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History of Archives and Archival Sciences from 1950 Onwards

Based on Indian Practices

Meena GAUTAM, M.A, Ph. D.

Consultant Ministry of Culture, National Archives of India, B-3, Kailash Colony, New Delhi - 110048, India
e-mail: meenagtm@[Link], meenagculture@[Link]

History of Archives and Archival Sciences from 1950 Onwards Based on Indian Practices
ABSTRACT
We have inherited official archives of India from the British Colonial Rulers. The concept of Modern Archives
keeping came to India from England through Trading Companies. Indians had also experienced the problem
relating to Archives administration and had tried to solve them before the coming of the Europeans. One of the
legacies of the Mughal’s British inherited is the records management (particularly related to land records). The
main focus of the paper is on the History of Archives and Archival Science with main stress on its evolution
through the ages with focus since Independence i.e. [Link] is based on archival records available in National
Archives of India. In August 1947 India was declared an independent Nation - though partitioning India into
two, India and Pakistan. The study is in three parts. First part of the paper has focused the study in historical
perspective. In the Second part of the paper an effort has been made to discuss the evolution of archival system
under the British Colonial Government and how they used to administer and transact their business activities.
In the Third part of the paper an effort has been made to highlight the status of the archives as a profession from
1950’s, impact of the integration of the Princely States into the Indian Federation and the Princely archives
besides, the archives of former Crown Representative Offices, issues and challenges posed to the world of Archi-
vists and the record managers of the time and the impact of the partition of India on Archives after indepen-
dence has been addressed. The influence of the scholars and the historians on access to archives, the current is-
sues, after effects/impact of the archival legislation of 1993 and the other laws in particular the IT Act of 2000,
the e-records and the Act of the Right to the Information - 2005 and access to information in Archives and
Archives administration in e-environment.

Storia degli archivi e della scienza archivistica dal 1950 in poi basata sulla pratica dell’India
SINTESI
Abbiamo ereditato gli archivi ufficiali dell’India dai governanti coloniali inglesi. Il moderno concetto della te-
nuta degli archivi ci viene dall’Inghilterra attraverso le compagnie mercantili. Gli Indiani hanno anche speri-
mentato il problema relativo all’amministrazione archivistica ed hanno tentato di risolverlo prima dell’arrivo
degli Europei. Una delle eredità dei Mogul ricevute dagli Inglesi è la gestione degli archivi (in particolare quelli
legati al territorio). L’argomento principale dell’articolo è la storia degli archivi e dell’archivistica, con partico-
lare riguardo alla loro evoluzione attraverso i tempi specialmente a partire dall’Indipendenza, ossia dal 1947. E’
basato sui documenti disponibili nell’Archivio nazionale dell’India. Nell’agosto 1947 l’India è stata dichiarata
stato indipendente, sebbene divisa in due: India e Pakistan. Lo studio si compone di tre parti. La prima parte
tratta l’argomento dal punto di vista storico. Nella seconda parte della relazione ci si è sforzati di discutere l’evo-
luzione del sistema archivistico sotto il governo coloniale britannico e come esso usava amministrare e trattare i
propri affari. Nella terza parte dell’intervento si è cercato di sottolineare la condizione degli archivi come pro-
fessione dal 1050, l’impatto dell’integrazione dei principati nella Federazione indiana e dei loro archivi, gli ar-
chivi degli ex uffici di rappresentanza della Corona, le problematiche e le sfide poste al mondo degli archivisti e
record managers del tempo e l’impatto della suddivisione dello Stato dopo l’indipendenza. L’influenza degli
studiosi e degli storici sull’accesso agli archivi, le problematiche correnti, dopo gli effetti e l’impatto della legi-
slazione archivistica del 1993 e delle altre leggi, in particolare lo IT Act del 2000, quello sugli archivi elettroni-
ci ed il diritto all’informazione del 2005, e l’accesso all’informazione negli archivi e l’amministrazione archivi-
stica.

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Zgodovina Indijskih arhivov in arhivistike od leta 1950

IZVLEČEK
Indija je uradne arhive podedovala od britanskih kolonialnih vladarjev. Koncept sodobne hrambe arhivskega
gradiva je prišel v Indijo iz Anglije preko trgovskih podjetij. Indijci so imeli težave tudi v zvezi z arhivsko upra-
vo, poskušali pa so jih rešiti pred prihodom Evropejcev. Ena izmed zapuščin Mughala, ki so jo Britanci pode-
doval je upravljanje z dokumenti (zlasti v zvezi z zapisi, ki se nanašajo na zemljišča). Avtor v prispevku daje
glavni poudarek na zgodovino arhivov in arhivske znanosti, pri tem pa poudarja njen razvoj skozi stoletja, pred-
vsem pa po razglasitvi neodvisnosti, torej leta 1947. Članek temelji na arhivskem gradivu, ki ga hrani Državni
arhiv Indije. Avgusta 1947 je bila Indija razglašena za neodvisno državo - čeprav z delitvijo Indije na dva dela,
in sicer Indijo in Pakistana. Prispevek je razdeljen na tri dele. Prvi del članka se osredotoča na zgodovinsko
perspektivo. V drugem delu članka je predstavljen razvoj arhivskega sistema pod britansko kolonialno oblastjo
in upravljanje ter izvrševanje njihovih poslovnih dejavnosti. Tretji del prispevka osvetljuje status arhivistike kot
stroke vse od leta 1950, vpliv integracije knežjih držav v Indijsko federacijo in knežje arhive. Prav tako pa tretji
del obravnava tudi arhivsko gradivo nekdanjega Urada Predstavnika krone, vprašanja in izzive, s katerimi se
soočajo sodobni arhivisti in upravljavci z dokumentarnim gradivom ter vpliv delitvi Indije po osamosvojitvi na
arhive. V članku pa je predstavljen tudi vpliv znanstvenikov in zgodovinarjev na dostop do arhivskega gradiva,
aktualne teme, vpliv arhivskega zakona iz leta 1993 in drugi zakoni, zlasti Zakon o informacijskih tehnologijah
iz leta 2000, elektronski zapisi in Zakon o pravici do informacij iz leta 2005 ter dostop do informacij v arhivih
in arhivska uprave v e-okolju.

