Social Control – Society makes use of various means of social control depending

upon the time and social situation for the realisation of its purposes. It is left to the
discretion of the group to decide what means must be used at what time and in what
social situation. In some primitive communities magic and superstitious beliefs are
enough to exercise control.
In a rural society means such as folkways, mores, customs, traditions, beliefs are
enough to act as social pressures on individual behaviour. But in the modern urban
society, radio, television, newspapers, schools and colleges, police force, etc., may be
used for enforcing conformity. In fact, societies have developed consciously or
unconsciously various devices for the purpose of controlling the behaviour of their
members. Formal and informal control represents two kinds of devices.
Formal and Informal Control:
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Social Control can be classified into two major types on the basis of the means of social
control that are employed.
They are:
(i) Formal control, and
(ii) Informal control.
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1. Formal Control:
The state makes use of law, legislation, military force, police force, ad-ministrative
devices, etc., for the purpose of social control. Similarly, different political, religious,
economic, cultural and other associations and institutions also institute formal control
over the behaviour of the members. Formal control is deliberately created.
Various rules are laid down to make it specific. The necessity of following formal control
or rules is clearly stated by associations and institutions. Violators of formal control are
given punishments depending upon the nature and type of violation.
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The organisation that makes use of formal control may even create a body of officials
vested with power to enforce control as we find it in the case of state which has
established the police, military force, etc.
In brief, an association, whether it is a state or a bank, or an army, or a factory or
anything has its own norms through which it controls the behaviour of the members. All
these come under formal control. Formal control has become a necessity in the modern
complex societies in which interaction is mostly impersonal in nature.
2. Informal Control:
Informal Control includes gossip, slander, resentment, public opinion, sympathy, sense
of justice, folkways, mores, customs, religion, morality and such other agents. These
are not purposefully created. Nothing could be said with certainty regarding their origin.
They arise on their own way and in course of time gain currency and popularity.
They become deep-rooted with people in their practices. No specific punishment would
be given to the violators of informal control. Still they are more effective than the formal
control. They do not require any extra staff to enforce them as it is so in the case of
formal control. They do not have the physical force to enforce confor-mity to them.
Hence, people may not observe them or go against them without being physically
punished for the same. Faith in religion, moral convictions, public opinion, artistic
standard, and the general state of enlightenment are found to be more important in
informal control.
Informal control is more effective in primary social groups such as family,
neighbourhood, tribe, rural community where interaction takes place on a personal
basis. Whenever the group or the society becomes larger (in terms of population) and
more complex, the informal devices of control become less effective.
Simple gossip and slander and censure can correct an earring retaliate but not an urban
citizen. The anonymity of city life which has added to the confidence of the individual
that he could commit an offence without being noticed or caught by others who are
mostly engaged in their own business, contributes to the non-effectiveness of informal
control.
Hence informal methods have given place to the formal ones such as law, education,
coercion and codes, though less effective informal control also functions along with
formal control in urban areas in regulating people’s ac­tivities.

Conflict theory of social change

The functionalist perspective minimises change, it emphasizes the persistence of social
life and views change as necessary in order to maintain the equilibrium of a society. By
contrast, conflict theorists contend that change is of crucial significance as it is a means
for securing the social interests of every class. Several sociologists emphasize the
importance of conflict in social change. Darhrendr of says that every society is subject
to change at every moment. Social change is natural and ubiquitous.
Every society experiences at every moment social conflict, hence social conflict is
ubiquitous. It is this social conflict which leads to social change. Since social conflict is
continuously present in every society, social change naturally and essentially
characterize each society and in each period of its history.
Society changes through social compromises, social adjustments, or even by greater
repression. Conflict of interests and ideas is present in each society. No society is or
can be free from conflict and some disagreements and even disputes. Each society
therefore tries to resolve these for securing and maintaining a tolerable social harmony.
This is done through agreements, compromises, and law-making by the government
and judicial settlements. Unresolved conflict can lead to a social disorder, violence and
even anarchy, chaos and civil war. As such Conflict-resolution is a social necessity and
it is continuously practiced because some conflict is continuously present in society.
Social change takes place in this process.
Conflict theory is quite impressive and influential. But it does not account for all forms of
social change. It only gives us a means of analysing some of the most significant
changes occurring in history of social functioning. It does not tell us much about the
direction of social change.
