anatomy and physiology 101

Chapter 3

Tissues

JC EXAMEN, PTRP
 Why This Matters

• Understanding types of tissues allows you to

monitor potential tissue damage, such as
bedsores, in patients

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 Tissue: The Living Fabric

• Individual body cells are specialized

– Each type performs specific functions that
maintain homeostasis
• Tissues
– Groups of cells similar in structure that perform
common or related function
• Histology
– Study of tissues
• Four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous tissue
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Figure 4.1 Overview of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.

Nervous tissue: Internal communication

• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Nerves

Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement

• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)
• Muscles of heart (cardiac)
• Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)
Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different
environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters
• Lining of digestive tract organs and other hollow
organs
• Skin surface (epidermis)

Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds

other tissues together
• Bones
• Tendons
• Fat and other soft padding tissue

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 4.1 Microscopy of Human Tissue

• To be viewed under a microscope, tissue must

be:
– Fixed: tissue is preserved with solvent
– Sectioned: cut into slices thin enough to transmit
light or electrons
– Stained: to enhance contrast, although artifacts
(distortions) detract from what the sample looks
like in living tissues
• Light microscopy uses colored dyes
• Electron microscopy uses heavy metal coatings

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 4.2 Epithelial Tissue

• Epithelial tissue (epithelium) is a sheet of

cells that covers body surfaces or cavities
• Two main forms:
– Covering and lining epithelia
• On external and internal surfaces (example: skin)
– Glandular epithelia
• Secretory tissue in glands (example: salivary glands)
• Main functions: protection, absorption, filtration,
excretion, secretion, and sensory reception

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 Special Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues

• Epithelial tissue has five distinguishing

characteristics:
1. Polarity
2. Specialized contacts
3. Supported by connective tissues
4. Avascular, but innervated
5. Regeneration

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 Special Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
(cont.)
• Polarity
– Cells have polarity (top and bottom)
– Apical surface, upper free side, is exposed to
surface or cavity
• Most apical surfaces are smooth, but some have
specialized fingerlike projections called microvilli
– Basal surface, lower attached side, faces
inwards toward body
• Attaches to basal lamina, an adhesive sheet that
holds basal surface of epithelial cells to underlying
cells
– Both surfaces differ in structure and function
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 Special Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
(cont.)
• Specialized contacts
– Epithelial tissues need to fit closely together
• Many form continuous sheets
– Specialized contact points bind adjacent
epithelial cells together
• Lateral contacts include:
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes

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 Special Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
(cont.)
• Connective tissue support
– All epithelial sheets are supported by connective
tissue
– Reticular lamina
• Deep to basal lamina
• Consists of network of collagen fibers
– Basement membrane
• Made up of basal and reticular lamina
• Reinforces epithelial sheet
• Resists stretching and tearing
• Defines epithelial boundary
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 Special Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
(cont.)
• Avascular, but innervated
– No blood vessels are found in epithelial tissue
• Must be nourished by diffusion from underlying
connective tissues
– Epithelia are supplied by nerve fibers, however

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 Special Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
(cont.)
• Regeneration
– Epithelial cells have high regenerative capacities
– Stimulated by loss of apical-basal polarity and
broken lateral contacts
– Some cells are exposed to friction, some to
hostile substances, resulting in damage
• Must be replaced
• Requires adequate nutrients and cell division

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 Classification of Epithelia

• All epithelial tissues have two names

– First name indicates number of cell layers
• Simple epithelia are a single layer thick
• Stratified epithelia are two or more layers thick and
involved in protection (example: skin)
– Second name indicates shape of cells
• Squamous: flattened and scale-like
• Cuboidal: box-like, cube
• Columnar: tall, column-like
– In stratified epithelia, shape can vary in each
layer, so cell is named according to the shape in
apical layer
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Figure 4.2a Classification of epithelia.

Apical surface

Basal surface
Simple

Apical surface

Basal surface
Stratified
Classification based on number of
cell layers.

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Figure 4.2b Classification of epithelia.

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

Classification based on cell shape.

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 Classification of Epithelia (cont.)

• Simple epithelia
– Involved in absorption, secretion, or filtration
processes
– Simple squamous epithelium
• Cells are flattened laterally, and cytoplasm is sparse
• Function where rapid diffusion is priority
– Example: kidney, lungs
• Two special simple squamous epithelia are based on
locations
– Endothelium: lining of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels,
and heart
– Mesothelium: serous membranes in the ventral body
cavity
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Figure 4.3a Epithelial tissues.

Simple squamous epithelium

Description: Single layer of
flattened cells with disc-shaped
central nuclei and sparse
cytoplasm; the simplest of the Air sacs of
epithelia. lung tissue
Nuclei of
squamous
epithelial
cells
Function: Allows materials to
pass by diffusion and filtration
in sites where protection is not
important; secretes lubricating
substances in serosae.