Why Archives are important since ages? Archives are important and valuable because of their
precedent, reference, and informational value. Archives and Archival organisations have played a vital
role in the public life of the people and society at large since ages in managing the memory of the
mankind and the nations. No two countries are identical, hence the history of evolution of official
Archives are different from nation to nation. India has a very interesting life history of the evolution
of Archives of its own, which is very special and peculiar to itself.
In ancient times the information and wisdom was passed from one generation to another by oral
traditions before writing was introduced in India. There are evidences to substantiate the existence of
Archives in ancient times having regional, provincial and central units. But we do not have much in-
formation of the management, maintenance and preservation of records in the earlier periods. Still
certain evidences through excavations and available treatise tell us about our past history and traditio-
nal methods used for documentation and preservation of information.
Indian civilization being one of the oldest civilizations, its history of archives would have been
equally illuminating, that might have evolved bits by bits. But many of them have got destroyed with
the ravages of the time for obvious reasons: due to constant western invasions who took away lot of
records and manuscripts besides its wealth as part of their booty, natural calamities, nature fury like
floods and fire, white ants besides other factors. Few survived as family assets or were taken away be-
yond the shores of this country. While in transition since the time of Indus valley civilization, we have
come across evidences to establish the fact that information was documented and preserved by way of
signs, drawings, pictures on engravings on a variety of material and different formats like clay, wood,
stone, rock wall, caves, leaves or animal skins etc.
Writing is stated to have been introduced in India sometime in 5-6 century B.C., simultaneou-
sly when the Greek and Athenians civilization were flourishing. Paper was invented in China in 1-2nd
century A.D. and is considered to have been introduced in India in 6-7th century A.D. Till 19th centu-
ry we find that Birch and Palm leaf have been in use as writing material in India since ancient times.
Record offices existed in India during Buddhist times, just to refer to its rich tradition-though a di-
sjointed one and sometimes give fairly good idea about India’s great Heritage. Chinese Travellers ac-
count, (who came to India in between 3-7th centuries AD) do refer to record offices in India. Likewise
the European and Arab travellers who visited India during the Muslim Rule(1000-1600AD) like Peter
Mundi, Razaak and others have also written about existence of record offices during the period1. It
becomes more clearer when we approach towards our own time.

