the Supreme Court.
Judicial review is required to uphold the principle of the supremacy of the Constitution and to protect the
fundamental rights of the citizens.
Court of Record
A ‘court of record’ is a court, whose judgments are recorded for evidence and testimony. The judgments
are in nature of precedents i.e., the High Court and other courts are bound to give a similar decision in a
similar case.
According to the Constitution, the Supreme Court and the High Court are the ‘Courts of Record’ and shall
have all the powers including the power to punish for contempt of court.
Other Powers: The Supreme Court under Article 137 can revise any judgment made by it with a view of
removing any error or correct the same after any new evidence/question comes up. This is important as
the Supreme Court is a court of record, its decisions being of evidentiary value.

Administrative and Supervisory Functions

The administrative and supervisory functions of Supreme Court are as follows:
Appointment of officers and staff of the Supreme Court is made by the Chief Justice of India.
The court makes rules regarding the conduct of advocates and other persons appearing before it.
The recommendation of the Chief Justice of India to transfer Judges of the High Courts are binding on the
Government, if it was made after consulting at least four seniors most Judges of the Supreme Court.

10 Civics Set 4 page 4

 Short Answer Questions

1. What do you understand by a ‘single integrated judiciary’?

2. What is the composition of the Supreme Court?

3. How is the Chief Justice of India appointed?

4. How are judges of the Supreme Court removed from Office?

5. What is the need for an independent Judiciary in India?

6. Define ‘Original Jurisdiction’ of the Supreme Court.

7. State two cases where the Supreme Court has ‘Original Jurisdiction’.

8. Why are Supreme Court and the High Courts empowered to issue Writs?

9. Name the five Writs which the Supreme Court and the High Courts are empowered to issue.

10. State two cases where the Supreme Court has ‘Appellate Jurisdiction in Criminal Cases.

11. What is the ‘Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?

12. Explain the power of ‘Judicial Review’ of the Supreme Court.

13. Why the Supreme Court is called a ‘Court of Record’?

14. What does Article 137 of the Constitution state?

15. State two Administrative functions of the Supreme Court.

Long Answer Questions

16. Mention the qualification necessary for a person to be appointed a Judge of the Supreme Court.

17. List four ways how the Constitution ensures the independence of the Judiciary.

18. Explain the Writ of ‘Habeas Corpus’.

19. What is the need for granting the Supreme Court the power of ‘Judicial Review’?

20. What is ‘Appellate Jurisdiction’ of the Supreme Court? When does it lie in Civil Cases?

10 Civics Set 4 page 5

Class 10 Geography Set 4
Map Reading and Interpretation (Topographical maps)
An introduction to reading and interpreting maps, special attention need to study the physical and
cultural aspect as portrayed on topographical maps. It shows the relationship between the environmental
setting and human activities, surveys and boundaries, transportation, urban and rural settlement and land
use, and place names etc

A topographic sheet is usually interpreted under the following sub headings:

Marginal information, Relief, Drainage, Natural and Man-made features, Vegetation, Land use,
Settlement, Transport and communication etc

Marginal Information

The marginal information includes the topographical sheet number, direction, its location, grid
references, latitudinal and longitudinal extent in degrees, minutes and seconds, scale, the districts,
covered, contour interval etc.,

Relief

Relief refers to the general topography of the area under study. First, the landforms like mountains,
hills, plateaus along with the peaks, ridges should be identified and the general direction of slope can be
determined. The contour values and patterns have to be studied. Spot heights, bench marks etc help in
understanding the height of certain areas.

Vegetation

Important trees are shown by special symbols. Trees, grasses and shrubs are all shown in green
colour. Agricultural land is shown in yellow colour.

Land use

Land use includes the use of land under different categories like agriculture, pasture, barren land
and forest area. Other land use categories could be mining, industry, trade, tourism, fishing or cattle
rearing. It also informs us about the presence (location) of airports, railway stations, schools offices, trade
centres, electric substations, etc. Sometimes, land use is directly mentioned, for example, brick kiln,
limestone quarry, etc. At other times it has to be inferred.

Settlements

The size, shape, pattern site, position and function of settlements should be considered while
interpreting a topographical sheet because all these aspects are interdependent.

10 Geography Set 4 page 1

 Settlements could be dispersed or scattered, compact or nucleated type. They may be radial or
linear in pattern. They are also studied under the following heads, based on their size and the activities the
population is engaged in.

Permanent settlements are shown by solid squares and temporary ones in outlines of squares.

• Rural settlements: They can be compact, semi compact, dispersed or linear, etc.

• Urban settlements: It is the capital city, administrative town, trade centre, port town, religious or
tourist station or a hill station.

The basic occupations that the people are probably engaged in, can be understood after the land
use pattern and the type of settlement have been understood.

A dispersed settlement pattern is where the buildings are spread out and is often found in upland
areas.

10 Geography Set 4 page 2

 A nucleated settlement pattern is where a lot of buildings are grouped together and is often found
in lowland areas.

A linear settlement pattern is where the buildings are built in lines and is often found on steep
hillsides, roads side, rivers etc.

Transport and communication

The means of transport and communication being used can be identified from the presence of
national and state highways, district and village roads, cart tracks, camel tracks, footpaths, railways,
waterways, telephone and telegraph lines, post offices, etc.

Roads are not drawn true to scale. Metalled roads are shown by double lines, and unmetalled by
broken double lines. Foot path shown by red dots and cart track by single broken lines. Different kinds of
railways are shown by different signs.

Drainage Pattern

Drainage of an area can be understood by observing the characteristics of the rivers, their
tributaries, drainage pattern.

The drainage patterns found in topographical maps are: - Dendritic, Rectangular, Radial and Trellis.

Dendritic Pattern: The word ‘dendritic’ is derived from the Greek word
Dendron meaning ‘tree’. When the tributaries join the main river like the
branches of a tree, it forms a dendritic pattern. The tributaries join the main
river at an acute angle.

Rectangular Pattern: Rectangular drainage patterns have rivers with right-

angle bends. They form where the bedrock is faulted and jointed.

Radial Pattern: Radial drainage patterns forms when streams and rivers flow
off a central peak or dome like a volcano.