Location: Kidney glomeruli;

air sacs of lungs; lining of heart,
blood vessels, and lymphatic
vessels; lining of ventral body Photomicrograph: Simple squamous
cavity (serosae). epithelium forming part of the alveolar
(air sac) walls (140×).

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 Classification of Epithelia (cont.)

• Simple cuboidal epithelium

– Single layer of cells
– Involved in secretion and absorption
– Forms walls of smallest ducts of glands and
many kidney tubules

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Figure 4.3b Epithelial tissues.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Description: Single layer
of cubelike cells with large,
spherical central nuclei.
Simple
cuboidal
epithelial
cells

Nucleus

Function: Secretion and

absorption. Basement
membrane

Location: Kidney tubules;

ducts and secretory portions Connective
of small glands; ovary surface. tissue

Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal

epithelium in kidney tubules (430×).

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 Classification of Epithelia (cont.)

• Simple columnar epithelium

– Single layer of tall, closely packed cells
• Some cells have microvilli, and some have cilia
• Some layers contain mucus-secreting goblet cells
– Involved in absorption and secretion of mucus,
enzymes, and other substances
• Ciliated cells move mucus
– Found in digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts of
some glands, bronchi, and uterine tubes

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Figure 4.3c Epithelial tissues.

Simple columnar epithelium

Description: Single layer of tall
cells with round to oval nuclei; many
cells bear microvilli, some bear cilia;
layer may contain mucus-secreting
unicellular glands (goblet cells).
Microvilli

Simple
columnar
epithelial
cell
Function: Absorption; secretion
of mucus, enzymes, and other Mucus of
substances; ciliated type propels goblet cell
mucus (or reproductive cells) by
ciliary action.
Location: Nonciliated type lines
most of the digestive tract (stomach
to rectum), gallbladder, and excretory
ducts of some glands; ciliated variety Photomicrograph: Simple columnar
lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, epithelium of the small intestine mucosa
and some regions of the uterus. (640×).

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 Classification of Epithelia (cont.)

• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

– Cells vary in height and appear to be multi-
layered and stratified, but tissue is in fact single-
layered simple epithelium
• “Pseudo” means false
• Many cells are ciliated
– Involved in secretion, particularly of mucus, and
also in movement of mucus via ciliary sweeping
action
– Located mostly in upper respiratory tract, ducts
of large glands, and tubules in testes
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Figure 4.3d Epithelial tissues.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Description: Single layer of cells
of differing heights, some not Goblet cell
reaching the free surface; nuclei (contains
seen at different levels; may mucus)
contain mucus-secreting cells and
bear cilia. Cilia

Pseudo-
stratified
epithelial
layer
Function: Secrete substances,
particularly mucus; propulsion
of mucus by ciliary action.
Location: Nonciliated type in
males’ sperm-carrying ducts and Basement
ducts of large glands; ciliated membrane
variety lines the trachea, most of Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified ciliated
the upper respiratory tract. columnar epithelium lining the human trachea
(780×).

Trachea

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 Classification of Epithelia (cont.)

• Stratified epithelial tissues

– Involve two or more layers of cells
– New cells regenerate from below
• Basal cells divide and migrate toward surface
– More durable than simple epithelia because
protection is the major role
– Stratified squamous epithelium
• Most widespread of stratified epithelia
• Free surface is squamous, with deeper cuboidal or
columnar layers
• Located in areas of high wear and tear (example: skin)
• Keratinized cells found in skin; nonkeratinized cells
are found in moist linings
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Figure 4.3e Epithelial tissues.

Stratified squamous epithelium

Description: Thick membrane
composed of several cell layers;
basal cells are cuboidal or columnar
and metabolically active; surface
cells are flattened (squamous); in the
keratinized type, the surface cells are
full of keratin and dead; basal cells
are active in mitosis and produce the Stratified
cells of the more superficial layers. squamous
epithelium

Nuclei
Basement
Function: Protects underlying
tissues in areas subjected to membrane
abrasion. Connective
Location: Nonkeratinized type forms tissue
the moist linings of the esophagus,
mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety Photomicrograph: Stratified squamous
forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry epithelium lining the esophagus (285×).
membrane.

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 Classification of Epithelia (cont.)

• Stratified epithelial tissues (cont.)

– Stratified cuboidal epithelium
• Quite rare
• Found in some sweat and mammary glands
• Typically only two cell layers thick
– Stratified columnar epithelium
• Also very limited distribution in body
• Small amounts found in pharynx, in male urethra, and
lining some glandular ducts
• Usually occurs at transition areas between two other
types of epithelia
• Only apical layer is columnar

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 Classification of Epithelia (cont.)