1. S. Ghose, Archive in India, Calcutta 1963, pp. 5-7.

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It is said that the idea of Archives administration travelled from Italy to England during the 19th
century. The concept of Modern Archives keeping came to India from England through Trading
Companies. We have inherited present day official archives of India from the British colonial Rulers.
Indians had also experienced the problem relating to Archives administration and had tried to solve
them before the coming of the Europeans. One of the legacy of the Mughal’s British inherited was the
records management (particularly related to land records) as the Mughal Rule is known as the ‘Kagha-
zi Raj’. Akbarnama gives a fair description as to how Emperor Akbar established a Record Office in
1574 AD, known as Daftar Khana by issue of an order that what happens at the court should be re-
corded and preserved2.
Likewise there are references to Maratha Records. Chtrapati Shivaji and the Peshwas followed
many of the Mughal practices and their records were kept in the form of ‘Bastas’ and are still extant
and are available in a well organised manner in Peshwa Daftar, Pune. The British Government of India
did not inherit any records in the name of Archives from the Mughals barring those which were seized
by the British troops when they occupied Delhi in September after the Mutiny of 1857 from the Pa-
lace of Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor3. During the 18th century when the Company
had settled down, the Nawabs of States of Oudh and Rampur and the Libraries of Khuda Bux in Pa-
tna indigenously collected a number of manuscripts by purchase, conquest etc. and even patronised
the artists for their rare skill to build up their collections. Today they have some very rare manuscripts
setting fine examples of calligraphy and illuminated (in gold) manuscripts as part of their treasure
trove. National Archives of India is also the proud owner of such rare collections of Persian and Arabic
manuscripts acquired through gifts, donation and purchase. Many of the manuscripts were sent back
to London or gathered at the Asiatic Society at Calcutta established for the purpose. Many of them
were sold or were given as presents to please their bosses or important people who subsequently took
them away and many of them found their way to many foreign Libraries. That is how they are now
available in many foreign libraries like Bodleian, the British Museum, and India Office Library (cur-
rently merged with the British Library) and collected by the European travellers. Thus it is clear that
archives existed in India during ancient and medieval times and at the advent of the Europeans to
India.
The British system of Record Keeping and Archives Administration in India is unique in a way
that it is an amalgam of Indian, Persian, Portuguese, Dutch and English systems but more of Dutch
pattern. Systems followed by most of the European trading powers had many commonalities and were
not different fundamentally. The transition of East India Company from a trading Company to a
territorial power resulted in rapid expansion of its administrative activities and the growth of the secre-
tariat. Lot of correspondence was generated on account of distance between Britain and their trading
stations and settlements in India and elsewhere, explaining in full their actions at both the ends. Fur-
ther there was increase in correspondence with the Native powers, within the Presidencies and the
authorities in London. As an outcome there was extraordinary flow of records at all ends. These chan-
ges compelled them to reorganise their secretariat a number of times during the period of the Rule of
East India Company and of the British Crown. Though the East India Company consolidated its po-
wer and also organised its administration but the government records of the early period are not avai-
lable. If some of them are there they are with gaps. The oldest record of the British period dates back
to 26th July 1630 preserved in the State Archives of Maharashtra (erstwhile Bombay Presidency) at
Bombay (Mumbai).
It was at Fort St. George Madras that for the first time principles of regular British administra-
tion took shape under the Governorship of Streynsham Master (1675-1680) and drew up Rules for
Secretary’s guidance, to summon the Council and deal with other related official matters. They were
known as Rules for the conduct of Business in the Office of the Secretary in the Public Deptt4
amended and revised from time to time as per necessity and working. The filing system also evolved
out of it. One can say that the nature of official records of the East India Company for about 233
years(1600-1833) were more of Business Archives in nature, for about a quarter both business and
official and for the last 100 years of the British rule in India were official archives, perhaps unparalleled
in the History of Archives of any country.
2. Ibid, p. 15.
3. Ibid, p. 21.
4. Home, Pub-Misc., Vol. 116 and 214.
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In the early days, all Departments organised their records based on the pattern of Departmental
Record Offices. In due course, with the expansion and consolidation of the British Empire, there was
sudden increase in the outgrowth of records with not much space left for new accruals. Efforts were
made in isolation in different Dept.’s offices in respective Presidencies. Even Presidency Committee of
Records and Regional Mofussil Committees all over Bengal which were established as an outcome of
a Resolution dated 17 March, 1820 adopted by the Supreme Government, to preserve land records,
outgrown as a result of the new system of Permanent Settlement in Bengal Presidency (having bounda-
ry even up to Delhi at that point of time - 1820 AD). It was operative in both Bengal and Bombay
Presidencies5. These Committees were to undertake listing, arrangement and better preservation of
records and covered records of the Sadder Diwani Adalat, offices of several Revenue Boards, the Secre-
tariat, and the Revenue Accountant. Mofussil (small towns) Committees dealt with records of regional
Courts and the Collectorates. It was a revolutionary move of the time as Revenue records, Secretariat,
Judicial, Territorial, General, Political and even the Court records were included in the jurisdiction of
these committees. The Bengal Government established a General Record Office at Fort William for
public records related to landed properties in Bengal and forwarded their proceedings to Bombay Pre-
sidencies to make similar arrangement in Bombay Presidency. As an outcome Bombay Record Office
was established in 1821. However the Presidency Committee of Records was dissolved after 9 years in
1830 as an economy measure, as recommended by the Finance Committee. However one can note
that a move had started. Though the problem of space and maintenance of records gained lot of signi-
ficance with the time, Lord Dalhousie (1849-56) did not agree to a proposal for establishment of a
Public Record Office rather favoured publication of selected documents.
Even the passing of the Public Record Act in U.K. in 1838 had no positive effects on the British
Colonial Masters in India. The Act had streamlined Archives Administration in U.K. but was never
extended to their colonies. They were keeping official records as tools of governance over British Co-
lonial Empire in the East. The year 1860 is significant in the history of National Archives of India and
the archival activities. A beginning was made in the Foreign Department by associating G.W. Forrest,
a Professor of English at Eliphinstone College, Bombay, who had earned a reputation of a good Archi-
vist on account of his personal interest and the work he had done in the Bombay Record Office. He
found the Records in a very deplorable condition and many of them were getting destroyed by “igno-
rant and indifferent custodians, dampness and white ants”. He recommended the urgency of tran-
sferring all records to a central repository. The Viceroy’s Council ultimately supported the recommen-
dation and it resulted in the establishment of Central Archives of the Government Of India known as
Imperial Record Department (IRD) on 11 February 1891 and G. W. Forrest was appointed the first
Officer-in-Charge6. His primary duties included examination, transfer and Cataloguing of Records of
all Departments and organising a Central Library in place of various departmental Libraries. The rest
is history. By and by non-current records of all Departments were transferred to IRD located in new
Imperial Secretariat Building at Calcutta. It was ultimately transferred to Delhi when Delhi became
the capital of India in 19117. A new Red Stone Building for Archives was constructed on Rajpath-
Janpath intersection as part of the Development Plan of the New Delhi, completed in 1926. The offi-
ce of IRD was shifted to Delhi subsequently along with records till shifting of records was completed
in1937. Hence records travelled to Delhi from Calcutta, the new seat of the British Government in
India. Keeper of Records had been designated as Director of Archives in 1944.
India gained independence in 1947 but with territorial partition of the country into two i.e.
India and Pakistan. Imperial Record Department was now rechristened as National Archives of India,
the custodian of non-current records of the Government of India. The functions of the Department
were regrouped in to four Main Divisions i.e. Administration, Records, Publication and Preservation
Divisions. Subsequently they were further sub-divided into smaller sections based on nature and di-
stribution of work8.

5. Home Dept. Misc. Volume No. 432, Bengal State Archives.

6. Home Public, A Proceeding, March 1891, No. 20-42, NAI.
7. Home – Delhi – A, December 1911-No. 8-11.
8. F. No. 1-5/52 R.I., Guide to the records of Imperial Record Department, NAI, p. 243.
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ISSUES BEFORE ARCHIVES AFTER INDEPENDENCE IN AUGUST 1947

