6.
Digital Circuits
Integrated digital circuits are
• made up of a collection of resistors,
diodes and transistors
• fabricated on a single piece of
semiconductor material (e.g. silicon)
called substrate - also called die, or chip
6-1
Discrete components: Resistors
6-2
Discrete components: Diodes
6-3
Discrete components: transistors
6-4
Example of a simple circuit
LED
5V
SW
6-5
6-6
Scale of integration
Complexity No. of gates
Small-scale (SSI) < 12
Medium-scale 12 - 99
(MSI)
Large-scale (LSI) 100 - 9999
Very large-scale 10,000 – 99,999
(VLSI)
Ultra large-scale 100,000 – 999,999
(ULSI)
Giga-scale (GSI) ≥ 1,000,000
6-7
Examples of SSI logic devices
6-8
Example of GSI device:
A microprocessor, MPU, CPU
6-9
To make logic outputs switch between High
and Low (1 and 0), transistors are used.
2 broad families:
• use bipolar junction transistors
• e.g. TTL (transistor-transistor logic)
circuits
• use unipolar field-effect transistors
• e.g. CMOS (complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor) circuits
6-10
Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
• Base, emitter, collector IC IC
• With correct voltage at B,
current will flow between
C and E
npn pnp
MOS Field-effect transistors ID ID
(MOSFET) D S
• Gate, drain, source G G
• With correct voltage at G, S D
current will flow between
S and D NMOS PMOS
6-11
TTL family
• different prefixes
• different in electrical characteristics such
as power dissipation, delay time, switching
speed
• do not differ in pin layout or logic function
6-12
examples (hex inverters)
TTL series Prefix E.g.
Standard 74 7404
High-speed 74H 74H04
Low-power 74L 74L04
Advanced 74ALS 74ALS04
low-power
Schottky
6-13
CMOS family
• old series not pin-compatible with TTL
• new series pin-compatible with TTL
• HCT series is also electrically-
compatible with TTL
6-14
examples (quad 2-input NOR)
CMOS Prefix E.g.
series
old 40/140 4001
14001
metal gate 74C 74C02
high speed 74HC 74HC02
elec. comp 74HCT 74HCT02
with TTL
6-15
Logic-level Voltage Ranges
TTL
• Vcc nominally +5v
CMOS
• VDD ranges from +3 to +18v
• +5v is most often used when CMOS
ICs are used in same circuit with TTL
ICs
6-16
Incompatible voltage ranges
TTL CMOS (74AC)
5.0V 5.0V
Logic 1 Logic 1
3.5V
2.0V
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
1.5V
0.8V
Logic 0
Logic 0
0V 0V
6-17
Unconnected (floating) inputs
TTL
• floating input acts like logic 1
• measures dc level between 1.4 to 1.8
volts
• not recommended due to noise pick-up
CMOS
• disastrous result
• IC may become overheated
• all unused input pins must be connected
to VDD, GND, or another input
6-18
Active levels
Active high: signal performs the named
action when it is logic 1
Active low: signal performs the named action
when it is logic 0
6-19
Active levels
E.g. active high signal OPEN is used to open
a door when OPEN=1
What happens when OPEN=0?
E.g. active low signal UNLOCK* is used to
unlock a safe when UNLOCK*=0
What happens when UNLOCK*=1?
6-20
RESET* RESET
6-21
Asserted and negated
A logic signal is asserted when it is in its
active level
Otherwise, it is negated
Actual Active high Active low
logic level
asserted 1 0
negated 0 1
6-22
Logic circuit connection diagrams
Fig. 4-32 contains more information than the
usual circuit diagram to facilitate circuit
connection and troubleshooting
• pin numbers, IC numbers, component
values, signal names and power supply
voltages are clearly indicated
• conform to bubble-to-bubble design rules
• active levels are clearly indicated
6-23
CLOCK*
CLKOUT*
LOAD*
SHIFT
SHIFTOUT*
Fig. 4-32 Typical logic-circuit connection diagram
6-24
Fig. 6-11 Bubble-to-bubble logic diagram (Wakerly, 4th ed)
6-25
Troubleshooting Digital Systems
Read supplementary lab manual
• Fault detection
• Fault isolation
• Fault correction
Internal IC faults
• malfunction in internal circuitry
• short circuit
• open circuit
• short between two pins
6-26
External IC faults
• open signal line
• shorted signal lines
• faulty power supply
• wrong connection
NEVER tie any circuit output to:
• another output unless you are very sure
• Vcc , GND or any other fixed voltage
level
6-27
