TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

SAB3843
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF
TRAFFIC FLOW
CHE ROS BIN ISMAIL
and
OTHMAN BIN CHE PUAN
 Chapter Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
a. Volume (q)
b. Speed (V)
c. Density (D)
3. Relationships between QVD
4. Level of Service

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Introduction
Road traffic system consists of road users
(drivers and pedestrians), vehicles, and road
network that interact between one and
another.

It is important to study each of these elements

for the planning, design, and analysis of an
efficient, safe road traffic system.

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 1) Road Users
• Consist of drivers, passengers, motorcyclists, cyclists,
pillions, and pedestrians.

• Characteristics and behaviour of a driver are influenced by

three factors:
1. Physical
2. Environment
3. Psychology

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 Physical Factors
Two main factors considered are:
1. Perception–Reaction Time
2. Vision

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 Perception–Reaction Time of a driver
It is a combination of four consecutive tasks:
1. Perception
2. Identification
3. Emotion
4. Volition
Perception-Reaction time of a driver varies and is influenced by factors
such as:
Age, fatigue, disability, experience, complexity of a situation, drivers
physical characteristics, alcohol or drugs, etc.

Average time: 0.5 – 3.0 seconds

Example: approaching STOP sign

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 Vision
The most important physical factors for road users:
1. Visual acuity – static and dynamic (cone of
vision)
2. Depth perception – estimate distance and speed
3. Peripheral vision - field of view beyond cone of
vision
4. Glare and recovery - time needed to adjust to
light
5. Visual deterioration – age, disease

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 Environmental Factors
These include:
1. Weather & lighting – rain, dark, glare
2. Traffic volumes – emotion, aggressiveness
3. Road geometry – curve, gradient, lane width, access,
condition

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 Psychological Factors
• Motive of the journey – business, social, recreation
• Emotion – attentiveness, impatience, traffic event,
companions etc

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 2) Vehicles
• Characteristics of vehicles on roads vary in terms of
shape, dimension, performance, etc. (turning radius,
acceleration, braking, height)

• Road must be designed to cater almost all types of

vehicles.

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Design Vehicle - Dimensions

REAM-GL 2/2002
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Design Vehicle – Turning radius

REAM-GL 2/2002
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 3) Road Network
• Varies in terms of standards and geometry – Urban and
Rural (i.e. expressway, highway, primary, arterial, collectors)

• Categorised into 5 for administrative purposes:

1. Toll highway
2. Federal highway
3. State road
4. Municipal/local council road
5. Other small road

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 Type of Facilities
• Uninterrupted flow
– Freeways
– Multilane highways
– Two-lane highways
• Interrupted flow
– Signalized streets
– Un-signalized streets with stop signs
– Transit lanes
– Pedestrian walkways
Basic Concept
Traffic parameters divided into 2: macroscopic
(overall), and microscopic (individual)

Common macroscopic traffic parameters that are

of traffic engineers / planners interest include:
• Traffic Flow or Volume
• Speed
• Density or Concentration
• Headway
Volume

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 Traffic Flow or Volume (q)
• The number of vehicles (n) passing some
designated roadway point in a given time
interval (t)

n
q=
t
• The count can be directional or all
directions
• Units are typically vehicles/hour
Veh/day, veh/year

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Traffic flow data is usually collected to obtain factual
data concerning the movement of vehicles at selected
points on the street., example:
(a) Annual Traffic
(i) To compute crash rates
(ii) To indicate trends in volume
(b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) &
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
(i) To measure present demand
(ii) To programme capital improvements

(c) Hourly Traffic

(i) To determine peak periods
(ii) To evaluate capacity deficiencies
(iii) To establish traffic controls
(iv) To determine geometric design parameters
 Volume – Traffic Compositions
Vehicular traffic consists of various types of vehicle – i.e.
various sizes, performances, and characteristics.
All vehicles are converted into their Equivalent Passenger Car
unit (PCU or UKP) for consistency in interpreting road
traffic performance, congestion, road geometry and traffic
signal analysis and design.
Traffic is expressed in passenger cars per lane per hour
(pc/ln/hr or pcplph)

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 Typical PCU values for roadways
Typical PCU values for Roadways