Thus, there have been present several theories of Social Change and each of it is
advocated by several protagonists and criticized by several critics. Since Social change
is a universal, complex and dynamic phenomenon in which several factors play a part,
no single theory can really explain its nature and scope. We have to use several
theories for studying all dimensions of Social Change.
Marx’s Theory of Social Change – Marx’s theory of social change is much interlinked
with his concept of social classes and class conflicts. Marx’s focus on the process of
social change is so central to his thinking that its shadow pervades all his writings.
The motor force of history for Marx is not to be found in any extra-human agency but in
man himself. “Marx insisted that men make their own history. Human history is the
process through which men change themselves….” (Coser).
Marx declared that “Violence is the midwife of history”. In a similar tone, Mao who was
one of the strong supporters of Marxian views wrote that “Change comes from the barrel
of a gun”. Marx who is the most prominent and eloquent exponent of the “conflict theory
of social change”, holds that change is caused by tensions between competing interests
in society.
Marx believed that the class struggle was the driving force of social change. Marx and
Engels wrote in “The Communist Manifesto” (1848): “All history is the history of conflict.”
Marx believed that “the character of social and cultural forms is influenced by the
economic base of society specifically by the mode of production that is used and by the
relationships that exist between those who own and those who do not own the means of
production.
History is the story of conflict between the exploiting and the exploited classes. This
conflict repeats itself again and again until capitalism is overthrown by the workers and a
socialist state is created. Social-ism is the forerunner to the ultimate social form of
communism”
Thus it is clear that the Marxism theory of social change is essentially conflict-oriented. It
is appropriately called the “Conflict theory of Change”. Marx as a conflict theorist
considers society fundamentally dynamic, not static. He regards conflict as normal, not
an abnormal process and he believe that “The existing conditions in any society contain
the seeds of future social changes.
Marx conceived of four major successive modes of production in the history of mankind
after the first stage of primitive communism: The Asiatic, the Ancient, the Feudal, and
the Modern bourgeoisie form.
Each of these came into existence through contradictions and antagonisms that had
developed in the previous order. “No social order ever disappears before all the
productive forces for which there is room in it have been developed, and new higher
relations of production never appear before the material conditions of their existence have
matured in the womb of the old society” (as quoted by Lewis Coser).
Free men and slaves, patricians and plebians, barons and serfs, guild masters and
journey men, exploiters and the exploited, have confronted one another from the
beginning of recorded times. The “class antagonisms specific to each particular mode of
production led to the emer-gence of classes whose interests could no longer be asserted
within the framework of the old order..” (Coser)
However, “the bourgeoisie relations of production are the last antagonistic form of the
social process of production.” When they have been overthrown by a victorious
prole­tariat, “the prehistory of human society will have come to an end.” and the dialectical
principle that ruled the previous development of mankind ceases to operate, as harmony
replaces social conflict in the affairs of men. These ideas portray Marx’s wishful thinking
rather than his dreams.
As a creative thinker Marx had very strongly supported social change. “Philosophers
have already interpreted the world; our present task is to change it” – Marx used to say.
He never depended on the status quo. But in his analysis of social change he placed
high premium on economic factors and neglected religious, political and other factors.
He made conflict the driving force of history and undermined the importance of harmony
and consensus.
Though Marx called man the main instrument of change, in his analysis of capitalism he
reduced man to the level of a helpless creature. It is true that nobody can stop the future
course of history. But it need not necessarily follow the particular course as expected and
insisted upon by Marx and his followers.
Karl Marx: Change through Class Conflict
The most famous and influential of the conflict theories is the one put forward by Karl
Marx, a famous German social thinker and philosopher. “All history is the history of class
conflict”- wrote Marx and Engels in the ‘Communist Manifesto’ (1848). “Violence is the
midwife of history”- Marx declared.
Individuals and groups with opposing interests are bound to be at conflict – Marx asserted.
Since the two major social classes, that is, the rich and poor, or capitalists and labourers
have mutu-ally hostile interests they are at conflict.
History is actually the story of conflict between the exploit-ing (the rich) and the exploited
(the poor) classes. This conflict repeats itself off and on until capital-ism is overthrown by
the workers and a socialist state is created.
What is to be stressed here is that Marx and other conflict theorists deem society as
basically dynamic and not static. They consider conflict as a normal, not an abnormal
process. They also believe that “the existing conditions in any society contain the seeds
of future social changes”.