The immediate challenge was as to how to deal with the quantum of records generated by more
than 500 government record creating agencies, whose number was rapidly increasing since indepen-
dence. It was a formidable mass of records which was a difficult task if at all to conduct an extensive
survey to work out a strategy or an action plan. Records of the central Ministries alone covered more
than 2, 10, 000 linear feet of space (about 40 miles) and difficult to assess records lying with subordi-
nate/attached offices (tentatively estimate was 68 miles app., of 232 agencies having responded to the
questionnaire of survey)9. What about the records of State Governments, local bodies like Municipal,
Local and District Boards, the documentation of prevailing practices relating to their control, servi-
cing, disposal either by destruction or retirement to a public repository, the current procedures relating
to the control on the one hand and servicing and public access to record retired to public repositories
on the other. To provide opportunities for cooperation between the record repositories and the records
creating agencies in the existing arrangements, how to address the problem of unsystematic and hapha-
zard manner of the problem of disposition of records lying with the creating agencies in the centre.
These estimates have not taken into account the likely accruals in the other agencies who did not re-
spond, records to be retired annually about 41,000 linear space (estimated to be 8 miles). Hence Go-
vernment required addition of one repository every year10.
So challenge was how to contain this geometrical progression- segregate chaff from the grain i.e.
important record from less important or of no value and significantly to save storage space, time, mo-
ney and manpower. Need of the hour was to find out effective method of appraisal of records judiciou-
sly for selecting records of greater significantly for preservation and simultaneously to contain the
unnecessary growth of records on account of expansion of government business. But much could be
attributed to existing procedure of documentation and disposal of the British administration to decide
about the appraisal strategy to be adopted by virtue of peculiar documentation practices. Further the-
re was need of efficient record management programme to ensure well planned system of administe-
ring the records which have outlived their requirement and to bring in uniformity in retirement/
transfer of records to archival repositories (Central or States, even to consider having Zonal reposito-
ries located outside Delhi in different regions having offices of the Union Government) in line with
international archival practices and principal of arrangement of Archives.
A study conducted by Indian Historical Record Commission (IHRC) between 1948-1952
had brought to light startling facts about the condition of unretired records in the Centre and the
State’s Ministries and Dept. , a situation alarming enough as a matter of concern, demanding imme-
diate action as to how to ensure their survival for future11. IHRC is a national organisation of indivi-
duals and Institutions engaged in the study, upkeep and preservation of records and historical manu-
scripts, set up in 1919 by a Resolution of the Government of India12. Till then the British Government
had been very conservative in giving access to Government records. For technical guidance relied
mainly on British experts and were expected to follow the lead of the British Government in their ar-
chival policy, then to use local expertise and had no committee of experts to help them to deal with
the subject professionally. It was more an official body and was broad based gradually making it a more
representative body by giving representation to provinces and States, representative of association of
historians, Universities and Archivists before 194713.
9. Report of the Committee on Archival Legislation, December, 1960 (New Delhi, 1962) p. 11.
10. Ibid.
11. As per information gathered on the basis of the questionnaire 232 agencies who had responded, only 31 seem to have
separate record rooms but no muniment rooms, 158 kept their record in office rooms, 12 in the basement and many in
their godowns . Regarding storage 185 departments had some packing boxes, closed cupboards or simply stacked on
floor, 55 Depts. reported dampness in their record rooms and only 92 claimed to be damp free. None had regulated en-
vironment. Regarding cleanliness 77 departments had system of regular dusting and fire fighting arrangements, while it
was reported to be done at irregular intervals, having no safe guards against fire hazards. So far as insectal or fungal at-
tacks, most of the department had no arrangements for prevention. 123 agencies had arrangements for keeping their files
with protective covers, 72 thought it necessary to keep them tide in bundles between two wooden boards. None of them
had any arrangements for repair of brittle records. None had trained staff to look after the records, nor a full time quali-
fied custodian of a responsible status to administer them. (Details of the Survey available in the Proceedings of Indian
Historical Records Commission. XXVIII session, 1951, pp. 38-46, NAI).
12. Dept. of Education (Genl.), Resolution No. 77 dt. 21st March, 1919.
13. Dept. Edu. Health & Lands, F. No. 92-9/E, Resolution dt. 16th September 1941.
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Its main role was purely consultative in character i.e. to make enquiries and give recommenda-
tions relating to archival matters, their preservations, publication programme, promote research and
publication, reference media, treatment of archives for the purpose of historical studies in all the pro-
vinces and Native Indian States, access to archives, archival training of Indian students from universi-
ties in method of historical research, selection of competent editors and assistants for publication of
documents14. Its early achievements were not very effective but through a number of resolutions adop-
ted at its various sessions it did drew the attention of the then British Government to various archival
problems and issues of records right from District to State and Central level, their housing, upkeep,
storage and physical conditions, appointment of trained officers etc. as it could not appeal to public
being a Government body.
Financial support constitutes an integral part of archival development programme and the Com-
mission has consistently laid stress for allocation of separate Plan funds for the purpose. The demand
for functional buildings by NAI and other States to have an organised Archives Office were not finding
favour with the Government of India due to constraints caused by the war and the partition of the
country. IHRC also kept these issues alive by adopting resolutions in its various sessions. The demand
for funds for development of archives failed to find a place in the First Five Year Plan of the Union
Government with priority being accorded to other development schemes for building a New India. In
the second Five Year Plan though the Government agreed to the proposal of NAI Annexe building but
only token amount was provided. It was only during the third Five Year Plan that funds were made
available for establishment of archives offices as also for construction of functional buildings for hou-
sing records of enduring value. NAI, Annexe was completed and inaugurated in 1991. By 1975 the
State Archives of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh had their own
functional buildings. Some more States like Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat and Kerala have since
joined this group. Other State Archives have also been pursuing the matter vigorously with their re-
spective Governments.
The Government of India initiated in 1986 two Centrally Sponsored Schemes for providing fi-
nancial assistance to the State Archives and other Non-Governmental Archival institutions and orga-
nisations through Ministry of Culture/NAI to provide fund support on project basis for further grow-
th and development of archival institutions in the country. The Commission had played a vital role in
launching of these schemes. Since then financial assistance is being provided by the centre even for
construction of building, purchase of conservation equipments and repair material etc. under these
two Grant -in- aid schemes being executed by National Archives.

ACCESS TO ARCHIVES
It was only through IHRC that research students’ right of access to historical records in official
custody was first recognised. It was only due to the efforts of IHRC that in 1939 the Government
decided to throw open all their non-current non- confidential records to bona fide research students,
much left to the discretion of the Keeper of Records. First pre 1860 records and subsequently up to
1880 were given access to bona fide students who were recommended by the Head of a University
Department. The research students had to pay an inspection fee of Rs. 5/, an examination fee of Rs.
2/- per ten typed foolscap pages of transcript with a minimum of Rs. 15/- and typing charges - all
excerpts were required to be submitted in typescript - were regarded as prohibitive, for official rate far
exceeded the rates that were current in the market. Research students with limited means could hardly
afford it hence proved vexatious. Even some portions of the excerpts were expunged if found otherwi-
se or without any understanding of the issue or subject as they were scrutinised by officials who were
not having historical training hence influencing the historical findings. Further months elapsed before
they were released15.
These were applicable to central records in provincial custody but were not binding on the Pro-
vinces and different practices were followed in different regions. The rules governing access to public
records were further liberalised in 1947 and all pre- 1902 official records were made available for rese-
arch.