Types of vehicle Rural road Urban road

Cars 1.0 1.0

Utilities & small vans 2.0 2.0

Medium lorries & large vans 2.5 2.5

Large lorries & heavy vehs 3.0 3.0

Buses 3.0 3.0

Motorcycles 1.0 0.75

RTVM 2010
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 Volume – Data Collection Methods
1. Manual – simple, accurate, comprehensive
• Tally counter, form, stationary, tiring,
manpower, classification
2. Automatic – pneumatic tube, radar, infrared, video,
inductive loop, magnetic, radio frequency, microwave,
acoustic, GPS
• Connect to data logger, computer, classify
based on length
3. For road with many access point/junction – moving
observer method, plate matching (able to study speed,
delay)
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 RTVM 2010
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 Example application of PCU values:
• Traffic volumes on a section of rural road during morning peak hour is 500
veh/h and during the evening peak hour is also 500 veh/h.

Can you comment on the traffic flow conditions for both situations? (e.g.
which peak hour traffic would you think is the busiest or congested
condition compare to the other?)

Answer:
It would be difficult for us to say which peak hour is representing the
congested situation as both traffic volumes are equal in terms of veh/h.

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Now,
If information of traffic compositions for both peak-hours are available as
follows:

For AM Peak: 50% cars, 20% medium lorries, 10% buses, and 20%
m/cycles.
For PM Peak: 30% cars, 25% medium lorries, 15% heavy lorries, 15%
buses, 15% m/cycles.

Can you describe the differences between the two peak hour traffic in terms
of traffic flow conditions?

Answer:
Let us express the peak hour traffic in terms of pcu/h, i.e.

AM Peak: (0.5x1 + 0.2x2.5 + 0.1x3.0 + 0.2x1) x 500 = 1.5 x 500

= 750 pcu/h
PM Peak: (0.3x1 + 0.25x2.5 + 0.15x3.0 + 0.15x3.0 + 0.15x1) x 500 =
1.975x500 = 988 pcu/h
This shows that the evening peak hour traffic is busiest compare to the
morning traffic.
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Volume Study
Volume Study

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 Example 2

Evaluate the following traffic data obtained for 7

consecutive days on a stretch of road section.
Day Traffic volume (veh/day)
Monday 3231
Tuesday 3011
Wednesday 3137
Thursday 3247
Friday 3065
Saturday 3240
Sunday 1530
 Solution 2

Compute the average traffic volume per day:

Day Traffic volume By definition, the average volume

(veh/day) of 2923 veh/day can be reported
as the PLH or Purata Lalu Lintas
Monday 3231 Harian for the road.
Tuesday 3011
Wednesday 3137 But, certain traffic analyst may
Thursday 3247 remove the data taken on
Friday 3065 Sunday because we have 6 data
points with more than 3000 &
Saturday 3240
only 1 data is much lesser. PLH
Sunday 1530 is not representative.
The reported PLH would be
= 20461/7 = 18931/6 = 3155 veh/day
Average = total traffic/7
= 2923 veh/day
veh/day
Speed

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 Speed (u)
Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time.
Speed is usually used to describe the quality of journey and
the performance of road network in accommodating
traffic demand.
Depends on – driver characteristics, vehicle, traffic
composition, time, area type, surrounding environment
Types of speed:
1. spot speed;
2. journey speed;
3. running speed;
4. time mean speed; and
5. space mean speed.
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 Speed – spot speed
Spot speed - the instantaneous speed of a vehicle passing a
point on the roadway. Data represent the speed
characteristics of vehicles passing the site.
Typical use:
1. To establish speed trends
2. Traffic control planning - speed limits, safe speeds at
curves, location for traffic signs, lengths of no–passing
zones, intersection sight distance
3. Before–and–after studies
4. Accident analysis
5. Geometric design – i.e. road alignments and stopping
sight distance

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Definition of spot speedof spot speed
(cont’d)

Time taken from A to B = t

A Distance = S B

Speed = Distance/Time

If S ≤ 100 meters, then the speed measured is known as Spot Speed.