• Stratified epithelial tissues (cont.)

– Transitional epithelium
• Forms lining of hollow urinary organs
– Found in bladder, ureters, and urethra
• Basal layer cells are cuboidal or columnar
• Ability of cells to change shape when stretched allows
for increased flow of urine and, in the case of bladder,
more storage space

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Figure 4.3f Epithelial tissues.

Transitional epithelium
Description: Resembles both
stratified squamous and
stratified cuboidal; basal cells
cuboidal or columnar; surface
cells dome shaped or
squamouslike, depending on
degree of organ stretch.

Transitional
epithelium

Function: Stretches readily, Basement

permits stored urine to distend membrane
urinary organ.
Connective
Location: Lines the ureters, Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium tissue
bladder, and part of the urethra. lining the bladder, relaxed state (360×); note
the bulbous, or rounded, appearance of the
cells at the surface; these cells flatten and
elongate when the bladder fills with urine.

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 Glandular Epithelia

• Gland
– One or more cells that makes and secretes an
aqueous fluid called a secretion
• Classified by:
– Site of product release:
• Endocrine: internally secreting (example: hormones)
• Exocrine: externally secreting (example: sweat)
– Relative number of cells forming the gland
• Unicellular (example: goblet cells) or multicellular
(example: salivary)

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 Glandular Epithelia (cont.)

• Endocrine glands
– Ductless glands
• Secretions are not released into a duct; are released
into surrounding interstitial fluid, which is picked up by
circulatory system
– Secrete (by exocytosis) hormones, messenger
chemicals that travel through lymph or blood to
their specific target organs
– Target organs respond in some characteristic
way

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 Glandular Epithelia (cont.)

• Exocrine glands
– Secretions are released onto body surfaces,
such as skin, or into body cavities
– More numerous than endocrine glands
– Secrete products into ducts
– Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and
salivary glands
– Can be:
• Unicellular
• Multicellular

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 Glandular Epithelia (cont.)

• Unicellular exocrine glands

– The only important unicellular glands are
mucous cells and goblet cells
– Found in epithelial linings of intestinal and
respiratory tracts
– All produce mucin, a sugar-protein that can
dissolve in water to form mucus, a slimy
protective, lubricating coating

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Figure 4.4 Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).

Microvilli

Secretory
vesicles
containing
mucin

Golgi
apparatus
Rough ER

Nucleus

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 Glandular Epithelia (cont.)

• Multicellular exocrine glands

– Multicellular exocrine glands are composed of a
duct and a secretory unit
– Usually surrounded by supportive connective
tissue that supplies blood and nerve fibers to
gland
• Connective tissue can form capsule around gland, and
also extend into gland, dividing it into lobes
– Classified by:
• Structure
• Mode of secretion

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 Glandular Epithelia (cont.)

• Multicellular exocrine glands (cont.)

– Structure
• Simple exocrine glands have unbranched ducts, but
compound glands have branched ducts
• In a tubular gland, secretory cells form a duct,
whereas in alveolar glands, secretory cells form sacs
– Tubuloalveolar glands have both types

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Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands.

Simple duct structure Compound duct structure

(duct does not branch) (duct branches)

Tubular
secretory
structure
Simple tubular Simple branched
Example tubular
Intestinal glands Example Compound tubular
Stomach (gastric) Example
glands Duodenal glands of small intestine

Alveolar
secretory
structure

Simple alveolar Simple branched

Example alveolar Compound alveolar Compound
No important Example Example tubuloalveolar
example in humans Sebaceous (oil) glands Mammary glands Example
Salivary glands

Surface epithelium Duct Secretory epithelium

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 Glandular Epithelia (cont.)

• Multicellular exocrine glands (cont.)

– Mode of secretion
• Merocrine: most secrete products by exocytosis as
secretions are produced (sweat, pancreas)
• Holocrine: accumulate products within, then rupture
(sebaceous oil glands)
• Apocrine: accumulate products within, but only apex
ruptures; whether this type exists in humans is
controversial (maybe mammary cells?)

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Figure 4.6 Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.

Secretory
cell fragments

Secretory
vesicles

Merocrine glands secrete their In holocrine glands, the entire

products by exocytosis. secretory cell ruptures, releasing
secretions and dead cell fragments.

