Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of the Ethiopian

Orthodox Tewahido Churches in Conserving Forest

Resources: The Case of Churches in South Gonder, Northern
Ethiopia

Alemayehu Wassie
DECLARATION

I Alemayehu Wassie hereby declare this thesis is my original work and has not already been presented nor
is being currently submitted for a degree in any university or for publication. It is free for use as far as
proper citation and acknowledgment is made.

__________________ __________________

Alemayehu Wassie Date

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as university main advisor.

_____________________ __________________

Dr. Neil Powell Date

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences

i
This Thesis is dedicated to the late Ato Alachew Jemberie with unforgettable memories of professional
dedication, humbleness and generosity, praying for his body to rest in peace under the sacred garden of
EOTC and eternity for his soul in heaven.

I would like also to dedicate to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church and its scholars for
generations of dedication and faithfulness to the church and its surrounding forests.

ii
Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido
Churches in Conserving Forest Resources: The Case of Churches in South
Gonder, Northern Ethiopia
Alemayehu Wassie Eshete
P.O.Box 2003 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia (c/o Dr. Demel Teketay)
Telephone 251-1-454452 / 290987 (c/o Dr. Demel Teketay)
E-Mail [email protected]; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church is one of the oldest Christian Churches in Africa and is a
founder member of the World Council of Churches. In addition to its religious activities, it also has long
history of planting, protecting and preserving trees. If a traveler can see a patch of indigenous old aged
trees in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, most probably he/she can be sure that there is an Orthodox
Church in the middle. The main objectives of this paper were to study the diversity and regeneration status
of woody species in the church forest, to carry out a socio-economic survey that would enable us to
understand the philosophy, guiding principles and attitudes of the community. In addition, it was also to
assess the opportunity, constraints, and prospects of the church in conserving woody diversity in particular
and forests resources in general.

Accordingly, eight churches were selected at different altitudes purposively. Once the study churches were
identified, 10m X 10m quadrats were laid systematically along parallel transects in the forests for
vegetation sampling. For the socioeconomic survey, 122 household heads were selected randomly amongst
the followers and at least three church scholars from each church. Moreover, focus group discussion and
key informant interviews were employed. From vegetation sampling it was found that forests enveloped
the church with an area ranging from 1.6 ha to 100 ha. The total number of species and families in each of
the eight churches ranged from 22 and 18 to 42 and 22 respectively. The minimum plant density was
731/ha and the maximum was 2250/ha while the minimum basal area, calculated from woody plants with
dbh ≥ 10 cm was 24.9 m2/ha and maximum 109.7 m2/ha. Different regeneration status was revealed from
the height and diameter class distribution for some of the woody species. The height and diameter class
distributions for all individuals in each studied church showed that the forests are at different secondary
stages of development. The classification of the species group by ordination techniques showed the
differentiation in species group types has a strong relationship with altitude.

These church forests didn’t come to exist just by mere chance. Results indicated that it is by the
commitment of the church based on strong theological thoughts and a biblical basis. It was found that the
local community respects and protects church forests, and considers the church as a central institution and
platform. On the other hand, important stakeholders had diverging and converging views on some issues
regarding church forests. In general, from the results, it was concluded that forests conserved by EOTC
and its tradition provide an opportunity to establish insitu and exsitu conservation sites for forest resources.
They also have greater prospects in implementing forestry conservation, development, research and
education programs with some avoidable threats and constraints for which recommendations were
presented.

Key words/phrases: Church forests; Indigenous Woody Species diversity; Density; Basal Area;
Ordination; Conservation; Sustainability; Indigenous institution; Tradition

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost I praise the Almighty God, who favors me to begin and to bring to an end this study.