 Spot speed measurement
1. Enoscope
2. Pneumatic tubes
3. Video recording
4. Radar gun/camera

Statistics
Analysis – frequency table, histogram, cumulative
frequency curve, mean, standard deviation

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 Speed – journey and running speed
Journey speed is the distance divided by total journey time.
Total journey time includes all delays due to traffic.
Journey speed = distance/total journey time
Running speed is the distance divided by running time, i.e.
total journey time minus delays. (Running time is the
time that the vehicle is actually in motion.)
Running speed = distance/(total journey time – delays)
Both speeds are usually as a result of travel time and delay
study – used to evaluate road performance.

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Example:
Evaluate journey & running speeds for the following situation & interpret
the result:

A B
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5

8 km

Average Total travel time including delay due to traffic = 32 minutes

Average Delays at each junction: J1 = 5 min, J2 = 5 min, J3 = 3 min, J4
= 4 min, and J5 = 6 min.
Answer:
Average Journey Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min) /32 min = 15 km/h.
Average Running Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min)/(32 – 23)min = 53.3 km/h.
Interpretation:
Since Journey speed <<< running speed
drivers experience heavy traffic flow
& inefficient traffic control system at junctions. System requires improvements.
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 Speed – TMS and SMS
• Time mean speed
– Arithmetic mean of all instantaneous vehicle speeds at a
given point on a roadway section

• Space mean speed (u)

– The mean travel speed of vehicles traversing a roadway
segment of a known distance (d)
– More useful for traffic applications. It is a harmonic mean
Space mean speed is always less than time mean speed

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Speed Study

Speed Study
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Density

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 Density (D)
• Density (D) or concentration (k) is the number of vehicles
(n) occupying a given length (l) of a lane or roadway at a
particular instant

• A common parameter used to describe road performance

• Unit of density is vehicles per km (v/km).

n q
k= =
l u

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Density:
Vehicle/ length of road
 Spacing (or space headway)
• The distance (m) between successive vehicles
in a traffic stream, as measured from front
bumper to front bumper

Spacing @ given point in time

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 Headway (h)
• The time (in seconds) between successive
vehicles, as their front bumpers pass a given point.

Given point

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 (4) Headway (h)
Headway and spacing are microscopic measures
of flow as they apply to pairs of vehicles in the
traffic stream.
These parameters are important in determining the
number of gaps in a traffic stream for vehicles or
pedestrians to cross and for measuring operations
at junctions.
Headway if measured in terms of time, or
Spacing if measured in terms of distance

Reference point
 Basic Traffic Stream Parameters:

Typical Typical
Parameter Symbol units Reciprocal Symbol Units

Flow q vph Headway h sec/veh

Travel
Speed u km/h time T sec/km
veh/k
Density k m Spacing s m/veh

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From HCM 2000
Example:
1. What is the average headway of vehicles if the traffic volume in a
lane is 1800 veh/h assuming there is no m/cycle in the system?
What is the average inter-vehicle spacing if the average vehicle’s
speed is 60 km/h?
Answer:
h = 1/q = 1 x 3600 sec/1800 = 2 sec.

How to compute Spacing? Headway = 2 sec. u = 60 km/h

u = 60 km/h Spacing = ?? meter

Reference point

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Speed, flow & density relationship
Flow = Speed x Density
q = uk

• Free-flow speed (uf), critical speed (uc = uf/2)

• Jam density (kj), critical density (kc = kj/2)
• Capacity (qm)
qm = uckc
= ufkj/4

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 1. Speed-Density Relationship

Uncongested
flow uf
uf u = uf − k
Free Flow kj
Speed
Speed (u, km/h)

Congested
flow

Density (k, veh/km) kj

Jam Density 51
 2. Speed-Flow Relationship

Free-Flow
Uncongested
Speed, uf
flow

kj
q = k ju − u2
uc uf
Critical speed
Speed (u)

Congested
flow

Flow (q) Maximum

flow, qm
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 3. Flow-Density Relationship

Maximum
flow or
capacity, qm uf
q = uf k − k2
kj
Flow (q))

Uncongested Congested
flow flow
Density (k) kc kj, Jam
Critical density
density
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 qm
Flow (veh/h)

kc kj

uf
Speed (km/h)

uf

uc

0 kj qm

Density (veh/km) Flow (veh/h)

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 Example:
Traffic volume during a stable free-flowing condition is 600 veh/h
with an average speed of 75 km/h. Estimate the average speed of
traffic under congested situation for the same volume of traffic if
speed & density are linearly related. The maximum free-flow speed
for the road section is 90 km/h.