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4.3 Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue is the most abundant and

widely distributed of primary tissues
• Major functions: binding and support,
protecting, insulating, storing reserve fuel, and
transporting substances (blood)
• Four main classes
• Connective tissue proper
• Cartilage
• Bone
• Blood

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Table 4.1-1 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues

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Table 4.1-2 Comparison of Classes of Connective Tissues (continued)

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Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue

• Three characteristics make connective tissues

different from other primary tissues:
• All have common embryonic origin: all arise from
mesenchyme tissue as their tissue of origin
• Have varying degrees of vascularity (cartilage is
avascular, bone is highly vascularized)
• Cells are suspended/embedded in extracellular
matrix (ECM) (protein-sugar mesh)
• Matrix supports cells so they can bear weight, withstand
tension, endure abuse

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Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

• All connective tissues have three main

elements
• Ground substance
• Fibers
• Cells
• The first two elements (ground substance and fibers)
together make up the extracellular matrix
• Composition and arrangement of these three
elements vary considerably in different types of
connective tissues

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Structural Elements of Connective
Tissue (cont.)

• Ground substance
• Unstructured gel-like material that fills space
between cells
• Medium through which solutes diffuse between blood
capillaries and cells
• Components
• Interstitial fluid
• Cell adhesion proteins (“glue” for attachment)
• Proteoglycans (sugar proteins), made up of protein core +
large polysaccharides
• Example: chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid
• Water also is trapped in varying amounts, affecting
viscosity of ground substance

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Structural Elements of Connective Tissue
(cont.)

• Connective tissue fibers

• Three types of fibers provide support
• Collagen
• Strongest and most abundant type
• Tough; provides high tensile strength
• Elastic fibers
• Networks of long, thin, elastin fibers that allow for stretch
and recoil
• Reticular
• Short, fine, highly branched collagenous fibers (different
chemistry and form from collagen fibers)
• Branching forms networks that offer more “give”

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Structural Elements of Connective Tissue
(cont.)

• Cells
• “Blast” cells
• Immature form of cell that actively secretes ground
substance and ECM fibers
• Fibroblasts found in connective tissue proper
• Chondroblasts found in cartilage
• Osteoblasts found in bone
• Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow
• “Cyte” cells
• Mature, less active form of “blast” cell that now becomes
part of and helps maintain health of matrix

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Structural Elements of Connective
Tissue (cont.)

• Other cell types in connective tissues

• Fat cells
• Store nutrients
• White blood cells
• Neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes
• Tissue response to injury
• Mast cells
• Initiate local inflammatory response against foreign
microorganisms they detect
• Macrophages
• Phagocytic cells that “eat” dead cells, microorganisms;
function in immune system

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Figure 4.7 Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue.

Cell types Extracellular

matrix

Ground substance
Macrophage
Fibers
• Collagen fiber
• Elastic fiber
• Reticular fiber

Fibroblast

Lymphocyte

Fat cell
Capillary

Mast cell

Neutrophil

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Types of Connective Tissues

• There are four main classes of connective

tissue:
• Connective tissue proper
• Cartilage
• Bone
• Blood

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• Connective tissue proper

• Consists of all connective tissues except bone,
cartilage, and blood
• Two subclasses
• CT proper: loose connective tissues
• Areolar
• Adipose
• Reticular
• CT proper: dense connective tissues
• Dense regular
• Dense irregular
• Elastic

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• CT proper: loose connective tissues

• Areolar connective tissue
• Most widely distributed CT
• Supports and binds other tissues
• Universal packing material between other tissues
• Contains fibroblasts that secrete loose arrangement of
mostly collagen fibers
• Loose fibers allow for increased ground substance, which
can act as water reservoir by holding more interstitial fluid
• Macrophages and fat cells are contained in spaces

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Figure 4.8a Connective tissues.

Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar

Description: Gel-like matrix with
all three fiber types; cells:
fibroblasts, macrophages, mast
cells, and some white blood cells. Elastic
fibers

Function: Wraps and cushions

organs; its macrophages Ground
phagocytize bacteria; plays substance
important role in inflammation;
holds and conveys tissue fluid. Fibroblast
nuclei

Location: Widely distributed

under epithelia of body, e.g., Collagen
forms lamina propria of mucous fibers
membranes; packages organs;
surrounds capillaries.

Epithelium Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue,

a soft packaging tissue of the body (340×).

Lamina
propria

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• CT proper: loose connective tissues (cont.)

• Adipose tissue
• White fat
• Similar to areolar tissue but greater nutrient storage
• Cells are called adipocytes
• Scanty matrix
• Richly vascularized
• Functions in shock absorption, insulation, and energy
storage
• Brown fat
• Use lipid fuels to heat bloodstream rather than to produce
ATP, as does white fat

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Figure 4.8b Connective tissues.

Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose

Description: Matrix as in
areolar, but very sparse; closely
packed adipocytes, or fat cells,
have nucleus pushed to the
side by large fat droplet.
Nucleus of
adipose
Function: Provides reserve (fat) cell
food fuel; insulates against
heat loss; supports and
protects organs.
Fat droplet
Location: Under skin in
subcutaneous tissue; around
kidneys and eyeballs; within
abdomen; in breasts.
Adipose
tissue
Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the
subcutaneous layer under the skin (350×).

Mammary
glands
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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• CT proper: loose connective tissues (cont.)

• Reticular connective tissue
• Resembles areolar tissue, but fibers are thinner reticular
fibers
• Fibroblast cells are called reticular cells
• Secrete reticular fibers made up of thin collagen
• Reticular fibers form a mesh-like stroma that acts as a
support for blood cells in lymph nodes, spleen, and bone
marrow

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Figure 4.8c Connective tissues.

Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular

Description: Loose network

of reticular fibers in a gel-like
ground substance; reticular
cells lie on the network.

Function: Fibers form a soft

internal skeleton (stroma) that White
supports other cell types blood cell
including white blood cells, (lymphocyte)
mast cells, and macrophages.

Reticular
fibers
Location: Lymphoid organs
(lymph nodes, bone marrow,
and spleen).

Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network

of reticular connective tissue fibers forming
the internal skeleton of the spleen (350×).

Spleen

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• CT proper: dense connective tissues

• Three varieties of dense connective tissue
• Dense regular
• Dense irregular
• Elastic

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• CT proper: dense connective tissues (cont.)

• Dense regular connective tissue
• Very high tensile strength; can withstand high
tension and stretching
• Closely packed bundles of thick collagen fibers run
parallel to direction of pull
• Fibers appear as white structures
• Great resistance to pulling
• Fibers slightly wavy, so stretch a little
• Fibroblasts manufacture collagen fibers and ground
substance
• Very few cells and ground substance, mostly fibers
• Poorly vascularized
• Example: tendons and ligaments

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Figure 4.8d Connective tissues.

Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular

Description: Primarily parallel
collagen fibers; a few elastic
fibers; major cell type is the
fibroblast.

Collagen
Function: Attaches muscles to fibers
bones or to muscles; attaches
bones to bones; withstands
great tensile stress when
pulling force is applied in one Nuclei of
direction. fibroblasts

Location: Tendons, most

ligaments, aponeuroses.

Shoulder
joint
Photomicrograph: Dense regular connective
tissue from a tendon (430×).

Ligament

Tendon

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• CT proper: dense connective tissues (cont.)

• Dense irregular connective tissue
• Same elements as dense regular, but bundles of collagen
are thicker and irregularly arranged
• Forms sheets rather than bundles
• Resists tension from many directions
• Found in:
• Dermis
• Fibrous joint capsules
• Fibrous coverings of some organs

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Figure 4.8e Connective tissues.

Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular

Description: Primarily
irregularly arranged collagen
fibers; some elastic fibers; Nuclei of
fibroblast is the major cell type. fibroblasts

Function: Withstands tension

exerted in many directions;
provides structural strength.

Location: Fibrous capsules of

organs and of joints; dermis of Collagen
the skin; submucosa of fibers
digestive tract.

Shoulder
joint

Photomicrograph: Dense irregular connective

tissue from the fibrous capsule of a joint (430×).
Fibrous
joint
capsule

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• CT proper: dense connective tissues (cont.)

• Elastic connective tissue
• Some ligaments are very elastic
• Example: ligaments connecting adjacent vertebrae must be
very elastic
• Also found in walls of many large arteries
• Arteries need to stretch when blood enters and recoil to
push blood out

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Figure 4.8f Connective tissues.

Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, elastic

Description: Dense regular
connective tissue containing a
high proportion of elastic fibers.

Function: Allows tissue to

recoil after stretching; maintains
pulsatile flow of blood through
arteries; aids passive recoil of Elastic
lungs following inspiration. fibers

Location: Walls of large

arteries; within certain ligaments
associated with the vertebral
column; within the walls of the
bronchial tubes.

Photomicrograph: Elastic connective tissue

in the wall of the aorta (250×).

Aorta

Heart

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• Cartilage
• Matrix secreted from chondroblasts (during growth)
and chondrocytes (adults)
• Chondrocytes found in cavities called lacunae
• 80% water, with packed collagen fibers and sugar proteins
(chondroitin and hyaluronic acid)
• Tough yet flexible material that lacks nerve fibers
• Avascular: receives nutrients from membrane
surrounding it (perichondrium)
• Periochondrium gives rise to chondroblasts and
chondrocytes

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• Three types of cartilage:

• Hyaline cartilage
• Most abundant; “gristle”
• Appears as shiny bluish glass
• Found at tips of long bones, nose, trachea, larynx, and
cartilage of the ribs
• Elastic cartilage
• Similar to hyaline but with more elastic fibers
• Found in ears and epiglottis
• Fibrocartilage
• Properties between hyaline and dense regular tissue
• Strong, so found in areas such as intervertebral discs and
knee

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Figure 4.8g Connective tissues.

