J Food Sci Technol (Nov–Dec 2010) 47(6):644–649

DOI 10.1007/s13197-010-0106-1

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A comparative study on starch digestibility, glycemic index

and resistant starch of pigmented (‘Njavara’ and ‘Jyothi’)
and a non-pigmented (‘IR 64’) rice varieties
G. Deepa & Vasudeva Singh & K. Akhilender Naidu

Revised: 16 June 2010 / Accepted: 21 June 2010 / Published online: 9 October 2010
# Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2010

Abstract In vitro starch digestibility and glycemic indices problems of mankind. Carbohydrates are not just a source
of three rice varieties- ‘Njavara’, ‘Jyothi’ (pigmented rice of calories but specific types of carbohydrates are included
verities) and ‘IR 64’ (non-pigmented rice) with similar in the diet depending on the physiological disorder. People
amylose content were studied. Starch digestibility studies are aware of the alterations in blood glucose levels or
showed differences in glycemic response in three types of glycemic index after consuming carbohydrate rich food.
rice. The rate of starch hydrolysis was maximum (67.3%) in Currently, consumption of whole grain diet has received
‘Njavara’ rice compared to other two rice varieties. considerable attention due to its health benefits in attenuating
‘Njavara’ exhibited the lowest kinetic constant (k) indicating chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, type II
inherent resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis. The glycemic diabetes, cancer and gastrointestinal disorders (Marquart et
load (GL) and glycemic index (GI) of ‘Njavara’ were similar al. 2002). Whole grain cereals are a unique source of
to ‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’. Resistant starch content was high in dietary fibre containing several bioactive compounds
pigmented rice varieties compared to ‘IR 64’. The resistant (Englyst et al. 1995) and nutrients (Marquart et al. 2002).
starch content of dehusked and cooked rice increased with Resistant starch is the residual fractions of starch, resistant
the storage time at refrigeration temperature (4°C). ‘Njavara’ to enzyme hydrolysis, entering the large intestine along
is an easily digestible rice and can be used for baby and with dietary fibre. Though resistant starch accounts only a
geriatric foods. small proportion of the total calorie intake, its effect is
similar to those of other fibre components (Bjorck 1996).
Keywords Rice . Njavara . Jyothi . Resistant starch . In vitro The glycemic index (GI) and resistant starch (RS) content
starch digestibility . Glycemic index . Glycemic load have been established as important indicators of starch
digestibility.
Rice is the most important cereal crop and one of the
Introduction staple foods of the world’s population. It is an easily
digestable fine cereal, producing high glycemic index
Carbohydrates are a major source of energy in human diet. (Wolever et al. 1990) and low colonic fermentation (Kerlin
In recent years, obesity and diabetes are the foremost et al. 1984). The GI of brown rice has been reported to be
96, white rice is 83, while the freshly cooked rice is 64–93
K. A. Naidu (*) (Miller et al. 1992). However, discrepancies in GI of rice
Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, have been reported due to differences in varieties, amylose
Central Food Technological and Research Institute content (Sagum and Arcot 2000; Frei et al. 2003),
(Council of Scientific and Industrial Research),
processing and cooking (Frei et al. 2003), particle size
Mysore 570020, India
e-mail: kanaidu@[Link] (Snow and O’Dea 1981), physicochemical characters like
gelatinization (Chung et al. 2006; Panlasigui et al. 1991),
G. Deepa : V. Singh amylose/ amylopectin ratio (Juliano and Goddard 1986),
Department of Grain Science and Technology,
lipid-amylose complex (Guraya et al. 1997) and differential
Central Food Technological and Research Institute
(Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), susceptibility to amylolytic enzymes (Jenkins et al. 1982).
Mysore 570020, India Rice is considered as a good source of insoluble fibre.
J Food Sci Technol (Nov–Dec 2010) 47(6):644–649 645