14. Ibid.
15. Indian Historical Records Commission – A Retrospect, 1919-1948, pp. 16-17.
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To facilitate research and use of these records a pilot project of preparing Indexes was initiated
providing a more in depth reference media, to begin with Land Revenue Records and other series were
taken up subsequently. Such indexes were prepared by Provincial Records offices also at Bombay,
Madras etc. A Manual of Rules Regulating Access to Archives in India and Europe was also published for
the benefit of the researchers16.
With Independence India was declared a democratic Republic where people have a full right to
access the public records created by the Public authorities. Access Rules were further liberalised. Scru-
tiny of excerpts was done away with, first 40 year old records and subsequently as per Archival Policy
Resolution of 1972 and Public Record Act of 1993 & Public Record Rules 1997, 30 year old records
in public domain were thrown open for consultation by the bona-fide researchers. The only restric-
tions in force are related to sensitive zones and border areas and that too is left to the discretion of the
Director General, NAI to take a decision in such matters in consultations with the concerned Mini-
stries and Dept’s. As for private papers and Microfilms collections conditions imposed by the donor
regulates access to the paper/collections. Now with the Right to Information Act, 2005, any Indian
citizen can access archives by proving one’s identity. Foreign nationals are required to submit a letter
of introduction from their sponsoring University/ Institution as well as a letter of introduction from
the diplomatic mission of their country in India.
A set of Rules have been framed as prescribed under Public Record Act & Rules for the security
and servicing of records to users of Archives in line with Right to Information, facilitating their con-
sultation in a well equipped research room and supply of copies in any form including digital at mini-
mum (actual) cost as per prescribed rates. Many of the state Archives working on the model of NAI
either have their own Public Record Act (10 states out of 28) or have Archival Policy Resolutions to
regulate their Archives and Record management practices while trying to have their own archival
law.

Archival Legislation
THE ARCHIVAL POLICY RESOLUTION OF 1972
It took more than hundred years before National Archives of India could have its own Archival
Law passed by Parliament in 1993, though established in 1891. The need for an Archival Legislation
was also felt from time to time to regulate not only access to Records but also the entire working of
Archives Administration within Archives and also for future accruals from Ministries/ Depts. - regula-
ting the Records management practices in the Ministries/ Depts. right from creation to transfer of
right kind of records to Archives, based on international Archival practices.
The Destruction of Record Act of 1917 was essentially permissive rather than a preventive enact-
ment in as much as it furnished a statutory basis for the disposal of Central or State Government Re-
cords. It did not in any way compel the authorities concerned to implement any constructive functions
in this regard. Nor did it prevent any unwarranted destruction of public records. Hence IHRC has
been pressing hard at its various sessions to secure a statutory basis for the preservation of records on
the lines of U.K., to amend the existing law to make it more effective and to prevent export of histo-
rical manuscripts. The Commission has at least build up public opinion being the national forum
where historians and Archivists aired their views and by publicising its proceedings spread archival
awareness among the literate classes. Its recommendations did impacted or rather stimulated official
thinking on various archival issues demanding urgent attention.
An Archival Legislation Committee was constituted in 1959 by the Government of India. Dr.
Tarachand an eminent Historian and Member of Rajya Sabha was the Chairman of the Committee.
The terms of reference involved nationwide survey of records of all types, public & private, to study
and assess the problems affecting Archives in terms of housing, Administration, management and
use17.
Checking and arrangement of already accessioned records were pursued pertaining to different
16. For the details of Publications please visit NAI website [Link].
17. Report of the Committee on Archival Legislation, p. 2.
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Depts. Abstract Lists were prepared. The Government of India introduced a Manual of office proce-
dure in 1955 to regulate functioning of Government of India offices on uniform line. NAI took up a
Pilot Project of Records management to provide relief to various agencies of the Government of India
from their records of ephemeral nature. NAI started the appraisal of these records with the cooperation
of these agencies and also laid down its policies and procedures to preserve records of permanent value
for future by helping these Ministries and Deptts. To facilitate closing and recording of files judiciou-
sly, assistance was provided in drawing up the Retention Schedules and also to facilitate their appraisal
in due course.
The Government of India adopted an Archival Policy Resolution (APR) in December 1972 as
an interim measure on the basis of recommendation of Archival Legislation Committee Report, sub-
mitted in December 1960. Subsequently 15 State Government also adopted the central model of Ar-
chival Policy Resolution. The APR defined responsibilities of Ministries, Departments and other offi-
ces of the Government of India for proper care, custody, management and disposal of their records
and on the other those of the National Archives of India. Also recommended policy in respect of ap-
praisal and retirement of Records to Departmental Record Room’s. and Archival Repositories, stressed
the need for trained personnel to run the muniment rooms, to improve storage conditions, to prepare
serviceable reference media, revision of manuals for better management of records in Ministries/Dept.
and Archives and to improve functional relation between them. Director of Archives was entrusted
with the responsibilities of co-ordinating with the Central Government Offices in the field of Record
Management. Subsequently action on the Archival Law was also taken up in right earnest and the
Parliament passed the Bill on 22nd December 1993. The Public Record Act became effective on 1st
March 1995.
Public Record Act of 1993 and Public Record Rules of 1997
The Act empowers the Central Government to regulate the administration, management, and
preservation of Public Records of the Central Government/Union Territory Administration, Public
Sector Undertaking’s, Statutory Bodies, Committees and Commissions etc. and also envisages acqui-
sition of records of historical or national importance from private source by way of gift, purchase or
donation. All unclassified public and private records which are more than 25 years old and transferred
to archives are open for consultations by bona fide research scholars. An Archival Advisory Board has
also been constituted with Secretary, Culture, as Chairperson with members from various Ministries,
nominated Archivists and historians. The Board has been broad based recently providing equal repre-
sentation/ membership to non-officials members to strengthen the Body.
The experience gained during the period of operation suggests that the Act and the Public Re-
cord Rules framed to implement the Law by NAI, the nodal Agency, have not been very effective and
need to be further strengthened and made more relevant in the present changed scenario of electronic
records and their digital preservation. Provisions relating to transfer of non-current records after ap-
praisal in a time bound manner, liberalisation of access rules also need to be amended in line with IT
Act of 2000 and the RTI Act, 2005 besides many other provisions related to Archives and Record
management issues emerging in the event of e-archives on account of use of Information and commu-
nication Technology for governing processes by the Government of India.