10 Geography Set 4 page 3

Trellis Pattern: In a trellis pattern, the river forms a net like system and the
tributaries flow roughly parallel to each other.

Occupations

Occupation of people in Toposheet can be interpreted from the following evidences:-

Occupations Evidences
Forestry/ Lumbering Forest or Green Patch
Agriculture Yellow Patch or Orchards
Cattle Grazing or Sheep rearing Meadows or Scrub
Quarrying and mining Mines and Quarries
Trade Settlement near main roads, ports, rivers etc
Industrial Development Factories and mines
Entertainment and Cultural Development Golf course, parks, Rifle Rangers etc
Fishery Coast, Lakes, Rivers etc

10 Geography Set 4 page 4

Significance of Colours in Toposheet

On toposheet colours are used to show certain features. Each colour used on a map has significance.

• BLACK – All names, river banks, broken ground, dry streams, surveyed trees, heights and their
numbering, railway lines, telephone and telegraph lines, lines of latitude and longitude
• BLUE – Water features or water bodies that contain water.
• GREEN – All wooded and forested areas, orchards, scattered trees and scrubs.
Note:- Prominent surveyed trees are shown in black. Surveyed trees have numbers on their trunks.
They serve as landmarks and are not allowed to be cut.
• YELLOW – All cultivated areas are shown with a yellow wash.
• WHITE PATCHES – Uncultivable land
• BROWN – Contour lines, their numbering, form lines, and sand features such as sand hills and
dunes
• RED – Grid lines (eastings and northings) and their numbering, roads, cart tracks, settlements, huts
and buildings.

Settlements

On a topographical map, all settlements are shown by symbols in RED colour.

• The size of the symbol and size and style of letters used give an idea of the size of the settlement.
• In the case of large cities, major roads are marked and named.
• Deserted village cities, temporarily occupied huts are also shown.
• Places of worship, forts, water towers, burial grounds, police stations, post office, dak bungalow,
circuit houses, etc. are indicated by suitable symbols.
• NOTE – Site is the land on which the settlement (village or town) is built.
• Dense settlements: Fertile plains and wide river valleys.
• Sparse Settlements : forests, deserts, mountain slopes, plateaus and hill tops with poor vegetation
• Absence of Settlements: Swamps, marsh land, sandy deserts, thick impenetrable forests, flood-
prone areas, steep mountain slopes.

Approximate or Relative Height

This height is not taken from sea level but with respect to the surrounding area. It may be the
height of a dam, bridge, sand dune or it can be the depth of a well, tank, hill or river canal, for example , 3r,
5r, 8r, etc.

Man-made and Natural Features

Toposheet shows various details of area- natural and man-made features by means of conventional
signs (legends), contours and pictorial diagrams in conventional colours.

Natural features – rivers, streams, sand features, trees, broken grounds, natural ponds, unlined
wells, jungles, depressions (Dep), islands (in the exposed river beds), physical features like hills, waterfalls,
spurs, river valleys and cliffs, shown by contours and their heights.
10 Geography Set 4 page 5
 MAN made features – surveyed trees, queries, permanent huts, causeways, mines, metalled and
unmetalled roads, pack tracts, cart tracts, artificial lakes with embankments, boundaries (national and
international), post offices, police chowkies(PS) and inspection bungalows.

Means of Transport in Relation to Relief

• Transport always depends on the type of relief and drainage - Eg. Very high altitudes, mountainous
areas-only roads and no railway tracks- difficult to build at such heights
• On the map-roads are shown by means of symbols of cart tracks, pack tracts, metalled roads,
unmetalled roads, footpaths with a bridge.
• Main towns- well connected by metalled roads show economic development of the area-is the
indication of trade being carried on. Hence town shows well developed.
• Causeways are raised platforms across a dry stream.
• During dry season when the stream dries up, people make a habit of crossing it. Thus, a footway is
formed. Presence of many causeways shows that the area gets seasonal or scanty rainfall.

Landuse
• In Toposheet map location of vegetation is closely related to relief.
• In the highlands, vegetation is shown –green colour along with contours in brown showing
elevation.
• To show density of wooded area, different terms used:
• Dense forest, open-mixed forest, open jungle, fairly-mixed jungle, dense-mixed jungle, mixed
jungle, Reserved Forest (RF), Protected Forest (PF), fairly mixed jungle with bamboo, dense mixed
jungle with bamboo.

The Plains
• Plains-mainly agriculture- cultivable land is shown in yellow colour
• White patch in plain shows bad land or rocky, uncultivable land.
• In such land, following features are found-
• Open scrub – scrub land where mostly sheep and goat rearing is practiced
• Stony waste – the land which is mostly covered with rock boulders and stones and cultivation is not
possible.

Sheet Rocks
• Sheet rocks – a region mostly covered with a sheet of rock.
• Rock outcrop – In such region subsoil is exposed and cultivation is not possible.
• Broken ground – developed because of absence of natural vegetation on both the banks of the
river. It is common in the desert area and in the areas of gully erosion. This is formed due to floods
which occur during rainy season. Because of floods, the top soil is washed away developing into bad
land which has loose soil and is uncultivable.

10 Geography Set 4 page 6

Low lands
• Plains which are situated at lower level are mostly characterized by a meandering river.
• A disappearing stream shows a desert or limestone area
• Presence of canal, wells, tube wells and tanks indicate use of land for agriculture by means of
irrigation
• A meandering river shows a flat area
• Perennial lined wells indicate a higher water table and are shown by blue dots.
• Presence of dry streams, dry ponds, exposed river beds and broken land shown in black indicate an
area with scanty rainfall or seasonal rainfall or a desert region.
• Settlements are generally found on either side of river-wherever irrigation by canals or perennial
lined wells is available.

Means of irrigation
• Irrigation largely depends on relief and land use pattern of area (blue)
• Hilly region- no cultivation is possible, hence there is no need for irrigation
• On the flat lands which are coloured yellow, one can see blue, round spots which represent
perennial lined wells. – Therefore, one can say that the main sources of irrigation in such areas are
wells and the occupation of people is farming.
• Other means of irrigation are canals, ponds, artificial lakes with embankments and river in case it is
perennial.
• Presence of dry streams and dry ponds with uncultivable lands shown in white indicates that the
rainfall in the area is scanty.
• Presence of artificial man-made lake with embankment shows that water is being stored in off
season and is used for irrigation through canals.