There are limited studies on brown rice or dehusked rice 20 min and then cooled to 30°C, at a rate of 1.5o C per min
compared to milled rice. with constant stirring. The cooked rice flour paste was then
‘Njavara’ var. rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a medicinal red cooled to room temperature and then processed as.
rice variety endemic to Kerala, in India. Morphologically,
(a) Freeze dried (0 h), (b) Kept at 4°C for 24 h and then
‘Njavara’ is similar to ordinary rice with husk colour
freeze dried (24 h) and (c) Kept at 4°C for 48 h and
varying from golden yellow to brownish black, depending
then freeze dried (48 h).
upon the edaphic and climatic conditions (Menon 2004).
The medicinal quality of ‘Njavara’ is preserved by using The samples were stored at 4°C until used for the
only dehusked rice. It is the main component of ‘Njavara’ experiments.
kizhi, an Ayurvedic treatment where a bolus is prepared by
cooking rice with milk and certain herbs like Sida rectusa Total starch Brown rice flour (−60 mesh) and processed
and Alpinia galangal and massaged over entire body for rice flour (100 mg db), were dispersed in 50 ml of water
treatment of paralysis, arthritis and neurological problems. and treated with Termamyl (100 μl) and incubated in
The local uses of ‘Njavara’ include consumption of rice boiling water bath for 10 min, cooled and equilibrated at
cooked in copper vessel, to prevent rheumatic complaints. 60°C. Solubilized starch was then hydrolyzed by adding
The rice is consumed to give high energy and gain weight. glucosidase (6 mg in 0.6 ml acetate buffer pH 4.6) and
‘Njavara’ is also recommended for lactating mothers and incubated in shaking water bath at 60°C for 2 h. The
growing babies. ‘Njavara’ rice cooked along with medicinal samples were centrifuged and filtered. The supernatant was
herbs (Monsoon porridge) is consumed during monsoon made up to a known volume. The glucose concentration in
season to increase immunity. ‘Jyothi’ (‘PTB 39’) is a hybrid, the supernatant was determined using glucose oxidase
red rice variety consumed as a staple food in Kerala. ‘IR 64’ peroxidase kit at 505 nm. Starch was calculated as glucose
is a non-pigmented hybrid variety, known for its palatability x 0.9.
and high yield. Our previous study reports the nutrient
composition and physicochemical properties of ‘Njavara’ Resistant Starch (RS) Native and processed rice flour
rice (Deepa et al. 2008). This study reports the starch (100 mg, db) were suspended in water (50 ml) and treated
digestibility, GI and RS of brown rice flour of a medicinal with Termamyl (100 μl) at 95°C for 45 min, cooled,
rice –‘Njavara’ and two non-medicinal rice varieties centrifuged and supernatant was discarded. The residue was
‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’. hydrolyzed with protease (10 mg in phosphate buffer
pH 7.5) and amyloglucosidase (10 mg 0.1 M acetate buffer
pH 4.75) to remove proteins and hydrolyze starch,
Materials and methods respectively. The residues were dissolved in 2 M KOH,
incubated with amyloglucosidase for 35 min at 60°C to
‘Njavara’ paddy was brought from Padma Ayurveda, Mannar hydrolyze RS. Glucose content in the above samples was
(Kerala) while ‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’ paddy were procured determined using glucose oxidase peroxidase kit. Digestible
from Agriculture Products Marketing Cooperative market in starch was calculated as the difference between total starch
Bandipalya, Mysore. Paddy harvested in December 2003 was and RS.
obtained and stored at room temperature (27±2°C) for one
year and five months and then shifted to cold (4–6°C) until Starch kinetics Brown rice flour (50 mg, db) was cooked in
use. Amylases (Bacillus amyloliquefaciens), glucosidase 5.0 ml of water for 30 min and incubated with 10 ml of
(Rhizopus sp.) and pepsin were purchased from Sigma pepsin solution prepared in HCl-KCl buffer pH 1.5 at 40° C
Chemical (USA). Glucose oxidase peroxidase kit was for 1 h in a shaking water bath. The volume of the samples
purchased from Monozyme India Pvt. Ltd. (Secundrabad, was made to 25 ml using Tris-Maleate buffer (pH 6.9).
India). All other chemicals used were of analytical grade. Reaction was started by adding α-amylase (2.6 units in
The paddy samples were dehusked using rubber roll 5 ml of buffer pH 6.9) and the samples were incubated at
dehusker (Satake Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) and ground 37o C in a shaking water bath. One ml of the sample aliquot
into flour (−60 mesh) using a rice mill (Surabhi, India). The was collected at intervals of 30 min for 3 h. The enzyme
dehusked rice and brown rice flour were stored at 4°C until activity in these aliquots was inactivated by heating at 100°C
use. for 5 min and refrigerated until the end of the incubation
period. To these aliquots, 3 ml of 0.4 M sodium acetate
Sample preparation Brown rice flour (10%), dry basis, was buffer (pH 4.75) and 60 μl amyloglucosidase were added to
made into slurry in glass distilled water and made up to hydrolyze the digested starch to glucose. The samples were
500 ml. The slurry was poured into Brabender viscograph incubated at 60 °C for 45 min. The glucose content in each
bowl and heated from 30 to 95°C, maintained at 95°C for aliquot was estimated using glucose oxidase peroxidase kit.
646 J Food Sci Technol (Nov–Dec 2010) 47(6):644–649