Like Karl Marx, another German Sociologist, George Simmel too stressed the importance
of conflict in social change. According to him, conflict is a permanent feature of society
and not just a temporary event.
It is a process that binds people together in interaction. Further, conflict encour-ages
people of similar interests to unite together to achieve their objectives. Continuous conflict
in this way keeps society dynamic and ever changing, Simmel maintained.
Conflict theory is quite impressive and influential, no doubt. But it does not account for all
forms of social change. It only gives us a means of analysing some of the most significant
changes in history and present-day society. Still it is not a comprehensive theory of social
change. It cannot tell us much about the direction of social change. Even the predictions
of Marx have gone wrong.

Power is a factor of all social relations, particularly the political relations. It is present in
every society. However, its distribution differs from society to society.
Two major and interesting questions which demand answers are: who hold power in
society? How power stands distributed in society? Several theories have been advocated
by Political Sociologists and each of which seeks to explain the possession and
distribution of power in society.
(1) Class Theory of Power
(2) Elite Theory of Power
(3) Pluralist Theory of Power
(4) Gender Theory of Power

1. Class Theory of Power:

The Class Theory of power stands associated with the name of Karl Marx and his
Marxism. It holds that in each society there are present two classes:
(i) The class of the Rich (Haves) which owns the means of production and is the dominant
economic class.
(ii) The class of the Poor (Have-nots) which is the class of economically weak and poor
workers who are economically, socially and politically exploited and dominated by the
class of the rich.
The class of the Rich is the dominant class. It possesses social, economic, ideological
and political power in society. It uses power to maintain its dominance over the society.
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It exploits suppresses and dominants the class of the poor. It is the Ruling Class. It uses
the state as an instrument for maintaining its dominant status. It uses
political/governmental power for strengthening its dominance over society.
Marxism holds that in every stage of social evolution, the class of the rich (the propertied
class which owns the means of production and distribution in society) has always used
power in society.
In the Slave Stage the masters used power over the slaves, in the Feudal Society, the
feudal lords (Feudal Nobility/ the class of land owners) used power over the serfes,
peasants and the land labour, and in the present Industrial society (age of capitalism), the
power is being used by the capitalists for dominating and exploiting the proletariats. The
class of the rich always imposes and maintains its economic, social, ideological and
political domination over the whole society.
However, some Marxist scholars, like Gramsci, and others like Weber, advocate the view
that undoubtedly power in each society is really in the hands of the dominant class which
can be any class, the bureaucracy or an ideologically dominant class.
This dominant class can use an ideology or political persuasion or leadership structure or
intellectual power or morality as the means for securing the consent of the non-propertied
class or other classes for securing its dominance in society.
In other words, while Marx and his traditional followers hold that power is possessed and
always used by the economically dominant class of the rich, some other scholars hold
that no doubt the power is always in the hand of a class but this can be any class which
dominates the society by using several different means.
Thus, Class Theory of Power holds that power is always possessed and used by a class
of persons in each society.

2. Elite Theory of Power:

The Elite Theory of holds that in each society power is possessed and used by a small
group of persons, the elite, which takes all decisions and rules the society. In each society,
the power is really in the hands of the elite (called the Power Elite).
The Elite is a small group of persons which takes all major decisions and is the centre of
power in society. The ruling elite are always a minority of the people which uses power.
Even in a democracy the power is really in the hands of the elected elite of dominant
political leaders’ or the chosen element of society.’ The government of the people really
means “Government of the elite sprung from the people.” (Duverger)
Pareto, Mosca, Robert Michels, C. Wright Mills, O.Y. Gasset, and James Burnham have
been the major protagonists of the Elite Theory of Power. Each of them holds that power
in each society is in the hands of a minority (A small group of people) or some particular
social groups which are powerful not only because they are well organized groups but
also because they possess some special qualities (ruling ability, wealth, skill, knowledge
or social status). The struggle for power in each society is really a struggle among elites
for getting the power to make all major decisions in society.
The membership of dominant elites keeps on changing but the elite rule is the law of each
society. Some elite theorists like Mitchell advocate faith in the “Iron Law of Oligarchy”
which lays down that society is always and continuously ruled by an elite- the power elite,
and each section of society is also dominated by a particular elite.