The transistor as a Switch
Current
flow
Current
flow
6-28
A simple BJT logic inverter
0 1
1
0 Q1 off
6-29
A simple BJT logic inverter
1 0
0
1
Q1 on
6-30
TTL inverter 0 1
A Y
ON
OFF
ON
1
0 OFF
6-31
TTL inverter 1 0
A Y
OFF
ON
OFF
0
1 ON
6-32
CMOS inverter
NOT VDD
0 1
X Y PMOS
0 X Y 1
NMOS
6-33
CMOS inverter
NOT VDD
1 0
X Y
1 X Y 0
6-34
Examples of CMOS logic circuits
6-35
VDD
2 transistors in
A B parallel
NAND X
A A
B X 2 transistors in
B series
VDD
A 2 transistors in
NOR
A B series
B X
X
A B 2 transistors in
parallel
6-36
VDD
Either A or B=0
A B will cause X=1
NAND X
A A
B X Both A and B=1
B will cause X=0
VDD
A Both A and B=0
NOR
A B will cause X=1
B X
X
A B Either A or B=1
will cause X=0
6-37
Either A, B or C=0
will cause Z=1
A, B and C=1 will
cause Z=0
6-38
Either A or B=0
will cause Z=0
Both A and B=1
will cause Z=1
NAND NOT
6-39
Digital Circuits Characteristics
Not
guaranteed
Fig. 3-25 Typical input-output transfer
characteristic of a CMOS inverter
6-40
transfer time-based
characteristic: signals:
6-41
Voltage parameters:
VOH (min) - Minimum output voltage
produced for logic 1
VIH (min) - Minimum input voltage to be
recognised as logic 1
VIL (max) - Maximum input voltage to be
recognised as logic 0
VOL (max) – Maximum output voltage
produced for logic 0
6-42
Voltage parameters and noise margin:
High-state DC noise margin = VOH(min) – VIH(min)
6-43
Voltage parameters and noise margin:
Low-state DC noise margin = VIL(max) – VOL(max)
6-44
Some typical values
6-45
Current parameters
IIH – Maximum current that flows
into the input at logic 1 Very small
leakage current in
IIL - Maximum current that flows CMOS (1µA)
into the input at logic 0
IOH – Maximum current that flows
from the output at logic 1 0.02 - 24 mA
depends on
IOL – Maximum current that flows family
from the output at logic 0
6-46
Other characteristics
Fan-out
• specifies the number of standard loads
that the output gate can drive
• More loads may reduce DC noise
margins and switching speed
Speed
• Time taken for output to switch between 0
and 1
6-47
Power dissipation
• power consumed by the gate or device
• For CMOS, most of the power is
consumed when output switches
between 0 and 1 (dynamic power
dissipation)
•P=CV2f
• Proportional to switching frequency f
and square of power supply voltage V
• Static power dissipation (when there is
no switching) is usually very small
6-48
Propagation delay
• average transition delay time for signal
to propagate from input to output
• e.g. 9 – 19 ns for 74HC00
• tPD , or tPHL & tPLH
• tPHL= delay when output changes from
High to Low
• tPLH= delay when output changes from
Low to High
6-49
Propagation delay (inverter):
6-50
Tristate outputs
3 output states:
• logic 0
• logic 1
• high impedance (Hi-Z)
- neither 0 nor 1
- behaves like an open circuit
When a device is enabled, output is logic 0 or 1
When device is disabled, output is in Hi-Z
E.g. tristate buffer, tristate inverter
6-51
Tristate inverter
(a) & (b): Tristate device behaves as a normal
inverter when enabled.
(c): Device output is in high-impedance when
disabled.
6-52
CMOS Tristate buffer
6-53
Advantage of using logic
devices with tristate outputs
Two or more outputs can be connected
together.
However, at any one time only one (or no)
output should be enabled.
Otherwise, it can lead to bus contention and
damage the devices.
Example: memory devices have tristate
outputs to share the same data bus.
6-54
shared data bus
ROM-A
ROM-B
CPU
RAM
6-55
shared data bus
ROM-A
ROM-B
CPU
RAM
6-56
shared data bus
ROM-A
ROM-B
CPU
RAM
6-57
shared data bus
ROM-A
ROM-B
CPU
RAM
6-58
Open-collector/drain output
Need external pull-up
resistor to make output=1
Symbol for
open-drain
6-59
Open-drain output can be
used to drive LED
• If A=B=1
• Q1 and Q2 ON
• LED ON
• If A=0 or B=0
• Q1 or Q2 OFF
• LED OFF
6-60
Open-drain outputs can be tied together
Form wired-AND logic
6-61
Wired-AND logic (in figure on
previous page):
The common point Z will go low
when any one of the NAND
outputs, i.e. U, V or W is low
The common point Z will be high
only when all of the NAND
outputs, i.e. U, V and W are high
6-62
Imagine an elastic band:
6-63