Glucose was converted into starch by multiplying with 0.9. Table 1 Total starch, resistant starch and digestible starch of brown rice
flour (% w/w dry weight) after cooking and stored at refrigerated temp
All the experiments were conducted thrice and with
triplicates in each analysis. The kinetics of starch digestion Parameters Njavara Jyothi IR 64
was estimated by non-linear first order equation established
by Goni et al. (1997). Total starch

Native 79.56±0.28 a 80.67±2.52 a
84.30±1.29 a

C ¼ Ca 1  ekt ; 0h 85.58±3.84 b 84.69±0.60 b

88.89±0.43 a

24 h 85.50±3.29 a,b 86.62±0.40 b

89.34±0.65 a
where, C corresponds to the concentration of starch hydro-
48 h 85.24±2.67 b 86.33±0.27 b
89.30±0.64 a
lyzed at time t. Cα represents the equilibrium concentration
Resistant starch
i.e. the percentage of starch hydrolyzed after 180 min. k is
Native 0.80±0.06 b 0.83±0.01 a
0.68±0.08 c
the kinetic constant. The parameters Cα and k were estimated
for each cultivar based on the data obtained from the in vitro 0h 0.80±0.02 a 0.83±0.01 a
0.64±0.04 b

starch hydrolysis procedure. Parameters were estimated 24 h 0.94±0.15 a,b 0.98±0.17 a

0.68±0.02 b

using SYSTAT (Sigma Plot 10) software, MS Office version. 48 h 1.05±0.03 a 1.10±0.27 a
0.71±0.05 b

The hydrolysis index (HI) was calculated as the Digestible starch

percentage of total glucose released from the samples as Native 79.16±0.42 a 80. 67±1.78 a 83.96±0.83 a

compared to that released from standard glucose (0– 0h 84.78±2.70 b 83.86±0.42 b 88.24±0.35 a

b b a
180 min). The glycemic indices of the samples were 24 h 84.05±2.48 85.64±0.11 88.66±0.45
b b a
estimated according to the equation of Goni et al. (1997), 48 h 84.19±1.86 85.23±0.08 88.60±0.50
with the use of glucose as the reference food:
Values within the same row with different superscripts are signifi-
GI ¼ 39:71Ca þ 0:549 HI cantly different (p<0.05) (n=3)

