Weather Theory Made Easy

Introduction

The basics of aviation weather, including the cases of

carious weather phenomena and how they can affect
the safety of flight.
For more information on aviation weather, refer to
Aviation Weather for Pilots(AC 00-6A)
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45G)
Internet Communications of Aviation Weather and
NOTAMS (00-62)
 The Atmosphere
• Composition
– 78% Nitrogen
– 21% Oxygen
– 1% Inert
• Vertical Structure
– Troposphere
– Tropopause
– Stratosphere
– Mesosphere & thermosphere
 Temperature

Variations
Diurnal
Seasonal
Variation with Latitude
Topographic
Altitude
 Atmospheric Pressure
• Measurement
– Barometer
• Mercurial
• Aneroid
• Variation
– Altitude
– Temperature
• Pressure Depiction on Chart
– Isobars
 Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure Systems
Highs
H surrounded by L
Lows
L surrounded by H
Ridge
Elongated are of H
Trough
Elongated are of L
Col
Neutral area between 2 H or 2 L
 Wind
• Convection
• Pressure Gradient Force
• Corriolis Force
• Friction
• Global Circulation Patterns
• Jet Stream
 Local/Small Scale Winds

Land & Sea Breezes

Sea Breeze
Land Breeze
Mountain/Valley Winds
Valley Winds
Mountain Winds
Katabatic Winds
Wind Shear
 Moisture
• Water Vapor
– Relative Humidity
– Dewpoint
• Change in State
– Evaporation
– Condensation
– Freezing & Melting
– Sublimation & Deposition
 Moisture

Super-Cooled Water?
Exist at temps below freezing
Freeze upon impact with an exposed object
Condensation Nuclei
Microscopic particles
Serves as a place for condensation to form
Salt, dust, by-products of combustion
 Clouds/Cloud Formation
• Formation
– Air moving over a cold surface
– Air stagnating over a cold surface
– Expansion cooling of upward moving air
• Classification
– Fog
– Low Clouds
– Middle Clouds
– High Clouds
– Clouds with Extensive Vertical Development
 Classification

Low Clouds
Almost entirely of water
Super cooled water, snow, ice
Surface to ±6,500’
Middle Clouds
Primarily of water
Most is Super cooled
Bases range from ±6,500’ to ±23,000’
 Classification
• High Clouds
– Almost entirely ice crystals
– Base range 16,500 to FL450
• Clouds with Extensive Vertical
Development
– Super cooled water above the freezing level
– Tops may be ice crystals
– Base range from 1,000 to above 10K
 Precipitation

Particle Growth
Via added condensation or sublimation
Via collision of particles
Precip vs. Cloud Thickness
To produce significant precip, 4000’ thick
Thicker the cloud, heavier the precip
 Lapse Rate

The decrease in temperature

with increasing altitude

Approx. 2˚C/1000’
Atmospheric Stability

Unstable
may grow
into a
Resists any
vertical or
upward OR
convective
downward
current
development
Temperature Inversion

An increase in temperature
with an increase in altitude

Lapse rate is inverted

Usually confined to shallow

layers of air

Visibility is often restricted

Temperatures Role in Stability

Unequal
heating of
the Earths
surface

Lapse rate
Overlying
will
air heated
determine
unevenly
the rest

Warm air
pushed
aloft
Moistures Role in Stability
Unsaturated
• 3˚C/1000’
• Unstable

Normal
• 2˚C/1000’
• Stable

• 1.1˚ to
Saturated 2.8˚C/1000’
• Unstable
Every physical process of weather is
accompanied by or is the result of a
_____________.

1. Movement of air 0%
2. Pressure differential 0%
3. Heat exchange 0%

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What causes variations in
altimeter settings between
weather reporting points?

1. Unequal heating of the Earth’s 0%

surface
2. Variation of terrain elevation 0%
3. Coriolis force 0%

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 The wind at 5,000 feet AGL is
southwesterly while the surface wind
is southerly. The difference is
direction is primarily due to?

1. Stronger pressure gradient at higher 0%

altitudes
2. Friction between the wind & the 0%
surface
3. Stronger Coriolis force at the surface 0%
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 Convective circulation patterns
associated with sea breezes are
caused by?

1. Warm, dense air moving inland from 0%

over the water
2. Water, absorbing & radiating heat
faster than the land 0%
3. Cool, dense air moving inland from
over the water 0%
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The development of thermals
depends upon ___________.