In other words, the Elite Theory advocates the view that power in each society is always
used by elites – by a minority of people which uses political power by virtue of its
organisation, ideology, wealth, ability or royal status. Each social class or a section of
society is really dominated by an elite.

3. Pluralist Theory of Power:

The Pluralist Theory of Power rejects both the Class theory of power as well as the Elite
theory of power. It holds that power is each society is really used neither by one class nor
by any elite but by several different groups. In every society there are present several
groups of people each of which represents a major interest or some interests.
These are competing groups which compete for sharing power and influence in society.
These share and use their activities of influencing and determining all decisions and
policies of society and its government. Sovereignty is exercised by social groups and
associations and it is not the monopoly of the state.

4. Gender Theory of Power:

The Gender Theory of Power holds that in all societies, the power is actually in the hands
of the men who as a group dominate as the group of women in society.
The power in each society stands centralized in the hands of the group of men and it is
the power of the gender domination of man as a group over the women as a group.
Gender Theory is supported by the feminist writers and activists. They hold that each
society stand divided on gender basis into the dominant group of all men and the
dependent and dominated group of all women.
They criticise the existing situation and want to end male domination of society. They
strongly advocate and want the liberation of women from male dominance which is held
to be unnatural, undemocratic and harmful for the society.
The present system of patriarchy needs to be replaced by a society based on real and
comprehensive equality between men and women. The prevailing system has for its basis
the biological difference between men and women and wrongly gives all importance and
power to men.
It has been working as a system of all round and wholesale exploitation, oppression and
suppression of women who constitute half of the world population and perform nearly 2/3
of the work hours. It is therefore imperative that women should have the right to be equal
partners in the exercise of power in society.
All feminist scholars, women rights groups and women liberalisation movements strongly
criticise and reject the exercise of power by the Gender M. They advocate M = W Model
for the exercise of power.
The Gender Theory of Power holds that currently power in each society is exercised
through a system of male domination which needs to be replaced by a system of real and
effective social, economic and political equality of men and women in each society. The
two classes of men and women must be equal partners in the exercise of power in each
society.
Thus, each of the above four theories, the Class Theory, the Elite Theory, the Pluralist
Theory and the Gender Theory, gives its own view of the distribution and exercise of
power in society.
Together these adopt and advocate different standards and principles for the study of
distribution and exercise of power in each society. We can approach the study of power
on the basis of all these theories simultaneously.

socialization
The human infant comes into the world as biological organism is govern by instinctive
needs. He is gradually molded into a social being and he learns social ways of acting and
feeling. Without this process of molding, the society could not continue itself, nor could
culture exist, nor could the individual become a person. Socialization makes it possible
for us to fully function as human beings. Without socialization, we could not have our
society and culture. This process of molding is called ‘Socialization’. Every man tries to
adjust himself to the condition and environment predominantly determined by the
society of which he is a member. This process of adjustment may be termed socialization.
The concept of Socialization
Human infants are born without any culture. They must be transformed by their parents,
teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals. The general process of
acquiring culture is referred to as socialization. Socialization is known as the process of
inducting the individual into the social world. The term socialization refers to the process
of interaction through which the growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values
and beliefs of the social group into which he has been born.
Socialization is the process by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary
to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning
process one can experience. Unlike many other living species, whose behavior is
biologically set, humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. .
Many scientists say socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning
throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions
of adults as well as of children.
Socialization, is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, political
scientists, and educationalists to refer to the lifelong process of inheriting and
disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and
habits necessary for participating within their own society. Socialization is thus “the
means by which social and cultural continuity are attained”.
Socialization is a processes with the help of which a living organism is changed into a
social being. It is a process through which the younger generation learns the adult role
which it has to play subsequently. It is a continuous process in the life of an individual
and it continues from generation to generation. Socialization prepares people to
participate in a social group by teaching them its norms and expectations. Socialization
has three primary goals: teaching impulse control and developing a conscience, preparing
people to perform certain social roles, and cultivating shared sources of meaning and
value. Socialization is culturally specific, but this does not mean certain cultures are better
or worse than others. The process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it.
Socialization is, thus, a process of cultural learning whereby a new person acquires
necessary skills and education to play a regular part in a social system. The process is
essentially the same in all societies, though institutional arrangements vary. The process
continues throughout life as each new situation arises. Socialization is the process of
fitting individuals into particular forms of group life, transforming human organism into
social being sand transmitting established cultural traditions.