10 Geography Set 4 page 7

Q. 1. Interpret the Landuse, climate, occupations, important towns, relief, Drainage pattern, settlement
pattern, and vegetation present in Toposheet below.

10 Geography Set 4 page 8

 Class 10 COMPUTER APPLICATION Set 4
Java - Passing Objects as Arguments to Methods
• This time you will learn how to pass objects as arguments in Java programming language.
• We can pass object like any other variable as argument to a method in Java.

Instantiating objects of the class means – creating objects of the given class which receive copies of the data
members of the class.
Example
• In the following example we are instantiating objects of the Cube class. And we are checking if two objects are
equal by comparing the length of their side.
• So, in the given code we are passing object of class Cube to the method isEqual which validates if two cubes
are equal or not. If they are equal then the method isEqual returns true otherwise, false.
• So, in the above example we can see that cube1 is equal to cube3 as both have side equal to 10.
class Cube
{
double side; // member variable
Cube(double s) // Parameterized constructor
{
side = s;
}
boolean isEqual(Cube obj) // this method will check if two cubes are equal
{
if (side == [Link]) // here value of side of the calling object is
// matched against the value of side of the object supplied (passed)
return true;
else
return false;
}
public static void main(String[] args)
{ // creating 3 objects of the class cube using a parameterized constructor
Cube cube1 = new Cube(10);
Cube cube2 = new Cube(12);
Cube cube3 = new Cube(10);
if ([Link](cube2)) // check equal cubes
{
[Link]("Cube 1 is equal to Cube 2");
}
if ([Link](cube3))
{
[Link]("Cube 1 is equal to Cube 3");
}
if ([Link](cube3))
{
[Link]("Cube 2 is equal to Cube 3");
}
}
}

1
 Method Overloading in Java
Method Overloading is a feature that allows a class to have more than one method having the same name, if their
argument lists are different.
The parameters must be different in either of these:
(i) number of parameters, (ii) types of parameters, or (iii) sequence of parameters (or arguments).
Constructor overloading in Java is also similar, which allows a class to have more than one constructor having
different argument lists.
For example the argument list of a method add(int a, int b) having two parameters is different from the argument
list of the method add(int a, int b, int c) having three parameters.
Method overloading is an example of Static Polymorphism.
Points to Note:
1. Static Polymorphism is also known as compile time binding or early binding.
2. Static binding happens at compile time. Method overloading is an example of static binding where binding of
method call to its definition happens at Compile time.

Three ways to overload a method

In order to overload a method, the argument lists of the methods must differ in either of these:
1. Number of parameters.
For example:

add(int, int)
add(int, int, int)

2. Data type of parameters.

For example:

add(int, int)

add(int, float)

3. Sequence of Data type of parameters.

For example:

add(int, float)

add(float, int)

Invalid case of method overloading:

When we refer to the argument list, it is not the same as return type of the method. For example, if two methods
have same name, same parameters but have different return type, then this is not a valid method overloading
example. This will throw compilation error.

int add(int, int)

float add(int, int)

2
Method Overloading examples
As the overloading is done by declaring same method with different parameters. Here are a few examples of each
of these cases. Argument list is also known as parameter list

Example 1: Overloading – Different Number of parameters in argument list

This example shows how method overloading is done by having different number of parameters

class DisplayOverloading1
{
public void disp(char c)
{
[Link](c);
}
public void disp(char c, int num)
{
[Link](c + " "+num);
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
DisplayOverloading1 obj = new DisplayOverloading1();
[Link]('a');
[Link]('a', 10);
}
}
Output:
a
a 10
In the above example – method disp() is overloaded based on the number of parameters – We have two methods
with the name disp but the parameters they have are different. Both are having different number of parameters.

Example 2: Overloading – Difference in data type of parameters

In this example, method disp() is overloaded based on the data type of parameters – We have two methods with
the name disp(), one with parameter of char type and another method with the parameter of int type.

class DisplayOverloading2
{
public void disp(char c)
{
[Link](c);
}
public void disp(int c)
{
[Link](c );
}
3
 public static void main(String args[])
{
DisplayOverloading2 obj = new DisplayOverloading2();
[Link]('a');
[Link](5);
}
}
Output:
a
5

Example 3: Overloading – Sequence of data type of arguments

Here method disp() is overloaded based on sequence of data type of parameters – Both the methods have
different sequence of data type in argument list. First method is having argument list as (char, int) and second is
having (int, char). Since the sequence is different, the method can be overloaded without any issues.
class DisplayOverloading3
{
public void disp(char c, int num)
{
[Link]("In the first definition of method disp");
}
public void disp(int num, char c)
{
[Link]("In the second definition of method disp" );
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
DisplayOverloading3 obj = new DisplayOverloading3();
[Link]('x', 51 );
[Link](52, 'y');
}
}

Output:
In the first definition of method disp
In the second definition of method disp

Method Overloading and Type Promotion

When a data type of smaller size is promoted to the data type of bigger size than this is called type promotion.
For example: byte data type can be promoted to short, a short data type can be promoted to int, long, double etc.

What it has to do with method overloading?

It is very important to understand type promotion else you will think that the following program will throw
compilation error but in fact that program will run fine because of type promotion.

4
class TypePromotionMethod1
{
void disp(int a, double b)
{
[Link]("Method A");
}
void disp(int a, double b, double c)
{
[Link]("Method B");
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
TypePromotionMethod1 obj = new TypePromotionMethod1 ();
/* We are passing float value as a second argument but it got promoted to the type double,
* because there wasn't any method having arg list as (int, float)
*/
[Link](100, 20.67f);
}
}
Output:
Method A
We see that when we have passed the float value while calling the disp() method but it got promoted to the
double type as there wasn’t any method with argument list as (int, float).