The Archbishop of South Gonder Diocese Abune Elsa, the Manager Megabe Sirat Birhanu
Kassa with other staff were so much kind when they gave me permission to go through the holy
garden of the churches with their blessing and passion, thus there are no words to thank them.
Farta, Laygaynt, Ebinat, Fogera, Dera and Estie woreda church administration offices were so
cooperative. The able church scholars, Melake-Hiwot Asnake Tsegaw, Melake-Birhan Melese
Hailu, Melake-Miheret Wubie Asres, Liqe-Hiruan Admas Tsegaye, and Melake-Miheret Tibebu
Taye are the ones who gave me special interviews and shared their cumulated knowledge with
me. The kind EOTC fathers, students and community who assisted me in identifying woody
species to whom I am indebted.

My main Adviser Dr. Neil Powell to whom I am grateful, who went through my paper from draft
proposal to the thesis work and from office to the study site that helped me a lot in shaping the
framework of the paper and final appearance. Dr Demel Teketay my in land adviser, who always
wished to see my success has got a special place not only for his unreserved effort in this paper
but also in all my academic endeavors and thus I am very grateful.

I am in dept to Ato Belaineh Legesse and Ato Melaku Bekele who read the draft proposal in Upssala,
Sweden and commented on how to shape it in a better way. I am also in dept to Dr Yonas Yemishaw who
assisted me in the socio-economic data analysis and Dr Tesfaye Bekele who assisted me in ordination
analysis of vegetation data by computer software. Ato Taye Bekele and Ato Tefera Mengistu who
commented on the paper are duly thanked.

My respect should go to the Organization for Rehabilitation and Development for Amhara
(ORDA), my employer who assisted and sponsored me to go through the MSc. program. Here
also SLU/SIDA with Wondo Genet College of forestry are grateful. Ato Dagnachew Gebeyehu is
also thanked for his efforts in arranging a vehicle for my adviser field visits. Ato Muluneh (South
Gonder greening program) and Ibinat-Belesa project are thanked for they provided me with a
vehicle for fieldwork.

From South Gonder Zone department of Agriculture Ato Mekonen Tola, Goshu Worku, Belaineh
in providing me with field equipment and information and from South Gonder Zone department of
Planning & Economic development Ato Abebaw in providing demographic data are thankful.
From Estie woreda agricultural office Ato Fintie Bisahw, Ato Aschalew and Ato Tigabu Belay are
also thanked in providing information and a motorbike for fieldwork. Ato Destaw Mequanent the
administrator of Estie woreda was so cooperative for discussion and permission to work. Ato
Mandefro from CARE, South Gonder and Ato Gizachew Sisay from CPAR Gayint should get
special thanks.

W/zo Muday Abraham with her family and W/t Hibrework who hosted me while I was in field for
data collection are memorable without whom it could have been hard to finish the fieldwork. Ato
GebreMeskel Fenta and His wife W/zo Bosena Melese with their family, who hosted me with my
family during the thesis work with generosity and family-hood, are unforgettable and very much
grateful. My brother Ato Birhane Wassie and his wife W/zo Tsehay Yesmaw, Ato Ayalew
Mengistu and his wife W/zo Bishat Ayalew were the ones who laid the foundation of my life from
childhood to university level and to whomI am grateful.

Finally my wife sister Belainesh Melese who carried all of my family responsibility so that I could
focus on my study is the corner stone in this work. My little children Mahalet and Natinael, who
provided me with exhilaration when I got fed up during the thesis write up, have contributed a lot
and are appreciated.

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ACRONYMS
BA Basal Area
DBH Diameter at Breast Height
DICAC Development and Inter-Church Aid Commission
EOTC Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church
Fig Figure
Jack1 First-order Jackknife estimator of species richness
masl Meter above sea level
PA Peasant Association
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
SGAZ South Gonder Administrative Zone
SGAZDA South Gonder Zonal Department of Agriculture
SGAZDPED South Gonder Zonal Department of Plan & Economic Development
Sobs Observed number of species
WoA Woreda office of Agriculture

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................... I

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ III

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................... IV

ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................................ V

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................... VI

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................ VIII

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... IX

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................................. X