Glycemic load (GL) was estimated indirectly by multi-

plying the amount of carbohydrate contained in a nominal Various physical factors like stirring, water-starch ratio,
serving size (150 g) of rice with GI value of specific rice cooking and cooling regimes affect resistant starch forma-
variety, divided by 100 (Salmeron et al. 1997).The tion (Garcia-Alonso et al. 1999). In order to avoid these
available carbohydrate per serving (33 g carbohydrate/ discrepancies all the rice varieties were cooked in Brabender
serving) of boiled brown rice in India was obtained from Viscograph Type 801202 (Duisburg, FRG). Resistant starch
literature (Kurup and Krishnamurthy 1992; Foster-Powell et formation is also influenced by amylose-amylopectin ratio
al. 2002). in rice (Frei et al. 2003). Starch when cooked and cooled,
rearrangement of amylose and amylopectin chains occur
GL ¼ GI  carbohydrate net content per portion in g=100 (retrogradation), which leads to increase in crystalline nature
(B-type) of starch granules (Jane and Robyt 1984) and
decreased starch digestibility. During retrogradation the
Statistical analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was amylose chains form double helix structure (Jane and Robyt
performed by using SPSS system for windows version 7.5. 1984) while amylopectin crystallization occurs by re-
Duncan’s multiple range tests were conducted for compar- association of the outermost short chains (Ring et al.
ison of means at p<0.05. Simple correlation coefficients 1987). Retrogradation of amylose is a more rapid process,
were calculated for the relationships between nutrient occurring immediately, while cooling, but amylopectin
composition (carbohydrate, protein, lipids and dietary fibre) requires longer time and hence storage conditions are
and food indexes like total starch content, resistant starch important factors affecting retrogradation (Garcia-Alonso
and digestible starch and among the food indices. et al. 1999).
The digestible starch among the three varieties varied
from 79 to 84% with ‘IR 64’ having more digestible
Results and discussion fraction of starch while ‘Njavara’ showing the least
(Table 1). In processed dehusked rice, the digestibility
The total starch content was 79–89% in three rice varieties increased by 5–6%. Native starches are mostly indigestible.
(Table 1) ‘IR 64’ had more starch content than the two red Cooking in excess of water leads to swelling of starch
rice varieties, ‘Njavara’ and ‘Jyothi’. The resistant starch granules followed by disintegration, exposing the starch
content was 0.6–1% in three rice varieties. The pigmented chains and making them more accessible to the action of
rice varieties showed more resistant starch content than the digestive enzymes. In this study also the observed total
un-pigmented variety, ‘IR 64’. Resistant starch of all the starch and digestible starch after gelatinization (0, 24 and
rice varieties increased with storage at refrigeration (4°C). 48 h) is due to exposure of amylose and amylopectin chains
J Food Sci Technol (Nov–Dec 2010) 47(6):644–649 647

Table 2 Correlation coefficients among total starch, resistant starch and digestible starch in vitro

Total starch Resistant starch Digestive starch

Native 0h 24 h 48 h Native 0h 24 h 48 h Native 0h 24 h 48 h

Total starch
Native 1
0h 0.483 1
24 h 0.579 0.884# 1
48 h 0.615 0.912# 0.992# 1
Resistant starch
Native −0.566 −0.811# –0.713* –0.793* 1
0h −0.735* −0.731* –0.681* –0.762* 0.966# 1
24 h −0.540 −0.820# –0.755* –0.795* 0.770* 0.704* 1
48 h −0.690* −0.565 −0.538 −0.612 0.801# 0.822# 0.866# 1
Digestive starch
Native 0.996# 0.478 0.593 0.620 −0.518 –0.690* −0.524 −0.648 1
0h 0.497 1.00# 0.885# 0.915# –0.825# –0.748* –0.823# −0.580 0.491 1
24 h 0.586 0.894# 0.999# 0.995# –0.730* –0.695* –0.787* −0.572 0.598 0.895# 1
48 h 0.646 0.910# 0.982# 0.997# –0.823# –0.797* –0.832# –0.675* 0.645 0.915# 0.987# 1

*Correlation is significant at 0.05 level

#Correlation is significant at 0.01 level

to the action of enzyme (amylase and glucosidase) leading indices (TS, RS and DS) were correlated with carbohydrate,
to its breakdown to glucose. protein, lipid and dietary fibre content of the three rice
Correlation among total starch (TS), resistant starch (RS) varieties reported elsewhere (Deepa et al. 2008). As shown
and digestible starch (DS) is presented in Table 2. Starch in Table 3, TS and DS released were observed to be

Table 3 Correlation coefficients between nutrient composition and total starch release, resistant starch and digestive starch during in vitro starch
digestion

Dietary fibre

Parameters Carbohydrate Protein Lipid Soluble Insoluble Total

Total starch
Native 0.592 −0.518 −0.526 0.063 −0.526 −0.522
0h 0.623 −0.316 −0.657 0.377 −0.463 −0.448
24 h 0.541 −0.710* −0.629 0.037 −0.780* −0.776*
48 h 0.569 −0.660* −0.642 0.148 −0.773* −0.764*
Resistant starch
Native -0.505 0.316 0.504 −0.673 0.590 0.568
0h −0.516 0.369 0.475 −0.579 0.624 0.600
24 h −0.732 0.452 0.851# −0.491 0.491 0.471
48 h −0.638 0.433 0.697* −0.603 0.523 0.499
Digestive starch
Native 0.519 −0.543 −0.530 −0.011 −0.525 −0.524
0h 0.625 −0.321 −0.656 0.389 −0.473 −0.457
24 h 0.565 −0.702 −0.657 0.072 −0.772 −0.767
48 h 0.598 −0.666 −0.672 0.202 −0.775 −0.765