However, this type promotion doesn’t always happen, let us see another example:
class TypePromotionMethod2
{
void disp(int a, double b)
{
[Link]("Method A");
}
void disp(int a, double b, double c)
{
[Link]("Method B");
}
void disp(int a, float b)
{
[Link]("Method C");
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
TypePromotionMethod2 obj = new TypePromotionMethod2 ();
[Link](100, 20.67f); // Type promotion won't happen as there is a method with arg list as (int, float)
}
}
Output:
Method C

We see that this time type promotion didn’t happen because there was a method with matching argument type.
5
Type Promotion table:
The data type on the left side can be promoted to the any of the data type present in the right side of it.

byte → short → int → long

short → int → long
int → long → float → double
float → double
long → float → double

A few Valid / Invalid cases of method overloading

Case 1:
int mymethod(int a, int b, float c)
int mymethod(int var1, int var2, float var3)
Result: Compile time error. Argument lists are exactly same. Both methods are having same number, data
types and same sequence of data types. Note that different variable names do not mean different
parameters.

Case 2:
int mymethod(int a, int b)
int mymethod(float var1, float var2)
Result: Perfectly valid case of overloading. Here data types of arguments are different.

Case 3:
int mymethod(int a, int b)
int mymethod(int num)
Result: Perfectly valid case of overloading. Here number of arguments are different.

Case 4:
float mymethod(int a, float b)
float mymethod(float var1, int var2)
Result: Perfectly valid case of overloading. Sequence of the data types of parameters are different, first
method is having (int, float) and second is having (float, int).

Case 5:
int mymethod(int a, int b)
float mymethod(int var1, int var2)
Result: Compile time error. Argument lists are exactly same. Even though return type of methods are
different, it is not a valid case. Since return type of method doesn’t matter while overloading a
method.

6
Guess the answers before checking it at the end of programs:
Question 1 – return type, method name and argument list same.
class Demo1
{
public int myMethod(int num1, int num2)
{
[Link]("First myMethod of class Demo");
return num1+num2;
}
public int myMethod(int var1, int var2)
{
[Link]("Second myMethod of class Demo");
return var1-var2;
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
Demo1 obj1= new Demo1();
[Link](10,10);
[Link](20,12);
}
}
Question 2 – return type is different. Method name & argument list same.
class Demo2
{
public double myMethod(int num1, int num2)
{
[Link]("First myMethod of class Demo");
return num1+num2;
}
public int myMethod(int var1, int var2)
{
[Link]("Second myMethod of class Demo");
return var1-var2;
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
Demo2 obj2= new Demo2();
[Link](10,10);
[Link](20,12);

Answer 1: It will throw a compilation error: More than one method with same name and argument list cannot
be defined in a same class.

Answer 2: It will throw a compilation error: More than one method with same name and argument list cannot
be given in a class even though their return type is different. Method return type doesn’t matter in
case of overloading.

7
 Constructor Overloading in Java with examples
Like methods, constructors can also be overloaded.
Constructor overloading is a concept of having more than one constructor with different parameters list, in such a
way so that each constructor performs a different task.
For e.g. Vector class has 4 types of constructors. If you do not want to specify the initial capacity and capacity
increment then you can simply use default constructor of Vector class like this Vector v = new Vector();
However, if you need to specify the capacity and increment then you call the parameterized constructor of Vector
class with two int arguments like this: Vector v= new Vector(10, 5);

Let us see how to overload a constructor with the

help of following java program.

Constructor Overloading Example

Here we are creating two objects of
class StudentData.
One is with default constructor and another one
using parameterized constructor.
Both the constructors have different initialization
code, similarly you can create any number of
constructors with different-2 initialization codes
for different-2 purposes.

[Link]
class StudentData
{
private int stuID;
private String stuName;
private int stuAge;
StudentData() //Default constructor
{
stuID = 100;
stuName = "New Student";
stuAge = 18;
}

StudentData(int num1, String str, int num2) //Parameterized constructor

{
stuID = num1;
stuName = str;
stuAge = num2;
}

//Getter and setter methods

public int getStuID()
{
return stuID;
}
public void setStuID(int stuID)
{
[Link] = stuID;
}
8
 public String getStuName()
{
return stuName;
}

public void setStuName(String stuName)

{
[Link] = stuName;
}

public int getStuAge()

{
return stuAge;
}
public void setStuAge(int stuAge)
{
[Link] = stuAge;
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
//This object creation would call the default constructor
StudentData myobj = new StudentData();
[Link]("Student Name is: "+[Link]());
[Link]("Student Age is: "+[Link]());
[Link]("Student ID is: "+[Link]());

//This object creation would call the parameterized constructor StudentData(int, String, int)
StudentData myobj2 = new StudentData(555, "Chaitanya", 25);
[Link]("Student Name is: "+[Link]());
[Link]("Student Age is: "+[Link]());
[Link]("Student ID is: "+[Link]());
}
}
Output:
Student Name is: New Student
Student Age is: 18
Student ID is: 100
Student Name is: Chaitanya
Student Age is: 25
Student ID is: 555

Let’s understand the role of this () in constructor overloading

public class OverloadingExample1
{
private int rollNum;
OverloadingExample1()
{
rollNum =100;
}

9
 OverloadingExample1(int rnum)
{
this();
/*this() is used for calling the default constructor from parameterized constructor.
* It should always be the first statement inside constructor body.
*/
rollNum = rollNum+ rnum;
}

public int getRollNum()

{
return rollNum;
}
public void setRollNum(int rollNum)
{
[Link] = rollNum;
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
OverloadingExample1 obj = new OverloadingExample1(12);
[Link]([Link]());
}
}
Output:
112
We can see in the above program that we called the parameterized constructor during object creation.
Since we have this() placed in parameterized constructor, the default constructor got invoked from it and
initialized the variable rollNum.

Test your skills – Guess the output of the following program

public class OverloadingExample2
{
private int rollNum;
OverloadingExample2()
{
rollNum =100;
}
OverloadingExample2(int rnum)
{

rollNum = rollNum+ rnum;

this();
}
public int getRollNum()
{
return rollNum;
}
public void setRollNum(int rollNum)
{
[Link] = rollNum;
}
10
 public static void main(String args[])
{
OverloadingExample2 obj = new OverloadingExample2(12);
[Link]([Link]());
}
}

Output:
Exception in thread "main" [Link]:
Unresolved compilation problem: Constructor call must be the first statement in a constructor

Program gave a compilation error. Reason: this() should be the first statement inside a constructor.