1. A counterclockwise circulation of air 0%

2. Temperature inversions 0%
3. Solar heating 0%

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 Air Masses
• What is an air mass?
– Large body of air with fairly uniform
• Temperature
• Moisture content
– Forms when air remains stationary and takes
on the characteristics of the underlying
surface
 Source Regions

Temp & moisture content of the underlying surface

Tropical oceans & large deserts
Middle latitudes are poor regions
 Classifications
• Temp
– Polar
– Tropical
• Moisture content
– Continental
– Maritime
 Modification

As it moves from its source region, it begins to

change
Warming from below can cause instability
Cooling from below may result in stability
May also cause poor visibility from fog and low clouds
 Fronts

Boundaries between air masses

 Frontal Passage Detection

Change in temp
May be abrupt or gradual
Change in wind direction or velocity
Always shifts to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
Change in pressure
Usually a drop as you approach it
Always reset your altimeter
Cold Fronts
Hugs the
ground as it
moves due to
gravity

Forces
warmer less
dense air aloft

Movement is
usually in an
easterly
direction
Speed Will Dictate the Weather

Cumulus
Clouds

Good
Turbulence
Visibility

Showery
Gusty Winds
Precipitation
 Fast Moving Cold Fronts

Moved along by intense high pressure system

Surface friction causes a steep frontal slope

Wide difference between temp & moisture

between the two masses

Squall lines will precede if the air is moist and

unstable. Usually 50 to 300 miles ahead.
Fast Moving Cold Front
 Slow Moving Cold Front
• Much shallower frontal slop
 Warm Fronts

Occurs when warm air overtakes cooler air

Move at much slower rates
Frontal slope is very gradual
 Generalizations
• Stratus clouds
• Smooth air
• Steady precipitation
• Poor visibility
 Stationary Fronts

Occurs when two air masses are equally balanced

A mix of both air masses may be present for several
days
 Frontal Occlusions
• Occurs when a fast moving cold front
catches up to a slow moving warm front
• The difference in temperature determines
the front that is produced (warm or cold
front occlusion)
Weather Hazards
 Thunderstorms
• 3 conditions necessary
– Unstable lapse rate
– High moisture content
– Some form of lifting action
 Thunderstorms

3 stages
Cumulus or building stage
Continuous updrafts
Mature stage
Rain at the surface
Dissipating stage
Downdrafts
Anvil top
 Types of T-Storms
• Air Mass
– Convection on hot summer days
• Frontal
– Collision of 2 AM’s
• Orographic
– Mountainous areas
• Converging Air flow from 2 active storms
• Squall lines
 Hazards

Turbulence
Lightning
Microburst
Hail
 Do’s & Don’ts
DO NOT DO
• Take off or land in the • Avoid by 20 miles
face of a storm • Clear the tops by 1000’
• Fly under a storm for each knot wind
• Fly in a cloud mass • Circumnavigate the area
without airborne radar for 6/10th coverage
• Trust the outward • Avoid lightning areas
appearance of a cloud • Regard tops of 35K or
higher as hazadous
 If You Can’t Avoid

Tighten your seatbelt & secure loose items

Plan & hold your course for minimum time through the
storm
Plan to enter below the freezing level
Pitot heat & carb heat on
Set power to establish Va
Turn up flight deck lighting
Turn off autopilot
 During Penetration
• DO keep you eyes on your instruments
• DO maintain maneuvering speed
• DO Allow the aircraft to “Ride the Waves”
• DO Maintain Course for a minimum time
through the storm
 CAT

Can take place at any altitude

Can be caused by wind shear, convection currents, &
obstructions to airflow
Often found near the jet stream
 Wake Turbulence
• Caused by wing tip vortices
• Cup in a cup
 Icing
• Rime Ice
– Tiny rain droplets or drizzle
– Milky in color
• Clear Ice
– Large water droplets
– Cumulous clouds
– Above the freezing level
Restrictions to Visibility
 Fog
• Gets its name by how its formed
– Radiation or ground
– Advection
– Upslope
– Steam
 Haze, Smoke, Smog

Haze
Airborne dust particles
Smoke
Combustion materials
Smog
Smoke & Fog mixed
 Cooling from aloft tends to
make an air mass more…
50% 50%

1. Stable
2. Unstable

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When an air mass is warmed from
below, its stability is…
50% 50%

1. Increased
2. Decreased

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 Transition zone between two
different air masses…
1. Frontal zone
33% 33%
2. Trade wind
3. Trough
33%

1 2 3

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This will always change when flying
across a front…

1. Wind Direction 33%

2. Type of precipitation 33%

3. Stability of the air mass33%

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 Cold fronts in the US generally
move to the…

1. East-Northeast 0%
2. East-Southeast 0%
3. West-Southwest 0%
4. South 0%

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 What type of front generally produces
the most violent flying weather?

1. Warm 0%
2. Cold 0%
3. Fast-moving cold front 0%
4. Stationary 0%

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What type of cloud is associated
with fast-moving cold fronts?

1. Cirrus 0%
2. Altostratus 0%
3. Altocumulus 0%
4. Cumulonimbus 0%

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