*Correlation is significant at 0.05 level

#Correlation is significant at 0.01 level
648 J Food Sci Technol (Nov–Dec 2010) 47(6):644–649

inversely related to protein, insoluble and total dietary fibre Table 5 Percentage of starch hyrolysis in 90 min (H 90), equilibrium
constant (Cα) and kinetic constant (k) of brown rice flour
content. However, it was positively correlated to the
carbohydrate and soluble dietary fibre content (Table 3). Sample Ha 90 (Form) Hb 90 (Expt) Cαa ka
The release of TS and DS is dependent on starch, lipid and
protein complexes which make them less susceptible to the ‘Njavara’ 65.2 63.6±0.83 65.2 0.073
action of amylolytic enzymes (Holm et al. 1986). Similar ‘Jyothi’ 61.5 60.5±3.50 61.5 0.095
results have been reported in other rice varieties by Urooj ‘IR 64’ 61.4 60.3±3.98 61.4 0.114
and Puttraj (1999). RS was inversely proportional to the a
Experimental results
amount of starch digested. Further, RS was directly b
As per equation C=Cα (1−e −kt )
proportional to protein, insoluble and total dietary fibre
content while negatively correlated to carbohydrate content
and soluble dietary fibre content. Yao et al. (2002) reported starch (Sagum and Arcot 2000). In the present study we
that lipid-amylose complex decreases the amount of observed difference in the gelatinization temperatures
amylose available to interact with the external chains of (communicated elsewhere) and resistant starch (Table 1).
amylopectin to form resistant starch. According to the studies of Snow and O’Dea (1981)
In vitro method for measuring the rate of hydrolysis of digestibility of starch is affected by the size of the granule
starch has been suggested as an inexpensive and less time and surface area to starch ratio for action of hydrolytic
consuming method compared to measuring in vivo starch enzymes. The easier digestibility of ‘Njavara’ may be due
digestion (Jenkins et al. 1987). O’Dea et al. (1980) reported to its smaller granular size (Deepa et al. 2008) rendering
that in rice postprandial glucose and insulin responses more surface area for the action of hydrolytic enzymes.
correlate closely to the in vitro rates of hydrolysis. The The hydrolysis kinetics (Table 5) showed that the
present study on in vitro starch digestion showed that equilibrium constant (Cα) of ‘Njavara’ was relatively
‘Njavara’ is easily digestible (starch released 67% in higher (65.2) than ‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’ (~ 61). However,
180 min) than ‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’ (Table 4). The starch ‘Njavara’ exhibited significantly low kinetic constant
hydrolyzed in first 30 min was similar (58–59%) in all the (0.073) compared to Jyothi (0.095) and IR 64 (0.114),
three varieties of rice. However, after 30 min a gradual indicating that ‘Njavara’ has an inherent resistance to
increase in starch digestion was observed in ‘Njavara’. enzymatic hydrolysis.
‘Njavara’, ‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’ exhibited a plateau at Currently, nutritionists recommend that a whole-food
approximately 60 min of hydrolysis. ‘Njavara’ and ‘Jyothi’ approach rather than a GI approach to measure the
have been reported to have similar amylose content of 23% glycemic potency of foods (Monro 2003). HI, GI and GL
but they differed in their rate of digestion (Deepa et al. obtained for the three varieties are presented in Table 6. All
2008). This is in agreement with the earlier reports that rice the three varieties were observed to have similar HI, GI and
varieties with similar amylose content differ in their GL. Further studies are warranted to understand in vivo
digestibility due to differences in their physiochemical digestibility of ‘Njavara’ rice, as it has high dietary fibre
properties like gelatinization temperature (Panlasigui et al. content compared to ‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’ (Deepa et al.
1991). The rate of digestion also depends on the granule 2008). Dietary fibres are believed to enfold the food, hinder
size, the amylose/amylopectin ratio, starch protein interac- the action of hydrolytic enzymes in the gut, increase the
tion, amylose/lipid complexes and the level of resistant viscosity of intestinal contents and thereby reduce the
absorption of carbohydrates, in vivo (Jenkins et al. 1977).
Moreover, the beneficial effects of dietary fibre are nullified
Table 4 Rate of starch hydrolysis in brown rice flour when whole grains are ground. The whole grain flours are
hydrolyzed at the same rate as polished grain flour.
Time, min ‘Njavara’ ‘Jyothi’ ‘IR 64’