Another Constructor overloading Example

Another important point to note while overloading a constructor is:

When we don’t implement any constructor, the java compiler inserts the default constructor into our code
during compilation. However, if we implement any constructor then compiler doesn’t do it.

See the example below.

public class Demo
{
private int rollNum;
//We are not defining a no-arg constructor here

Demo(int rnum)
{
rollNum = rollNum+ rnum;
}
//Getter and Setter methods have to be typed here

public static void main(String args[])

{
//This statement would invoke no-arg constructor
Demo obj = new Demo();
}
}

Output:
Exception in thread "main" [Link]: Unresolved compilation
problem:
The constructor Demo() is undefined

11
 Class 10 Economics Applications Set 4

Market Structure: - Meaning, Characteristics and Forms.

Market structure refers to the nature and degree of competition in the market for goods and services.
The structures of market both for goods market and service (factor) market are determined by the
nature of competition prevailing in a particular market.

Meaning of Market: Ordinarily, the term “market” refers to a particular place where goods are purchased
and sold. But, in economics, market is used in a wide perspective. In economics, the term “market” does
not mean a particular place but the whole area where the buyers and sellers of a product are spread.

This is because in the present age the sale and purchase of goods are with the help of agents and samples.
Hence, the sellers and buyers of a particular commodity are spread over a large area. The transactions for
commodities may be also through letters, telegrams, telephones, internet, etc. Thus, market in economics
does not refer to a particular market place but the entire region in which goods are bought and sold. In
these transactions, the price of a commodity is the same in the whole market.

1. Meaning of Market
2. Characteristics of Market
3. Market Structure
4. Forms of Market Structure

Characterises of Market:

The essential features of a market are:

(1) An Area: In economics, a market does not mean a particular place but the whole region where sellers
and buyers of a product ate spread. Modem modes of communication and transport have made the
market area for a product very wide.

(2) One Commodity: In economics, a market is not related to a place but to a particular product. Hence,
there are separate markets for various commodities. For example, there are separate markets for
clothes, grains, jewellery, etc.

(3) Buyers and Sellers: The presence of buyers and sellers is necessary for the sale and purchase of a
product in the market. In the modem age, the presence of buyers and sellers is not necessary in the
market because they can do transactions of goods through letters, telephones, business
representatives, internet, etc.

(4) Free Competition: There should be free competition among buyers and sellers in the market. This
competition is in relation to the price determination of a product among buyers and sellers.

(5) One Price: The price of a product is the same in the market because of free competition among buyers
and sellers.

10 Eco Apps Set 4 page 1

Market Structure: Market structure refers to the nature and degree of competition in the market for
goods and services. The structures of market both for goods market and service (factor) market are
determined by the nature of competition prevailing in a particular market.

Determinants: There are a number of determinants of market structure for a particular good. They are:

1. Number and Nature of Sellers: The market structures are influenced by the number and nature of
sellers in the market. They range from large number of sellers in perfect competition to a single seller
in pure monopoly, to two sellers in duopoly, to a few sellers in oligopoly, and to many sellers of
differentiated products.

2. Number and Nature of Buyers: The market structures are also influenced by the number and nature of
buyers in the market. If there is a single buyer in the market, this is buyer’s monopoly and is called
monopsony market. Such markets exist for local labour employed by one large employer. There may be
two buyers who act jointly in the market. This is called duopsony market. They may also be a few
organised buyers of a product.

3. Nature of Product: It is the nature of product that determines the market structure. If there is product
differentiation, products are close substitutes and the market is characterised by monopolistic
competition. On the other hand, in case of no product differentiation, the market is characterised by
perfect competition. And if a product is completely different from other products, it has no close
substitutes and there is pure monopoly in the market.

4. Entry and Exit Conditions: The conditions for entry and exit of firms in a market depend upon
profitability or loss in a particular market. Profits in a market will attract the entry of new firms and
losses lead to the exit of weak firms from the market. In a perfect competition market, there is
freedom of entry or exit of firms.

But in monopoly and oligopoly markets, there are barriers to entry of new firms. Usually, governments
have a monopoly in public utility services like postal, air and road transport, water and power supply
services, etc. By granting exclusive franchises, entries of new supplies are barred. In oligopoly markets,
there are barriers to entry of firms because of collusion, tacit agreements, cartels, etc. On the other hand,
there are no restrictions in entry and exit of firms in monopolistic competition due to product
differentiation.

Forms of Market Structure:

On the basis of competition, a market can be classified in the following ways:

a. Perfect Competition
b. Monopoly
c. Oligopoly
d. Monopolistic Competition

1. Perfect Competition Market:

A perfectly competitive market is one in which the number of buyers and sellers is very large, all engaged
in buying and selling a homogeneous product without any artificial restrictions and possessing perfect
10 Eco Apps Set 4 page 2
knowledge of market at a time. In the words of A. Koutsoyiannis, “Perfect competition is a market
structure characterised by a complete absence of rivalry among the individual firms.” According to R.G.
Lipsey, “Perfect competition is a market structure in which all firms in an industry are price- takers and in
which there is freedom of entry into, and exit from, industry.”

Characteristics of Perfect Competition:

The following are the conditions for the existence of perfect competition:

A. Large Number of Buyers and Sellers: The first condition is that the number of buyers and sellers must
be so large that none of them individually is in a position to influence the price and output of the
industry as a whole. The demand of individual buyer relative to the total demand is so small that he
cannot influence the price of the product by his individual action.

Similarly, the supply of an individual seller is so small a fraction of the total output that he cannot influence
the price of the product by his action alone. In other words, the individual seller is unable to influence the
price of the product by increasing or decreasing its supply.

Rather, he adjusts his supply to the price of the product. He is “output adjuster”. Thus no buyer or seller
can alter the price by his individual action. He has to accept the price for the product as fixed for the
whole industry. He is a “price taker”.