“Socialization” is defined as the process by which we acquire our social identities and
internalize the values, norms, statuses, and roles of the social world. Schaefer:
“Socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions
appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture”
Socialization, according to MacIver, “is the process by which social beings establish wider
and profounder relationships with one another, in which they become more bound up
with, and perceptive of the personality of themselves and of others and build up the
complex structure of nearer and wider association.”
Kimball Young writes, “Socialization will mean the process of inducting the individual
into the social and cultural world; of making him a particular member in society and its
various groups and inducting him to accept the norms and values of that society….
Socialization is definitely a matter of learning and not of biological inheritance.”
It is through the process of socialization that the new born individual is molded into a
social being and men find their fulfillment within society. Man becomes what he is by
socialization. Bogardus defines socialization as the “process of working together, of
developing group responsibility, of being guided by the welfare needs of others.”
According to Ogburn, “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to
conform to the norms of the group.” Ross defined socialization as “the development of the
we feeling in associates and their growth in capacity and will to act together.” Through
the process of socialization the individual becomes a social person and attains personality.
Green defined socialization “as the process by which the child acquires a cultural content,
along with self-hood and personality”.
Arnett, outlined what he believes to be the three goals of socialization:
1. impulse control and the development of a conscience
2.role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles
in institutions such as marriage and parenthood
3. the cultivation of sources of meaning, or what is important, valued, and to be lived for.
In short, socialization is the process that prepares humans to function in social life. It
should be re-iterated here that socialization is culturally relative – people in different
cultures and people that occupy different racial, classed, gendered, sexual, and religious
social locations are socialized differently. This distinction does not and should not
inherently force an evaluative judgement. Socialization, because it is the adoption of
culture, is going to be different in every culture and within different subcultures.
Socialization, as both process or an outcome, is not better or worse in any particular
culture or subculture.
Characteristics/ Features of Socialization
The following are some the important features/ characteristic of Socialization –
Socialization takes place formally and informally:
Formal socialization takes through direct instruction and education in schools and
colleges. Family is, however, the primary and the most influential source of education.
Children learn their language, customs, norms and values in the family.
Socialization is a continuous and gradual, rather than a salutatory process :
Socialization is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult. In
nature we find that every species or organism follows a pattern of socialization. The same
is the case with human beings. Socialization occurs in orderly manner and follows a
certain sequence which, in general is the same for most children. The rate and speed of
development may vary in individual cases.
Socialization is a product of interaction of the organism and its environment.
. But it is not possible to indicate exactly in what proportion heredity and environment
contribute to the of an Individual Socialization. The two work hand in hand from the
very conceptions. The environment bears upon the new organism from the beginning.
Among, the environmental factors like nutrition, climate, the conditions in the home, the
type of social organisation in which individual move and live, the roles they have to play
and other.
Socialization is a continues process -
Socialization does not stop at any time. It continues from the moment of conception until
the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at a slow or a rapid rate but at a regular
pace rather than by leaps and bounds.
There may be a break in the continuity of growth due to illness, starvation or malnutrition
or other environmental factors or some abnormal conditions in the child’s life.
Socialization is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of
socialization:
Socialization takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialization are more unanimous in
their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, examples and skills
transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialization of the
individual tends to be slower and ineffective.
Socialization proceeds from general to specific responses-
It is observed that general activity always precedes specific activity. The early responses
of the baby are very general in nature which is gradually replaced with specific ones. The
earliest emotional responses of the new born are generally diffused excitement and this
slowly gives way to specific emotional patterns of anger, joy, fear, etc. Babies wave their
arms in general, random movements before they are capable of such specific responses as
reaching for an object held before them.
Socialization involves change-
The human being is never static. From the moment of conception to the time of death, the
person is undergoing changes. Nature shapes most clearly Socialization through genetic
programming that may determine whole sequences of later. It refers to a Socialization
progressive series of orderly coherent changes.
Socialization is often predictable-
Psychologists have observed that each phase has certain Socialization common traits and
characteristics. We have seen that the rate of for each child Socialization is fairly constant.
The consequence is that it is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within
which the child is likely to fall.