Cartilage: hyaline
Description: Amorphous but
firm matrix; collagen fibers form
an imperceptible network;
chondroblasts produce the
matrix and when mature Chondrocyte
(chondrocytes) lie in lacunae. in lacuna

Function: Supports and

reinforces; serves as resilient
cushion; resists compressive
stress.
Matrix
Location: Forms most of the
embryonic skeleton; covers the
ends of long bones in joint
cavities; forms costal cartilages
of the ribs; cartilages of the
nose, trachea, and larynx.

Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from

a costal cartilage of a rib (470×).

Costal
cartilages

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Figure 4.8h Connective tissues.
Cartilage: elastic
Description: Similar to hyaline
cartilage, but more elastic
fibers in matrix.

Chondrocyte
Function: Maintains the shape in lacuna
of a structure while allowing
great flexibility.

Matrix

Location: Supports the

external ear (pinna); epiglottis.

Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage from the

human ear pinna; forms the flexible skeleton
of the ear (800×).

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Figure 4.8i Connective tissues.
Cartilage: fibrocartilage
Description: Matrix similar to
but less firm than that in hyaline
cartilage; thick collagen fibers
predominate.

Function: Tensile strength

allows it to absorb compressive
shock.

Chondrocytes
Location: Intervertebral discs; in lacunae
pubic symphysis; discs of knee
joint.
Collagen
Intervertebral fiber
discs

Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an
intervertebral disc (125×). Special staining
produced the blue color seen.

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• Bone
• Also called osseous tissue
• Supports and protects body structures
• Stores fat and synthesizes blood cells in cavities
• Has more collagen compared to cartilage
• Has inorganic calcium salts
• Osteoblasts produce matrix
• Osteocytes maintain the matrix
• Reside in cavities in matrix called lacunae
• Osteons: individual structural units
• Richly vascularized

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Figure 4.8j Connective tissues.
Others: bone (osseous tissue)
Description: Hard, calcified
matrix containing many
collagen fibers; osteocytes
lie in lacunae. Very well
Central
vascularized.
canal
Lacunae
Function: Supports and
protects (by enclosing);
provides levers for the muscles
to act on; stores calcium and Lamella
other minerals and fat; marrow
inside bones is the site for
blood cell formation
(hematopoiesis).

Location: Bones

Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view of

bone (125×).

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Types of Connective Tissues (cont.)

• Blood
• Most atypical connective tissue because it is fluid
• Consists of cells surrounded by matrix (plasma)
• Red blood cells are most common cell type
• Also contains white blood cells and platelets
• Fibers are soluble proteins that precipitate during
blood clotting
• Functions in transport and in carrying nutrients,
wastes, gases, and other substances

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.8k Connective tissues.
Connective tissue: blood
Description: Red and white
blood cells in a fluid matrix
(plasma). Red blood
cells
(erythrocytes)

Function: Transport White blood

respiratory gases, nutrients, cells:
wastes, and other substances. • Lymphocyte
• Neutrophil

Location: Contained within

blood vessels.
Plasma

Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1670×);

shows two white blood cells surrounded by red
blood cells.

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4.4 Muscle Tissue

• Highly vascularized
• Responsible for most types of movement
• Muscle cells possess myofilaments made up of
actin and myosin proteins that bring about
contraction
• Three types of muscle tissues:
• Skeletal muscle
• Cardiac muscle
• Smooth muscle

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Skeletal Muscle

• Skeletal muscle tissue

• Attached to and causes movement of bones
• Also called voluntary muscle
• Skeletal muscles can be consciously controlled
• Cells are called muscle fibers
• Contain multiple nuclei
• Appear striated or banded

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.9a Muscle tissues.

Skeletal muscle
Description: Long, cylindrical,
multinucleate cells; obvious
striations.

Part of
muscle
fiber (cell)
Function: Voluntary movement;
locomotion; manipulation of the Nuclei
environment; facial expression;
voluntary control.

Location: In skeletal muscles

attached to bones or Striations
occasionally to skin.

Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (440×).

Notice the obvious banding pattern and the
fact that these large cells are multinucleate.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cardiac Muscle

• Cardiac muscle tissue

• Found only in walls of heart
• Involuntary muscle
• Like skeletal muscle, contains striations; but cells
have only one nucleus
• Cells can have many branches that join branches of
other cardiac cells
• Intercalated discs are special joints where cardiac cells
are joined

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.9b Muscle tissues.