PARTITION OF INDIA AND THE ARCHIVES

India was divided into two nations i.e. India and Pakistan before it gained independence from
the British Rule. The partition of India generated a number of issues and challenges for Archives, the
problem of division of archives of the undivided Indian Government and the challenge - how to tackle
it and prevent dismemberment of Indian Archives both at the centre and the states after merging of
the Princely States (more than 500 principalities) in the Indian Federation. It was a very delicate and
sensitive issue and records were enormous. It resulted in long deliberations held between the two sides
to defuse the crisis.
Government constituted a Steering Committee on the division of Museum and Archives
under the control of Partition Council. It was argued that the Government of India had acquired
sovereignty over former territories of British India, recognised under Indian Independence Act of
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1947. It was in line with International practice, according to which no records of a Government are
to be divided either on succession of a territory from its jurisdiction or partition or settlement of any
other form as had been requested by the Government of Pakistan. Further records being an organic
whole could not be divided without destroying their originality or compromising their evidential value
and if done that would amount to violation of international practice. Further it was not possible prac-
tically. Records cannot be dismembered which otherwise would result in making a particular series
incomplete with incomplete information. As a result it was decided that records which are at present
in the Indian Dominion should not be removed but Microfilm copies may be supplied to the Gover-
nment of Pakistan on demand18. This line of action which followed the approved international policy
in this respect was fully endorsed by the governments of both the countries. Hence the community of
Archivists the world over are opposed to dismemberment of Archives holding anywhere*.
Steering Committee of the Partition Council decided against the division of archival assets. It
was agreed between the Government of India and Pakistan that Government. of Pakistan could depu-
te its nominee to examine the Reference Media of the record Series housed in National Archives of
India and ask for copies of relevant records. Government of India was to extend all facilities to their
nominees.
It was also agreed to that if available to give printed copies of the records to Government of
Pakistan; if microfilming in natural course any of those records of their interest, to give one copy to
Pakistan free of cost, if not there is no obligation on the part of Government of India to supply the
copies of records to Pakistan unless they place additional microfilm unit at the disposal of National
Archives of India.
Indexes if marked ‘Secret’ should not be shown without prior permission of the concerned Mi-
nistry. Representative from the Government of Pakistan also observed that Division of Archives would
have catastrophic - disastrous results and were satisfied by receiving a copy of the inventory for requi-
sitioning copies of Records of their interest as and when required. Thus the dismemberment of Indian
Archives was avoided19.
Transfer/Acquisition of Records from Erstwhile Residencies/Agencies
Records were also acquired from the Crown Representative Offices in the Princely Ruled States,
having joined the federation. These records were transferred to the office of U.K. High Commissioner
for India by the erstwhile British Government on the eve of the transfer of Power. Fate of the Indian
Princely States was not yet clear. These records, if transferred partially, would have affected the integri-
ty of the entire series and would have got disintegrated and lost its evidential and archival value at both
ends. In fact precedent lay in the honesty of the Indian Government, when the records of Shanghai,
Bangkok and Singapore kept in trust with the Government of India during World War II, were retur-
ned to U.K. High Commissioner without any hesitation. Hence a request was made through Ministry
of States with all details of complete list of Residencies and Political Agencies as they existed prior to
14th August, 1949 besides the defunct bodies.
As these states lapsed or acceded to the new Dominion of India after Independence, functions
hitherto exercised by Crown Representative now vested with the Government of India. Consequently
ownership of the records(1759-1947) of the erstwhile Colonial Government or the Offices of Crown
Representatives were inherited by the Government of the New Dominion of India and that no other
authority had claims to recognise the Government of India as the owner of bulk of these series of Re-
cords and also as owner of the entire series. There cannot be part owners20.