Socialization is unique-
Each child is a unique individual. No two children can be expected to behave or develop
in an identical manner although they are of the same age. For example, in the same class,
a child who comes from a deprived environment cannot be expected to do as well in
studies as a child of the same ability whose parents put high value on education and
encourage the child to study.
Socialization is an individualized process:
These individual differences arise because each child is controlled by a unique
combination of hereditary endowment and environmental factors. All children therefore
do not reach the same point of at the same Socialization age.
Socialization practices varied markedly from society to society.
The socialization practices were generally similar among people of the same society. This
is not surprising since people from the same culture and community are likely to share
core values and perceptions. During the early 1950′s, John and Beatrice Whitiing led an
extensive field study of early socialization practices in six different societies. They were
the Gusii of Kenya, the Rajputs of India, the village of Taira on the island of Okinawa
in Japan, the Tarong of the Philippines, the Mixteca Indians of central Mexico, and a
New England community that was given the pseudonym Orchardtown. All of these
societies shared in common the fact that they were relatively homogeneous culturally
Types of Socialization-
Group socialization:
Group socialization is holds that an individual’s peer groups, rather than parental figures,
influences his or her personality and behavior in adulthood. Adolescents spend more time
with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with
personality development than parental figures do. Entering high school is a crucial
moment in many adolescent’s lifespan involving the branching off from the restraints of
their parents. When dealing with new life challenges, adolescents take comfort in
discussing these issues within their peer groups instead of their parents.
Gender socialization:
Henslin contends that “an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally
defined gender roles.” Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes
considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls.
This “learning” happens by way of many different agents of socialization.
Parents plays a very significant role in gender socialization. Sociologists have identified
four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related
attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on
the sex of the child, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.
Anticipatory socialization and Re-socialization:
Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person
“rehearses” for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. Re-socialization
refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new
ones as part of a transition in one’s life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle. Re-
socialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break
with his or her past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms
and values.
Racial socialization and cultural socialization:
Racial socialization has been defined as “the developmental processes by which children
acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to
see themselves and others as members of the group”. Cultural socialization refers to
parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage and is
sometimes referred to as pride development.
Planned socialization and Natural Socialization :
Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train
others—from infancy on. Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters
explore, play and discover the social world around them.
Positive socialization and Negative socialization:
Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and
exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with
positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Negative socialization
occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to “teach us a lesson;”
and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on
us.
Broad and Narrow Socialization:
Arnett proposed an interesting though seldom used distinction in types of socialization.
Arnett distinguishes between broad and narrow socialization. Broad socialization is
intended to promote independence, individualism, and self-expression; it is dubbed
broad because this type of socialization has the potential of resulting in a broad range of
outcomes. Narrow socialization is intended to promote obedience and conformity; it is
dubbed narrow because there is a narrow range of outcomes.
Primary and Secondary Socialization:
Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent. Primary
socialization for a child is very important because it sets the ground work for all future
socialization. Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and
actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly
influenced by the immediate family and friends. Secondary socialization refers to the
socialization that takes place throughout one’s life, both as a child and as one encounters
new groups that require additional socialization. Secondary socialization refers to the
process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group
within the larger society. Basically, it is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing
agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where
children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the situations they
are in.[22] Schools require very different behavior from the home, and Children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act
in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them. Secondary Socialization is usually associated with
teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization

Agencies of Socialization:
Socialization is a process by which culture is transmitted to the younger generation and
men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which they belong. Every society
builds an institutional framework within which socialization of the child takes place.
Culture is transmitted through the communication they have with one another and
communication thus comes to be the essence of the process of culture transmission. In a
society there exists a number of agencies to socialize the child.
To facilitate socialization different agencies play important roles. These agencies are
however interrelated.
Family:
The family is rightly called the cradle of social virtues. Family being a mini society acts as
a transmission belt between the individual and society. The family plays an outstanding
role in the socialization process. The family is the most important agent of socialization
because it is the center of the child’s life, as infants are totally dependent on others. Not
all socialization is intentional, it depends on the surrounding. Family plays the most
important role in the formation of personality. The family has informal control over its
members It trains the younger generation in such a way that it can take the adult roles in
proper manner. As family is primary and intimate group, it uses informal methods of
social control to check the undesirable behavior on the part of its members. . The parents
use both reward and punishment to imbibe what is socially required from a child.
The process of socialization remains a process because of the interplay between individual
life cycle and family life cycle.