Cardiac muscle
Description: Branching,
striated, generally uninucleate
cells that interdigitate at
specialized junctions
(intercalated discs).
Intercalated
discs

Function: As it contracts, Striations

it propels blood into the
circulation; involuntary control.

Nucleus
Location: The walls of the
heart.

Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (475×);

notice the striations, branching of cells, and
the intercalated discs.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Smooth Muscle

• Smooth muscle tissue

• Found mainly in walls of hollow organs (other than
heart)
• Involuntary muscle
• Has no visible striations
• Spindle-shaped cells with one nucleus

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.9c Muscle tissues.

Smooth muscle
Description: Spindle-shaped
(elongated) cells with central
nuclei; no striations; cells
arranged closely to form sheets.

Nuclei

Function: Propels substances

or objects (foodstuffs, urine,
a baby) along internal
passageways; involuntary
control.

Location: Mostly in the walls

of hollow organs. Smooth
muscle
cell
Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle
from the digestive tract (500×).

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.5 Nervous Tissue

• Main component of nervous system (brain,

spinal cord, nerves)
• Regulates and controls body functions
• Made up of two specialized cells:
• Neurons: specialized nerve cells that generate and
conduct nerve impulses
• Supporting cells that support, insulate, and protect
neurons

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.10 Nervous tissue.

Nervous tissue
Description: Neurons are
branching cells; cell processes
that may be quite long extend
from the nucleus-containing
cell body; also contributing to
nervous tissue are nonexcitable
supporting cells.
Neuron processes Cell body
Nuclei of
Axon Dendrites supporting
cells

Cell body
Function: Neurons transmit of a neuron
electrical signals from sensory
receptors and to effectors
(muscles and glands); supporting
cells support and protect neurons.
Neuron
Location: Brain, spinal
processes
cord, and nerves.

Photomicrograph: Neurons (350×)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.6 Covering and Lining Membranes

• Composed of at least two primary tissue types:

an epithelium bound to underlying connective
tissue proper layer
• Three types
• Cutaneous membranes
• Mucous membranes
• Serous membranes

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Cutaneous Membranes

• Another name for skin

• Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
(epidermis) attached to a thick layer of
connective tissue (dermis)
• Unlike other membranes, skin is a dry
membrane

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.11a Classes of membranes.

Cutaneous membrane
The cutaneous membrane (the skin)
covers the body surface.

Cutaneous
membrane
(skin)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Mucous Membranes

• Mucosa indicates location, not cell composition

• Also called mucosae
• Line body cavities that are open to the exterior
(example: digestive, respiratory, urogenital tracts)
• Moist membranes bathed by secretions (or
urine)
• Epithelial sheet lies over layer of loose
connective tissue called lamina propria
• May secrete mucus

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.11b Classes of membranes.

Mucous membranes
Mucous membranes line body
cavities that are open to the
exterior.

Mucosa
of nasal
cavity
Mucosa
of mouth
Esophagus
lining

Mucosa
of lung
bronchi

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Serous Membranes

• Also called serosae

• Found in closed ventral body cavities
• Constructed from simple squamous epithelium (called
mesothelium) resting on thin areolar connective tissue
• Parietal serosae line internal body cavity walls
• Visceral serosae cover internal organs
• Cavity between layers is filled with slippery serous
fluid, so these are moist membranes
• Special names given to show location: pleurae (lungs),
pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdomen)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.11c Classes of membranes.

Serous membranes
Serous membranes line body cavities
that are closed to the exterior.

Parietal
pleura
Visceral
pleura Parietal
peritoneum
Parietal Visceral
pericardium pericardium Visceral
peritoneum

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 TISSUE REPAIR

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4.7 Tissue Repair

• When the body’s barriers are compromised,

the inflammatory and immune responses are
activated
• Repair starts very quickly
• Repair is the function of the inflammatory
process

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Steps in Tissue Repair

• Repair can occur in two major ways:

• Regeneration: same kind of tissue replaces
destroyed tissue, so original function is restored
• Fibrosis: connective tissue replaces destroyed
tissue, and original function lost
• Step 1: Inflammation sets stage
• Release of inflammatory chemicals causes:
• Dilation of blood vessels
• Increase in blood vessel permeability
• Clotting of blood occurs

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.12-1 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.
Scab Blood clot in
incised wound

Epidermis

Vein

Inflammatory Migrating Artery

chemicals white
blood cell

1 Inflammation sets the stage:

• Severed blood vessels bleed.
• Inflammatory chemicals are released by
injured tissue cells, mast cells, and others.
• Local blood vessels become more
permeable, allowing white blood cells, fluid,
clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins
to seep into the injured area.
• Clotting occurs; surface exposed to air
dries and forms a scab.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Steps in Tissue Repair (cont.)