18. Tirmizi Sai, Archives in India, New Delhi 1979, p. 11.

*
The gestures of National Archives of Netherland is commendable that they have returned in original the archives related
to Surinam of its colonial day’s recently, one of their former colonies besides extending full support financially and aca-
demically in the coming up of Surinam National Archives.
19. The Indian Archives, Vol. XL IX, Jan-December 2000 (Numbers 1-2) pp. 172-178, lot of credit goes to Shri S. Roy,
former Deputy Director of Archives, in handling of this issue as Member Secretary of the Steering Committee. Protecting
the sovereignty of Indian Archives in the Article S. Roy (1911-1983), A Profile of His Hands on: Experience with Archives,
by P. Mehra - D. K. Pant.
20. Ibid.
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Through diplomatic efforts and agreement with the U.K. authorities in 1960, National Archives
India was allowed to have microfilm copies of the Crown representative Records from Commonwe-
alth Relations Office as well. National Archives of India had to be Judicious and cautious enough in
selection of more valuable records than the less important ones for copying on microfilms - as they
were to be obtained only on payment basis and not on complimentary basis (though the Government
of India was the rightful owner having claims to those series by inherent rights being the legitimate
successor after independence). Foreign exchange provision was substituted by purchasing UNESCO
International Book coupons for obtaining the copies of Records on Microfilms. This programme is
still going on.
All records of Residencies and Political Agencies in India were transferred to NAI in 1948 wi-
thout disturbing their original order of arrangement. They were also listed for reference and use as they
are valuable enough to construct history of those States / Region they belong to and have rich infor-
mation to study the history of diplomacy of the British Government in India in various phases with
the Princely States and its people before the lapse of Paramountcy. A certain portion of records were
destroyed or disposed of by the Political Depts. of the British Government of India or were transferred
to different Agencies by Ministry of States for administrative purposes. Ministry of States was reque-
sted for return of these documents to National Archives India.
Archival Training
There was lack of trained professional archivists in the country and general ignorance about ge-
neral principals of modern archival practices as they had evolved in western European countries in the
19th and first half of 20th Century. The Government and the IHRC were equally aware of these weak-
nesses of the Archival profession in India. A formal beginning was made in 1941 when Government
adopted a Resolution No. F. 92-9/40-E of 16 September 1941 and accepted the need of training some
record office employees from the Provinces, Residencies, States and private students too, at the Impe-
rial Record Department each year, in the field of Archives administration and rehabilitation and pre-
servation of records in particular. IHRC too have been stressing for archival training by way of adop-
ting resolutions at various sessions. As far back as 1920 one assistant and two attendants were deputed
by Madras Record Office to IRD for training in the newly introduced methods of repair and renova-
tion as Mr. Scholfield the then Keeper of Records had reorganised the Preservation Branch and all
other state repositories were looking to IRD for technical advice, support and training. The next call
for service came from State of Jaipur, having wealth of mediaeval records, the richest source of infor-
mation to study the Mughal history and followed by Punjab (1927), Baroda (1928-29), Assam (1930),
Bombay Secretariat (1935) and to be followed by others till a formal beginning was made21.
All these developments and shortage of trained manpower necessitated need of creating a suita-
ble training programme to ensure availability of trained manpower, who wanted to take up Archives
- Keeping as a profession. Accordingly the Government of India introduced a Diploma Course (Au-
gust 1943) with a few nominees from Provincial and State Government and syllabus was revised in
1946 in consultations with international authorities22. Two stipends of Rupees 100-/ each was intro-
duced as well. Training has continued since then, training thousands of Archivists. Initially it was a 2
years course for some time with two short term courses for a year and six months duration (for preser-
vation only). In 1952, 2years course was discontinued and one year Diploma course in Archives Kee-
ping was made more intensive with more stress on practical training. The Government approved the
training scheme of NAI on regular basis as recommended by the Estimate Committee of the Parlia-
ment and also increased the stipend money by 50% and also introduced 8 stipends for each state
sponsored candidates i.e. Rs 75/-23.
In due course with the expansion of the Record management activities and particularly after the
21. Indian Historical Records Commission, A Retrospect 1919-1948, Calcutta 1948, p. 52-23.
22. It was an outcome of the recommendations of the Research and Publication Committee of IHRC in the form of “Post
War Reorganisation of Archives Offices in India“. For training in archival science, the Committee observed that when
each of the eleven Governor’s provinces in British India and the Princely States will put their record offices in order, they
would require a large number of trained archivists. Ref. Indian Historical Records Commission, A Retrospect 1919-
1948, Appendix ‘G’ Post war Reorganisation of Archives offices in India, p. 121.
23. Report of the Committee on Archival Legislative, December, 1960 (New Delhi, 1962) pp. 95-96.
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adoption of Archival Policy Resolution, 1972, based on the recommendations of the Archival legisla-
tion Committee there was a greater demand for trained personal at professional and sub-professional
level. The Institute of Archival Training was set up in 1976 as a UNESCO approved Regional Centre
for Archival Training for South Asia and attracts students from the neighbouring and African Countri-
es. The Institute was renamed as School of Archival studies in 1980. A number of Short Term Trai-
ning Courses were also started in all disciplines of Archival science at professional and sub-professional
level. With the enactment of Public Record Act of 1993 training of Departmental Record Officers in
the Union Ministries/Departments, Attached and Subordinate Offices and even from Public Sector
Undertakings was initiated by the School which is mandatory and caters to their requirement of Re-
cord Management Practices of current and semi-current records. The curriculum of the school is also
updated from time to time and is quite intensive with more stress on hands on training. It is duly
approved by its Board of Studies and has taken care of all latest techniques of Conservation, Reprogra-
phics including ICT, Digital Records, and specialisation paper in Business and Private archives besides
Archives and Records management. Currently 20 scholarships are being provided. A mandatory six
month paid Internship training has also been introduced to pass out private students of one year Di-
ploma Course w.e.f. 2010. The professional qualification has been recognised as one of the qualifica-
tion for appointment to the Post of Head of Archives at the Centre and the States Archival Reposito-
ries, University Archives and other such Institutes and Documentation Centres.
Publication programme to give access to official records
The policy of the British Government in India was not liberal enough to give access to records
to the people in general - rather adopted a Policy of Publications as Selections from the Government
Records to satisfy the public demand for access. They were afraid that the information from the re-
cords would be used against the government and wanted to prevent misuse of papers by the British
Officers as had been misused by Capt. Joseph Cunningham. A good result was that a Comprehensive
Records Publication Programme evolved and a series of source books, reference media were published
on Indo - British history like Press Lists of various series of records housed in IRD like Public Procee-
dings, Mutiny papers, Land records, Abstracts of the early Foreign Deptt. Records, Calendar, Calen-
dar of Persian correspondence, Descriptive List of Foreign Dept. Records, Lists of Home, Finance,
Public Works Dept., Foreign, Military Dept. Records, covering various periods of the 18th & 19th
centuries were published. Listing of original Treaties, transferred to IRD from foreign Deptt. was also
published in 3 volumes. Guide to Records in NAI, 11 Vols. is an exhaustive Reference Media about
the records holdings of NAI covering records up to 1960. As part of the UNESCO Comprehensive
Project ‘Guide to the Sources of the History of the Nations’ - initiated in 1959 in collaboration with
ICA- actually launched in 1984. An Advisory Committee was constituted which set guidelines for
preparing India Chapter of the Guide to the Source of Asian History in India’, allocated No. 3 for
India out of 12 Asian countries. Under the project 6 Vol. have been published.
‘Indian Archives’ is an official bi annual journal, being published since 1947 with the object to
stimulate interest and imparting knowledge of the science of archives keeping. It contains research
articles on records administration, preservation and management, news-notes of select titles etc. The
special numbers based on various themes are also brought out from time to time. The department has
brought out 56 volumes of the journal so far.
Conservation and Preservation of Records
Repair and rehabilitation is an important aspect of archival preservation. IRD had proposed a
little ambitious programme for repair of records which however could not take off before the Second
World War. In the beginning programme of flattening the entire series of folded documents was taken
up. Documents were repaired where necessary by using tracing papers (though replaced subsequently
by chiffon repair) and were placed between docket covers, tied in bundles. Later after 1940’s, the Go-
vernment decided to mechanise the work by instituting modern equipments for fumigation and lami-
nation for repair of records. A Conservation Research laboratory was set up. An insecticide paper was
invented and new method of repairing palm-leaf manuscripts was evolved in the laboratory besides the
technique of hand/Solvent Lamination, the process which makes use of Cellulose Acetate foil, tissue
paper and acetone, developed in NAI indigenously and does not require elaborate and expensive equi-