B. Freedom of Entry or Exit of Firms: The next condition is that the firms should be free to enter or leave
the industry. It implies that whenever the industry is earning excess profits, attracted by these profits
some new firms enter the industry. In case of loss being sustained by the industry, some firms leave it.

C. Homogeneous Product: Each firm produces and sells a homogeneous product so that no buyer has
any preference for the product of any individual seller over others. This is only possible if units of the
same product produced by different sellers are perfect substitutes. In other words, the cross elasticity
of the products of sellers is infinite. No seller has an independent price policy. Commodities like salt,
wheat, cotton and coal are homogeneous in nature. He cannot raise the price of his product. If he
does so, his customers would leave him and buy the product from other sellers at the ruling lower
price.

The above two conditions between themselves make the average revenue curve of the individual seller or
firm perfectly elastic, horizontal to the X-axis. It means that a firm can sell more or less at the ruling market
price but cannot influence the price as the product is homogeneous and the number of sellers very large.

D. Absence of Artificial Restrictions: The next condition is that there is complete openness in buying and
selling of goods. Sellers are free to sell their goods to any buyers and the buyers are free to buy from
any sellers. In other words, there is no discrimination on the part of buyers or sellers. Moreover,
prices are liable to change freely in response to demand-supply conditions. There are no efforts on
the part of the producers, the government and other agencies to control the supply, demand or price
of the products.

10 Eco Apps Set 4 page 3

E. Profit Maximisation Goal: Every firm has only one goal of maximising its profits.

F. Perfect Mobility of Goods and Factors: Another requirement of perfect competition is the perfect
mobility of goods and factors between industries. Goods are free to move to those places where they
can fetch the highest price. Factors can also move from a low-paid to a high-paid industry.

G. Perfect Knowledge of Market Conditions: This condition implies a close contact between buyers and
sellers. Buyers and sellers possess complete knowledge about the prices at which goods are being
bought and sold, and of the prices at which others are prepared to buy and sell. They have also
perfect knowledge of the place where the transactions are being carried on. Such perfect knowledge
of market conditions forces the sellers to sell their product at the prevailing market price and the
buyers to buy at that price.

H. Absence of Transport Costs: Another condition is that there are no transport costs in carrying of
product from one place to another. This condition is essential for the existence of perfect competition
which requires that a commodity must have the same price everywhere at any time. If transport costs
are added to the price of the product, even a homogeneous commodity will have different prices
depending upon transport costs from the place of supply.

I. Absence of Selling Costs: Under perfect competition, the costs of advertising, sales-promotion, etc. do
not arise because all firms produce a homogeneous product. Though the real world does not fulfil the
conditions of perfect competition, yet perfect competition is studied for the simple reason that it
helps us in understanding the working of an economy, where competitive behaviour leads to the best
allocation of resources and the most efficient organisation of production. A hypothetical model of a
perfectly competitive industry provides the basis for appraising the actual working of economic
institutions and organisations in any economy.

(2) Monopoly Market:

Monopoly is a market situation in which there is only one seller of a product with barriers to entry of
others. The product has no close substitutes. The cross elasticity of demand with every other product is
very low. This means that no other firms produce a similar product. According to D. Salvatore, “Monopoly
is the form of market organisation in which there is a single firm selling a commodity for which there are
no close substitutes.” Thus the monopoly firm is itself an industry and the monopolist faces the industry
demand curve.

The demand curve for his product is, therefore, relatively stable and slopes downward to the right, given
the tastes, and incomes of his customers. It means that more of the product can be sold at a lower price
than at a higher price. He is a price-maker who can set the price to his maximum advantage.

However, it does not mean that he can set both price and output. He can do either of the two things. His
price is determined by his demand curve, once he selects his output level. Or, once he sets the price for his
product, his output is determined by what consumers will take at that price.
In any situation, the ultimate aim of the monopolist is to have maximum profits.

10 Eco Apps Set 4 page 4

Characteristics of Monopoly:

The main features of monopoly are as follows:

a) Under monopoly, there is one producer or seller of a particular product and there is no difference
between a firm and an industry. Under monopoly a firm itself is an industry.

b) A monopoly may be individual proprietorship or partnership or Joint Stock Company or a cooperative

society or a government company.

c) A monopolist has full control on the supply of a product. Hence, the elasticity of demand for a
monopolist’s product is zero.

d) There is no close substitute of a monopolist’s product in the market. Hence, under monopoly, the cross
elasticity of demand for a monopoly product with some other good is very low.

e) There are restrictions on the entry of other firms in the area of monopoly product.

f) A monopolist can influence the price of a product. He is a price-maker, not a price-taker.

g) Pure monopoly is not found in the real world.

h) Monopolist cannot determine both the price and quantity of a product simultaneously.

i) Monopolist’s demand curve slopes downwards to the right. That is why, a monopolist can increase his
sales only by decreasing the price of his product and thereby maximise his profit. The marginal revenue
curve of a monopolist is below the average revenue curve and it falls faster than the average revenue
curve. This is because a monopolist has to cut down the price of his product to sell an additional unit.

3. Oligopoly:

Oligopoly is a market situation in which there are a few firms selling homogeneous or differentiated
products. It is difficult to pinpoint the number of firms in ‘competition among the few.’ With only a few
firms in the market, the action of one firm is likely to affect the others. An oligopoly industry produces
either a homogeneous product or heterogeneous products.

Characteristics of Oligopoly: In addition to fewness of sellers, most oligopolistic industries have several
common characteristics which are explained below:

a Interdependence: There is recognised interdependence among the sellers in the oligopolistic market.
Each oligopolist firm knows that changes in its price, advertising, product characteristics, etc. may lead
to counter-moves by rivals. When the sellers are a few, each produces a considerable fraction of the
total output of the industry and can have a noticeable effect on market conditions. He can reduce or
increase the price for the whole oligopolist market by selling more quantity or less and affect the

10 Eco Apps Set 4 page 5

 profits of the other sellers. It implies that each seller is aware of the price-moves of the other sellers
and their impact on his profit and of the influence of his price-move on the actions of rivals.