• Step 2: Organization restores blood supply

• Organization begins as the blood clot is replaced
with granulation tissue (new capillary-enriched
tissue)
• Epithelium begins to regenerate
• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the
gap until regeneration is complete
• Any debris in area is phagocytized

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.12-2 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.
Regenerating
epithelium

Area of
granulation
tissue
ingrowth

Fibroblast
Macrophage

Budding
capillary

2 Organization restores the blood supply:

• The clot is replaced by granulation tissue,
which restores the vascular supply.
• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that
bridge the gap.
• Macrophages phagocytize dead and
dying cells and other debris.
• Surface epithelial cells multiply and
migrate over the granulation tissue.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Steps in Tissue Repair (cont.)

• Step 3: Regeneration and fibrosis effect

permanent repair
• The scab detaches
• Fibrous tissue matures
• Epithelium thickens and begins to resemble
adjacent tissue
• Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with
underlying scar tissue, which may or may not be
visible

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.12-3 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.

Regenerated epithelium

Fibrosed area

3 Regeneration and fibrosis effect

permanent repair:
• The fibrosed area matures and
contracts; the epithelium thickens.
• A fully regenerated epithelium with
an underlying area of scar tissue
results.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Regenerative Capacity of Different Tissues

• Tissues that regenerate extremely well include:

• Epithelial tissues, bone, areolar connective tissue,
dense irregular connective tissue, blood-forming
tissue
• Tissue with moderate regenerating capacity:
• Smooth muscle and dense regular connective
tissue

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Regenerative Capacity of Different
Tissues (cont.)

• Tissues with virtually no functional regenerative

capacity:
• Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue of brain and
spinal cord
• New research shows cell division does occur, and
efforts are underway to coax them to regenerate
better

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 TISSUES

EPITHELIAL CONNECTIVE MUSCLE NERVOUS

NO. OF CELL LAYERS SKELETAL

SHAPES CT CL BN BL SMOOTH
HY
CARDIAC
SIMPLE STRATIFIED EL

FC
SSQ STSQ

SCB STCB

SCL STCL

PST TRE

LOOSE DENSE

AR DR

AD DIR

RE EL
 TIS FUNCTION LOCATION

EPITHELIAL
KIDNEY GLOMERULI, AIR SACS OF
SSQ SECRETION LUNGS, LINING OF VENTRAL BODY
CAVITY
SECRETION AND DUCTS OF GLANDS, KIDNEY
SCB
ABSORPTION TUBULES
SECRETION AND DIGESTIVE TRACT, DUCTS OF
SCL
ABSORPTION GLANDS
PST SECRETION URT

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 EPITHELIAL

STSQ
PROTECTION SKIN, MOUTH, VAGINA
*

SWEAT AND MAMMARY

STCB PROTECTION
GLANDS

STCL PROTECTION PHARYNX, MALE URETHRA

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 CONNECTIVE

LOOSE

WRAPS AND
ACT* UNDER EPITHELIA
CUSHIONS ORGANS

FOOD FUEL,
ADT INSULATES HEAT UNDER SUBCUTANEOUS
LOSS

SOFT INTERNAL LYMPHOID ORGANS (SPLEEN,

RCT
SKELETON BONE MARROW, LYMPH NODES)

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 CONNECTIVE

DENSE
ATTACHMENT
REG MUSCLES TO BONES
ATTACHMENT BONES
TENDONS, LIGAMENTS,
TO BONES
APONEUROSIS
WITHSTAND GREAT
STRESS WHEN FORCE
APPLIED

IRREG WITHSTAND TENSION

PROVIDES JOINTS, DERMIS OF SKIN
STRUCTURAL
STRENGTH
RECOIL AND
WALLS OF ARTERIES, AORTA
EL STRETCHING
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 CARTILAGE

RESILIENT CUSHION;
SUPPORT
HYA* EMBRYONIC SKELETON, END OF LONG
BONES, COSTAL CARTILAGES OF RIBS,
WITHSTAND COMPRESSIVE
STRESS

MAINTAINANCE OF SHAPE,
EL C EAR, EPIGLOTTIS
FLEXIBILITY
TENSILE STRENGTH TO
INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS, PUBIC
FC ABSORB COMPRESSIVE
SYMPHYSIS, DISCS OF KNEE JOINT
SHOCK

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 MUSCLE

MOVEMENT,
SK SKELETAL MUSCLES
VOLUNTARY

MOVEMENT,
SM HOLLOW ORGANS
INVOLUNTARY

MOVEMENT,
C HEART
INVOLUNTARY

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 NERVOUS TISSUE

TRANSMIT SIGNALS,
NT BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, AND NERVES
INFORMATION

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.