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pments and receives individual attention. At the same time it is a reversible method. Laminating
Hydraulic Press was installed to do repair of brittle and fragile documents on a large scale. A Vacuum
fumigation chamber was also built up to facilitate speedy disinfection of document, insects and moulds
signified the change over from traditional method to scientific and mechanised modes of repair. Besi-
des, Rehabilitation programme, Consultancy Service was initiated under preservation programme pro-
viding technical Assistance in the field of Repair and rehabilitation of records. The laboratory has been
since modernised and equipped with latest equipments and the conservation works is going on in
project mode of library and archival material.
Microfilming and digitization of Records
Likewise Micrographic Laboratory was set up to conserve valuable collections on microfilms
roles. An ambitious programme of security microfilming was launched after independence as a precau-
tionary measure against loss of fire, flood, war and sabotage besides to ensure longevity to documents
in custody. These set of negative copies of microfilm roles are kept at NAI Regional Office, Bhopal.
Even positive prints of these microfilms are also developed for consultation by the scholars. There are
about 35000 microfilms roles in the microfilm repository. Modern technology has further facilitated
conversion of microfilms directly into digital format. The computerisation and digitization program-
me was initiated in 1998. In view of the requirement for quick retrieval of information from Gover-
nment Records a tailor made software namely Archival Information Management System (AIMS) was
developed. Stand alone version of AIMS has also been given to State Repositories for networking with
NAI. The software was upgraded to latest technology in 2006 with the help of National Informatics
Centre (NIC), Government of India. Till now data of the reference media of 22 lakh files/ records
pertaining to various ministries and departments has been created and the same is available in the in-
tranet of the department for use by scholars, administration and users of Archives. The same data is
being uploaded on the NAI website for the benefit of users in a searchable format to be available onli-
ne. A number of other projects are also making steady progress converting content of the files into
digital mode to be ingested into the system by using AIMS database for the metadata component and
creating JEPG, PDF, XML and checksum for each record for authenticity. NAI has signed an MOU
with Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune for this project and it will
enable NAI to develop its digital preservation capabilities of e-records in fulfilment of the mandate of
the Public Records Act of 1993. Total Digital Images available in NAI are 38,00,000 (approx) in 4
T.B. capacity.
A National Register Programme was launched in 1959 to compile a comprehensive list of priva-
te and non-official archives scattered all over the country - Nationwide survey was undertaken for
census of Records/ in private custody - in collaboration with the state/ Union Territories. So far 23
Vols. have been brought out.
National Archives of India has in its custody, a rich collection of Private Papers and oriental
records which have been acquired mainly through donations and gifts from a variety of sources, even
purchased through its expert committee - Historical Documents Purchase Committee (HDPC). The-
se papers constitute a valuable supplement to the information contained amongst public records.
Major collections of Private Papers are those of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Dadabhai
Naoroji, M R Jayakar, Maulana Azad, G.K. Gokhale, Sardar Patel, P.D. Tandon, Minoo Masani,
etc..
Besides the above records, the office has a special Archival Library supplementing the informa-
tion available in Public records. The library holdings comprise of collection of Government reports
and publications, gazetteers, native newspaper reports and books on various disciplines. NAI’s Regio-
nal office at Bhopal and Records Centres at Bhubaneswar, Jaipur and Puduchery have also a huge
collection of records with research facilities to the scholars visiting these offices.
States Archives in the Country have evolved on the pattern of Central Archives i.e. NAI the
Premier Archival Repository in India. The National Committee of Archivists constituted in 1955 has
played a vital role in bringing state/ UT Archives and NAI closer. The Committee meets once a year
to deliberate on issues related to Archival problems and adopt resolution and reviews follow up action
on the previous recommendations. They share a good and healthy professional relations and NAI pro-

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vides them all professional, technical support in the form of Archival training, sharing of resources and
expertise besides extending financial assistance under two Grant - in-Aid Schemes.

SUMMARY
The evolution of official archives in India has a life history of its own very special, interesting and peculiar to
itself. While in transition since the time of Indus valley civilization, we have come across evidences to establish
the fact that records were kept by signs, drawings, pictures on engravings on a variety of material and different
formats like clay, wood, stone, rock wall, caves, leaves or animal skins etc.. Writing is stated to have been intro-
duced sometime in 5-6 century B.C.. Record offices existed in India during Buddhist times, just to refer to its
rich tradition - though a disjointed one and sometimes gives fairly good idea about India’s great Heritage. Chi-
nese Travellers account do refer to record offices in India. Likewise the European and Arab travellers who visited
India before coming of Europeans, have also written about existence of record offices during the period. We
have inherited official archives of India from the British colonial Rulers. The concept of Modern Archives kee-
ping came to India from England through Trading Companies. Indians had also experienced the problem rela-
ting to Archives administration and had tried to solve them before the coming of the Europeans. One of the
legacy of the Mughal’s British inherited is the records management (particularly related to land records). The
main focus of the paper is on the History of Archives and Archival Science with main stress on its evolution at
the time of independence in August 1947. Hence endeavour has been made to start the study of the evolution
of Archives since independence i.e. 1947, the Legacy of the British Colonial Rulers, on the basis of the archival
records available of the British period in National Archives of India that we have inherited. In August 1947
India was declared an independent Nation - though partitioning India into two, India and Pakistan. Hence the
study is in three parts. In the first part of the paper History of Archives in India has been discussed in historical
perspective before the coming of the European Trading Companies. In the second part of the paper an effort
has been made to discuss the evolution of archival system under the British Colonial Government and how they
used to administer and transact their business activities. In the third part of the paper an effort has been made
to highlight the issues and challenges before the new Independent India, the archival legacy of the British Co-
lonial Government and the impact of the integration of the princely states into the Indian Federation and the
Princely archives besides the archives of former Crown Representative Offices. Further as to what was the im-
pact of the partition of India on Archives after independence in 1947 from the British Colonial Rule has been
addressed. What has been the status of the archives as a profession in the country and the issues and challenges
posed to the world of archivist and the record managers of the time has also been discussed highlighting the
influence of the scholars and the historians on the archives and how they faced these challenges, followed by
analysis of the outcome of their initiatives before the enactment of the Public Record Act of the 1993. The paper
in brief also refers to some of the current issues and the after effects/impact of the archival legislation and the
other laws that came into being in particular the IT Act of 2000, the e-records and the Act of the Right to the
information - 2005 and on access to information in Archives and Archives administration in e-environment.

Submitting date: 22.03.2013

Acceptance date: 24.04.2013

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