According to Robert. K. Merton, “it is the family which is a major transmission belt for
the diffusion of cultural standards to the oncoming generation”. The family serves as “the
natural and convenient channel of social continuity. The most profound effect is gender
socialization; however, the family also shoulders the task of teaching children cultural
values and attitudes about themselves and others. Children learn continuously from the
environment that adults create. Children also become aware of class at a very early age
and assign different values to each class accordingly.
In rural societies, children have most of their early social contact with the family. Today,
however, the family’s importance in the child’s life is changing. Although most children
growing up today will spend a great deal of time with people other than members of their
families, this does not mean that the participation of families in socialization has
ended.Still the family continues to be a major means of passing on values, attitudes, and
behaviors.
The Day-care:
Today, however, the family’s importance in the child’s life is changing. The family no
longer necessarily conforms to the stereotypical nuclear family with two parents and two
or more dependent children. Fewer families are consists of a working father, full-time
homemaker mother, and at least one child. There are more and more single-parent
families, where mothers with children under 6 years old are working .More and more
children are receiving their early and primary care from others in addition to their
parents. For these children, day care is an important agent of socialization The day-care
are informal arrangements at the home of a neighbor, large nurseries run by schools,
churches, charities, corporations, and occasionally employers .
Social Class
Kohn, explored differences in how parents raise their children relative to their social class.
Kohn found that lower class parents were more likely to emphasize conformity in their
children whereas middle-class parents were more likely to emphasize creativity and self-
reliance. Ellis et. al. proposed and found that parents value conformity over self-reliance
in children to the extent that conformity superseded self-reliance as a criterion for success
in their own endeavors. In other words, Ellis et. al. verified that the reason lower-class
parents emphasize conformity in their children is because they experience conformity in
their day-to-day activities
Peer Group:
A peer group is a social group whose members have interests, social positions and age in
common. This is where children can escape supervision and learn to form relationships
on their own. A peer group consists of friends and associates who are about the same age
and social status . Peer Group means a group in which the members share some common
characteristics such as age or sex etc. It is made up of the contemporaries of the child, his
associates in school, in playground and in street. The growing child learns some very
important lessons from his peer group. Since members of the peer group are at the same
stage of socialization, they freely and spontaneously interact with each other.
The members of peer groups have other sources of information about the culture and thus
the acquisition of culture goes on. They view the world through the same eyes and share
the same subjective attitudes. In order to be accepted by his peer group, the child must
exhibit the characteristic attitudes, the likes and dislikes.
As children get older, going to school brings them into regular contact with other children
of their age. As early as first or second grade, children form social groups. In these early
peer groups, children learn to share toys and other scarce resources (such as the teacher’s
attention). Peers may reinforce behaviors that are stressed by parents and schools.
Youthful concerns may center on popular music and movies, sports, sex, or illegal
activities. Conflict arises when standards of the peer group differ from the standards of
the child’s family. Parents and teachers, on the other hand, want children to do
schoolwork, help at home, and “stay out of trouble.”
The influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence however peer groups
generally only affect short term interests unlike the family which has long term influence
In our society, adolescents are heavily influenced by their peers when it comes to dress,
musical fads, cheating, and drug use. In making their future life plans, however, they are
influenced more by their parents than by their peers . Girls seem to be somewhat more
influenced in their future life plans by peers than are boys. Peer groups may provide social
rewards–praise, prestige, and attention–to individuals for doing things adults disapprove
of.
Language:
Depending on the language and situation at any given time, people will socialize
differently . People learn to socialize differently depending on the specific language and
culture in which they live. A specific example of this is code switching. This is where
immigrant children learn to behave in accordance with the languages used in their lives:
separate languages at home and in peer groups (mainly in educational settings.
Political Parities/ Nationalism:
Every society tries to influence how young people grow up. Much of this influence is
expressed through parents, schools, and peers, but it is worth considering for a moment
how children become exposed to the political and economic ideas that are considered
important for citizens of a particular country.
Children learn political information and attitudes rapidly during the elementary school
years. One of the first things they learn is that they belong to some kind of a political unit.