Thus, there is complete interdependence among the sellers with regard to their price-output policies.
Each seller has direct and ascertainable influences upon every other seller in the industry. Thus,
every move by one seller leads to counter-moves by the others.

b Advertisement: The main reason for this mutual interdependence in decision making is that one
producer’s fortunes are dependent on the policies and fortunes of the other producers in the
industry. It is for this reason that oligopolist firms spend much on advertisement and customer
services. As pointed out by Prof. Baumol, “Under oligopoly advertising can become a life-and-death
matter.” For example, if all oligopolists continue to spend a lot on advertising their products and one
seller does not match up with them he will find his customers gradually going in for his rival’s product.
If, on the other hand, one oligopolist advertises his product, others have to follow him to keep up
their sales.

c Competition: This leads to another feature of the oligopolistic market, the presence of competition.
Since under oligopoly, there are a few sellers, a move by one seller immediately affects the rivals. So,
each seller is always on the alert and keeps a close watch over the moves of its rivals in order to have
a counter-move. This is true competition.

d Barriers to Entry of Firms: As there is keen competition in an oligopolistic industry, there are no
barriers to entry into or exit from it. However, in the long run, there are some types of barriers to
entry which tend to restraint new firms from entering the industry.

e Lack of Uniformity: Another feature of oligopoly market is the lack of uniformity in the size of firms.
Finns differ considerably in size. Some may be small, others very large. Such a situation is
asymmetrical. This is very common in the American economy.

f Demand Curve: It is not easy to trace the demand curve for the product of an oligopolist. Since under
oligopoly the exact behaviour pattern of a producer cannot be ascertained with certainty, his demand
curve cannot be drawn accurately, and with definiteness. How does an individual sellers demand
curve look like in oligopoly is most uncertain because a seller’s price or output moves lead to
unpredictable reactions on price-output policies of his rivals, which may have further repercussions on
his price and output.

g No Unique Pattern of Pricing Behaviour: The rivalry arising from interdependence among the
oligopolists leads to two conflicting motives. Each wants to remain independent and to get the
maximum possible profit. Towards this end, they act and react on the price-output movements of one
another in a continuous element of uncertainty. On the other hand, again motivated by profit
maximisation each seller wishes to cooperate with his rivals to reduce or eliminate the element of
uncertainty. All rivals enter into a tacit or formal agreement with regard to price-output changes. It
leads to a sort of monopoly within oligopoly.

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They may even recognise one seller as a leader at whose initiative all the other sellers raise or lower the
price. In this case, the individual seller’s demand curve is a part of the industry demand curve, having the
elasticity of the latter. Given these conflicting attitudes, it is not possible to predict any unique pattern of
pricing behaviour in oligopoly markets.

4. Monopolistic Competition:

Monopolistic competition refers to a market situation where there are many firms selling a
differentiated product. “There is competition which is keen, though not perfect, among many firms
making very similar products.” No firm can have any perceptible influence on the price-output
policies of the other sellers nor can it be influenced much by their actions. Thus monopolistic
competition refers to competition among a large number of sellers producing close but not perfect
substitutes for each other.

The following are the main features of monopolistic competition:

(1) Large Number of Sellers: In monopolistic competition the number of sellers is large. They are “many
and small enough” but none controls a major portion of the total output. No seller by changing its
price-output policy can have any perceptible effect on the sales of others and in turn be influenced by
them. Thus, there is no recognised interdependence of the price-output policies of the sellers and
each seller pursues an independent course of action.

(2) Product Differentiation: One of the most important features of the monopolistic competition is
differentiation. Product differentiation implies that products are different in some ways from each
other. They are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous so that each firm has an absolute monopoly
in the production and sale of a differentiated product. There is, however, slight difference between
one product and other in the same category. Products are close substitutes with a high cross-elasticity
and not perfect substitutes. Product “differentiation may be based upon certain characteristics of the
products itself, such as exclusive patented features; trade-marks; trade names; peculiarities of
package or container, if any; or singularity in quality, design, colour, or style. It may also exist with
respect to the conditions surrounding its sales.”

(3) Freedom of Entry and Exit of Firms: Another feature of monopolistic competition is the freedom of
entry and exit of firms. As firms are of small size and are capable of producing close substitutes, they
can leave or enter the industry or group in the long run.

(4) Nature of Demand Curve: Under monopolistic competition no single firm controls more than a small
portion of the total output of a product. No doubt there is an element of differentiation nevertheless
the products are close substitutes. As a result, a reduction in its price will increase the sales of the firm
but it will have little effect on the price-output conditions of other firms, each will lose only a few of
its customers.

Likewise, an increase in its price will reduce its demand substantially but each of its rivals will attract only a
few of its customers. Therefore, the demand curve (average revenue curve) of a firm under monopolistic
competition slopes downward to the right. It is elastic but not perfectly elastic within a relevant range of
prices of which he can sell any amount.

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(5) Independent Behaviour: In monopolistic competition, every firm has independent policy. Since the
number of sellers is large, none controls a major portion of the total output. No seller by changing its
price-output policy can have any perceptible effect on the sales of others and in turn be influenced by
them.

(6) Product Groups: There is no any ‘industry’ under monopolistic competition but a ‘group’ of firms
producing similar products. Each firm produces a distinct product and is itself an industry. Chamberlin
lumps together firms producing very closely related products and calls them product groups, such as
cars, cigarettes, etc.

(7) Selling Costs: Under monopolistic competition where the product is differentiated, selling costs are
essential to push up the sales. Besides, advertisement, it includes expenses on salesman, allowances
to sellers for window displays, free service, free sampling, premium coupons and gifts, etc.

(8) Non-price Competition: Under monopolistic competition, a firm increases sales and profits of his
product without a cut in the price. The monopolistic competitor can change his product either by
varying its quality, packing, etc. or by changing promotional programmes.