a a a
30 58.5±0.50 58.2±4.86 59.5±1.79
a a a Table 6 Estimated hydrolysis index (HI), glycemic index (GI) and
60 62.4±0.04 59.5±2.99 59.9±1.96
a a a glycemic load (GL) of brown rice
90 63.6±0.83 60.5±3.50 60.3±3.98
a a a
120 65.6±1.64 61.8±4.83 61.7±1.96 Sample HI GI GL
a a a
150 66.0±2.06 62.3±4.13 62.2±2.69
180 67.3±0.41 a
63.1±3.63 b
62.7±2.93 b ‘Njavara’ 63.9±0.75 74.8±0.41 24.7±0.34
‘Jyothi’ 60.9±3.99 73.1±2.19 24.1±5.24
Values within the same row with different superscripts are signifi- ‘IR 64’ 61.1±2.55 73.2±1.40 24.2±6.54
cantly different
(p<0.05) (n=3) (n=3)
J Food Sci Technol (Nov–Dec 2010) 47(6):644–649 649

Conclusion Jane JL, Robyt JF (1984) Structure studies of amylose complexes and
retrograded amylose by action of alpha amylase and a new
method for preparing amylodextrins. Carbohydr Res 132:105–
The study suggests that pigmented whole grain rice 118
(‘Njavara’ and ‘Jyothi’) is a better source of dietary fibre Jenkins DJA, Leeds AR, Gassell MA, Cocket B, Alberti KGM (1977)
and resistant starch. The RS content in cooked rice can be Decrease in post-prandial insulin and glucose concentrations by
gaur and pectin. Ann Intern Med 86:20–23
increased by storing at low temperatures. The starch
Jenkins DJA, Taylor RH, Wolever TMS (1982) The diabetic diet,
retrogradation property of these pigmented rice varieties dietary carbohydrate and differences in digestibility. Diabetologia
can be exploited in preparation of healthy food products. 23:477–480
‘Njavara’ rice is observed to be easily digestible than Jenkins DJA, Thorne MJ, Wolever TMS, Jenkins AL, Venketschwer
R, Thompson LU (1987) The effect of starch protein interaction
‘Jyothi’ and ‘IR 64’ based on in vitro starch hydrolysis in wheat on the glycemic response and rate of in vitro digestion.
study. Thus, Njavara rice could be considered for baby and Am J Clin Nutr 45:946–951
geriatric foods. Juliano B, Goddard M (1986) Cause of varietal differences in insulin
and glucose responses to ingested rice. Plant Food Hum Nutr
36:35–41
Acknowledgement Authors thank Prakash V, Director and Salimath Kerlin P, Wong L, Harris B, Capra S (1984) Rice flour, breath
P V, Head, Biochemistry and Nutrition Department, Central Food hydrogen and malabsorption. Gastroenterology 87:578–585
Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India for their support and Kurup PG, Krishnamurthy S (1992) Glycemic index of selected
encouragement in the present study. Deepa Gopinath, CSIR-SRF, foodstuffs commonly used in South India. Int J Vitam Nutr Res
gratefully acknowledges the financial support from CSIR, New Delhi, 62:266–268
in carrying out these investigations. KAN gratefully acknowledges the Marquart L, Slavin JL, Fulcher RG (2002) Whole grain foods in
financial support in the form of a Project by the Department of health and diseases. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
Science and Technology, New Delhi, India. Inc, St. Paul, pp 187–200
Menon MV (2004) Njavara: The healing touch. Sci Report, Feb. 28–30
Miller JB, Pang E, Bramall L (1992) Rice: a high or low glycemic
index food? Am J Clin Nutr 34:1034–1036
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