Even very young children develop a sense of “we” in relation to their own country and
learn to see other countries in terms of”they.” Children also tend to believe that their own
country and language are superior to others. This bond may be the most critical
socialization feature relating to the political life of the nation. The family helps provide
this basic loyalty to country, but the school also shapes the political concepts that expand
and develop children’s early feelings of attachment. Political orientations develop early
and reach nearly adult levels by the end of elementary school, but there are still some
critical changes that occur at other points during the life cycle. High school students
become more aware of differences between political parties and tend to become more
active politically.
Religion:
Religion has been an important factor in society. In the early society religion provided a
bond of unity. Though in modern society the importance of religion has diminished, yet
it continues to mould our beliefs and ways of life. In every family some or the other
religious practices are observed on one or the other occasion. The child sees his parents
going to the temple and performing religious ceremonies. He listens to religious sermons
which may determine his course of life and shape his ideas.
Religion play a very important role in socialization. Agents of socialization differ in effects
across religious traditions. Some believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category,
making it less likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations and be more
socialized in this setting. Parental religious participation is the most influential part of
religious socialization—more so than religious peers or religious beliefs.
Educational Institutions:
Every civilized society therefore has developed a set of formalized agencies of education
(schools, colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialization
process. It is in the educational institutions that the culture is formally transmitted and
acquired.
The educational institutions not only help the growing child in learning language and
other subjects but also instill the concept of time, discipline, team work, cooperation and
competition. Through the means of reward and punishment the desired behavior pattern
is reinforced.
Educational institution is a very important socializer and the means by which individual
acquires social norms and values (values of achievement, civic ideals, solidarity and group
loyalty etc) beyond those which are available for learning in the family and other groups.
Educational institutions try to impress upon children the importance of working for
rewards, and they try to teach neatness, punctuality, orderliness, and respect for
authority. Teachers are called upon to evaluate how well children perform a particular
task or how much skill they have. Thus, in school, children’s relationships with adults
move from nurture and behavioral concerns to performance of tasks and skills
determined by others.
Mass Media:
The mass media are the means for delivering impersonal communications directed to a
vast audience. The term media comes from Latin meaning, “middle,” suggesting that the
media’s function is to connect people.
The mass media include many forms of communication–such as books, magazines, radio,
television, and movies–that reach large numbers of people without personal contact
between senders and receivers. Since mass media has enormous effects on our attitudes
and behavior, notably in regards to aggression, it is an important contributor to the
socialization process.
The mass media of communication, particularly television, play an important role in the
process of socialization. The mass media of communication transmit information’s and
messages which influence the personality of an individual to a great extent. In the last few
decades, children have been dramatically socialized by one source in particular:
television. Studies have found that children spend more time watching TV than they
spend in school.
Reports may vary, but children in the fifth to eighth grades view an average of 4 to 6 hours
daily .Most of the research on the effects of television has been on the cognitive and
behavioral results of TV watching. The topic most often studied has been the influence of
television on antisocial behavior, especially violence. Current research supports the view
that seeing violence on television increases the chance that a child will be aggressive.
Publicly available studies unambiguously relate changes in behavior (such as food habits
or drug use) to exposure to television advertising.
Research also suggests that young children obtain considerable political and social
information from television.
Winn (1977) suggests that the experience of watching television itself is limiting. When
people watch television, no matter what the program, they are simply watchers and are
not having any other experience. According to Winn, and many agree, children need to
develop family relationships, the capacity for self-direction, and the basic skills of
communication (reading, writing, and speaking); to discover their own strengths and
limitations, and to learn the rules that keep social interaction alive. Television works
against all these goals by putting children in a passive situation where they do not speak,
interact, experiment, explore, or do anything else active because they are watching a
small moving picture on a machine. This research shows the growing importance of
television as a medium of socialization, although clearly it is only one among a number of
important influences.
In addition to this, communication media has an important effect in encouraging
individuals to support the existing norms and values or oppose or change them. They are
the instrument of social power. They influence us with their messages. The words are
always written by someone and these people too – authors and editors and advertisers –
join the teachers, the peers and the parents in the socialization process.
Legal system:
The state is an authoritarian agency. It makes laws for the people and lays down the
modes of conduct expected of them. The people have compulsorily to obey these laws. If
they fail to adjust their behavior in accordance with the laws of the state, they may be
punished for such failure. Thus the state also molds our behavior.
Children are pressured from both parents and peers to conform and obey certain laws or
norms of the group/community. Parents’ attitudes toward legal systems influence
children’s views as to what is legally acceptable.