10 Eco Apps Set 4 page 8

 CLASS 10 COMMERCIAL STUDIES SET 4
ADVERTISING and SALES PROMOTION
NOTES
ADVERTISING AGENCY
• Advertising agency is a specialised organization which provides all advertising related services for some fee
or commission.
• There are several departments such as copy, media, production, research, finance control, public relations,
etc in an advertising agency.
• Some companies do their advertising themselves. When, it is owned and operated by the advertiser
himself, it is called in-house agency.
• Most of the companies take the help of independent agencies and outsource the work of advertising to an
expert in the field.
• Eg of some renowned Advertising Companies in India are DDB MUDRA, Group M, Dentsu Communication
Pvt Ltd. Madison Communications, Ogilvy& Mather Pvt Ltd etc.
FUNCTIONS OF ADVERTISING AGENCY
The main functions of an advertising agency are:-
1. Planning 5. Media Planning
2. Creation and Execution 6. Research and
3. Co-ordination 7. Internal Control.
4. Accounting
1. Planning: The advertising campaign needs to be planned by the Advertising Agency. The agency
must have knowledge of the firm, the products, firm’s history, its competitors, distribution
network, price level, its target group etc. A successful campaign is then built.
The client firm delegates the responsibility to the Advertising Agency and clearly communicates the
desired objective to be attained.
2. Creation and Execution: The Advertising agency creates the advertisement.
The advertising copy is written, the layout is prepared, and illustrations are drawn. Photographs
are finalised and the decisions of choice of media, time and frequency are taken. Then it is executed
by the Agency.

3. Coordination: Ideas, media, copy and decisions are Co-ordinated properly to project and implement
the advertising program. The combined efforts of sales persons, distributors and retailers ensure
maximum Sales.
4. Accounting: The advertising agency maintains proper accounts in co-operation with the client. The
amount of fees received from the client and the payment of taxes, bills, and other charges are
accounted for by the accountant.
5. Media Planning: The advertisement is designed for a selected audience and to achieve an objective.
Therefore, the choice of media is very important. The rates, circulation, population, audience,
income and other important information are collected for the purpose. The media experts know all
about the media and their coverage. They take all the decision related to media keeping in mind the
objective and the budget.

10 CST Set 4 page 1

 6. Research: An advertisement not only sells the product but also the image of the company. Research
makes every decision systematic and logical, based on facts and figures. A well-researched
campaign will be more authentic and effective.
7. Internal Control: The advertising agency manages its employees, finances and other resources
effectively and economically. Public relations, sales promotion functions and client contacts are
maintained by the management for effective operations.

SALES PROMOTION

• As the name suggests it is promoting or increasing the sales during a specific period. So the basic
purpose is to stimulate on the spot buying through short term and non-recurring incentives.
• Sales promotion consists of all promotional activities other than advertising, personal selling and
publicity that help to increase the sales through non-repetitive and one-time communication.
• Sales promotion is of 2 kinds- consumer sales promotion and dealer sales promotion. Consumer Sales
promotion includes activities designed to inform and educate the consumer and to stimulate demand,
e.g., samples , demonstrations, gift coupons, contests, premium and price offers.
Dealer sales promotion is used to help dealers and to improve dealer effectiveness, e.g., free display
material, free window display services, free demonstrations and trials, sales contests for dealers and
salesmen, trade shows etc.
“Sales promotion includes all those marketing activities other than personal selling, advertising
and publicity, that stimulates
consumer purchasing and
dealer effectiveness such as
point of purchase displays,
shows and exhibitions,
demonstrations and various
non-recurring selling efforts
not in the ordinary routine”
....... American Marketing
Association.

TECHNIQUES of SALES PROMOTION

1. Distribution of Free Samples: It’s a very popular technique. Medical Representatives distribute free
samples of medicines to doctors.
Samples may be distributed door to door or shop to shop.
Free samples of low-priced and repeat sales items are distributed to selected people to gain
consumer acceptance and for popularity and awareness.
It can be used for FMCFs (fast moving consumer goods) like tea, coffee, detergent, soaps,
shampoos, ketchup etc. This technique cannot be used for expensive products. It is also a costly
affair and only big companies can afford it.

2. Premiums or Bonus Offers.: A sales premium or bonus offer is the offer of an article free of cost or
at a nominal price on the purchase of a specified product.
10 CST Set 4 page 2
 E.g. One Lux free with Surf economy pack, or a jar free with Anik Ghee 1 kg pack.
Premiums can be of the following types:
i. With pack premium: In which the bonus item is included either inside or outside the
package. E.g. , one spoon free with Bournvita pack.
ii. Price off premium: Reduction in the price on the purchase of a large or economy pack. E.g.,
save Rs. 10 on purchase of 5 kg pack.
iii. Money refund premium: On proof of purchase, partial or full refund of the cost of the
article is made. E.g., wrapper, cash memo etc.
iv. Extra quantity premium: Under which a consumer gets one unit of the product free on the
purchase of specified units of the same product. E.g., one tooth brush free on purchase of 6
tooth brushes. Or get one free shirt with purchase of 2.
3. Free Offer: To promote sales at times companies offer a free gift with the purchase of an expensive
product. E.g. Free Pen drive with purchase of a Computer.
4. Fairs and Exhibition: Trade shows, fashion shows or parades, fairs and exhibitions are an important
technique of sales promotion. Free literature can also be distributed.
5. Prize Contests: Attractive Prize contests or rewards are offered to consumers for their creativity
about the product in form of slogan completion, slogan writing, sentence completion, problem or
quiz solving etc. Such contests are helpful in creating interest of the consumers and for getting new
ideas for advertisement of the product.
6. Clearance Sales: Sales at reduced prices may be organised at important festivals or other occasions
like on 2nd October Gandhi Jayanti, Khadi Gramodyog offers special discount on all its products. On
26th Jan Big Bazaar offers a grand sale.
7. Exchange Offer: Customers are offered the facility of exchanging old products with new. e.g. Buy
new scooter with an exchange offer of old scooter and pay Rs. 5000 less.

ASSIGNMENT

Question 1. What is an Advertising Agency? Mention the main functions of an Advertising Agency.

Question 2. What do you understand by Sales promotion?

Question 3. Name all the techniques of Sales promotion.

Question 4. How is Sales promotion different from Advertising?

Question 5. Explain the following techniques of Sales promotion and give example wherever possible:-

• Coupons.
• Premium or Bonus Offers.
• Clearance Sale
• Exchange offer.

10 CST Set 4 page 3