Solution:
First, sketch the parabolic curve for q–u relationship.

(ii) q-u relationship

q1 = 600 veh/h; uf = 90 km/h
uF Point A represent the stable flow
u1
A region with the corresponding
maximum capacity

speed u1 = 75 km/h.
uC = uF/2
Point B represent congested flow
u (km/h)

u2
for q1 = 600 veh/h.
B
∴ u2 = 90-75 = 15 km/h
q (vph) q1 qC
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Example

Vehicles in a traffic stream moved at an average headway of 2.2 sec. The

average speed is 80 km/h. Estimate the flow rate & density of that traffic
stream.

Solution:
Using q = uk = 1/h, then
q = 1/h = 1/(2.2/3600) = 1636 veh/h.

Using q = uk, then k = q/u

∴ density of the flow, k = 1636/80 = 20.45 veh/km

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Example 1.8
Free-flow speed of vehicles on a road section is 88 km/h. Jammed density
is 228 veh/km. Estimate the traffic density on the road if traffic flow is at a
maximum level. Estimate also the possible maximum flow for the road
section and the average speed of vehicles at that maximum traffic volume.

Solution:
Density when traffic flow reaches the maximum volume,
kc = kj/2 = 228/2 = 114 veh/km.

Expected maximum flow, qc = ufkj/4 = (88 x 228)/4

= 5016 veh/h

Average speed at qc, uc = uf/2 = 88/2 = 44 km/h

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Level of Service

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 Definitions – Level of Service (LOS)
• measure the quality of service of the facilities
– Describes operational conditions within a traffic stream
(level of congestion).
– Does not reflect safety but speed, travel time, and
freedom to maneuver.
– Different measures used for different facilities (e.g. speed
and density for expressway, delay for signalized
intersection, walking speed for pedestrian)
• Six levels (A through F)

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 LOS Diagram

LOS A
LOS B
LOS C
Speed (mph)

LOS D
LOS E
LOS F

Flow (veh/hr)
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 Levels of Service
• LOS A
• Free Flow with low volumes, densities
and high speeds.
• Drivers can maintain their desired
speeds with little or no delay.
• v/c = 0.15

• LOS B
• Stable Flow.
• Operating speeds beginning to be
restricted somewhat by traffic
conditions.
• Some slight delay.
• v/c = 0.27
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 Levels of Service
• LOS C
• Stable Flow.
• Speeds and maneuverability are more
closely controlled by higher volumes.
• Acceptable delay.
• v/c = 0.43

• LOS D
• Approaching Unstable Flow.
• Tolerable operating speeds which are
considerably affected by operating
conditions.
• Tolerable delay.
• v/c = 0.64
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 Levels of Service
• LOS E
• Unstable Flow.
• Yet lower operating speeds and perhaps
stoppages of momentary duration.
• Volumes are at or near capacity
congestion and intolerable delay.
• v/c = 1.0

• LOS F
• Forced Flow.
• Speeds and volume can drop to zero.
Stoppages can occur for long periods.
• Queues of vehicles backing up from a
restriction downstream.
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 REFERENCES
1. Othman Che Puan. Modul Kuliah Kejuruteraan Lalu Lintas. Published for
Internal Circulation, 2004.
2. Dorina Astana, Othman Che Puan, Che Ros Ismail, TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
NOTES, Published for Internal Circulation, 2011.
3. Garber, N.J., Hoel, L.A., TRAFFIC AND HIGHWAY ENGINEERING,4th Edition, SI
Version., Cengage Learning, 2010.
4. Ministry of Works Malaysia, ROAD TRAFFIC VOLUME MALAYSIA 2010 (RTVM
2010), Highway Planning Unit, 2011.
5. Road Engineering Association of Malaysia, A GUIDE ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN
OF ROADS, REAM-GL 2/2002, 2002.
6. Roess, R.P, Prassas, E.S. and McShane, W.R., TRAFFIC ENGINEERING,
Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2004.
7. May, A.D., TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS, Prentice Hall, 1990
8. Transportation Research Board, HIGHWAY CAPACITY MANUAL, Washington
D.C., 2000.

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