1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1
1.1. BACKGROUND ..........................................................................................................................................1
1.2. ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX TEWAHIDO CHURCH ..........................................................................................1
1.3. ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX TEWAHIDO CHURCH AND FORESTS/TREES: PLACED IN A HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE ...........................................................................................................................................2
1.4. RELIGION AND FORESTS/TREES AT GLOBAL LEVEL ................................................................................4
1.5. ETHNOFORESTRY .....................................................................................................................................4
1.6. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND JUSTIFICATION ............................................................................................5
2. CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS .................................................................6
2.1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .....................................................................................................................6
2.1.1. Indigenous Institutions .................................................................................................................6
2.1.2. Religion ........................................................................................................................................7
2.1.3. Biodiversity ..................................................................................................................................8
2.1.4. Sustainability and Conservation of Natural Resources ................................................................8
2.2. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ....................................................................................................................9
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................................12

4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY...........................................................................................................13

5. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...........................................................................................................14

5.1. STUDY AREA ..........................................................................................................................................14
5.2. CHURCHES SELECTED FOR THE STUDY ..................................................................................................14
5.2.1. Quar Debre Luel Kidus Michael ................................................................................................14
5.2.2. Zahara Debre Miheret Kidus Michael........................................................................................15
5.2.3. Gibtsawit Kidist Mariam ............................................................................................................15
5.2.4. Dengolt Debre Medalhu Kidist Mariam.....................................................................................15
5.2.5. Mekane Semayat Kidus Gelawdiwos.........................................................................................15
5.2.6. Hiruy Kidus Giorgis ...................................................................................................................16
5.2.7. Debresena Kidist Mariam...........................................................................................................16
5.2.8. Ascha Menbere Luel Kidus Michael..........................................................................................16
5.3. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ..........................................................................................................18
5.3.1. Sampling Design ........................................................................................................................18

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 5.3.2. Area of Forest Cover ..................................................................................................................18
5.3.3. Vegetation census.......................................................................................................................18
5.3.4. Socio-economic Survey..............................................................................................................19
5.3.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study .............................................................................................20
5.4. METHODS OF DATA ANALYSES .............................................................................................................20
5.4.1. Vegetation ..................................................................................................................................20
5.4.2. Socio-economic Survey..............................................................................................................24
6. RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................26
6.1. VEGETATION ..........................................................................................................................................26
6.1.1. Species Composition, Density, Basal Area and Similarity ........................................................26
6.1.2. Species Diversity: Species Richness, Evenness and Heterogeneity...........................................27
6.1.3. Regeneration Status....................................................................................................................28
6.1.4. Species Area Curve ....................................................................................................................38
6.1.5. Ordination ..................................................................................................................................39
6.2. SOCIO-ECONOMICS ................................................................................................................................40
6.2.1. Philosophy of EOTC in the Conservation of Forests .................................................................40
6.2.2. Benefits of Churches from the Forests .......................................................................................41
6.2.3. Mode of Protection of the Forests by Churches .........................................................................43
6.2.4. Historical Profile ........................................................................................................................44
6.2.5. Attitude of the Local Communities ............................................................................................45
6.2.6. Stake Holder Analysis................................................................................................................49
6.2.7. SWOT Analysis..........................................................................................................................49
7. DISCUSSION ..........................................................................................................................................52
7.1. VEGETATION ..........................................................................................................................................52
7.2. SOCIO-ECONOMY SURVEY......................................................................................................................54
7.2.1. Church Philosophy .....................................................................................................................54
7.2.2. The attitude of the local community...........................................................................................55
7.2.3. Stakeholder Views......................................................................................................................59
7.2.4. SWOT of the Tradition ..............................................................................................................60
8.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .....................................................................................61
8.1. CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................................................61
8.2. RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................................62
9. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................63

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1. ALTERNATIVE PARADIGMS FOR THE PROBLEM AND SOLUTION AT HAND...................................12

FIGURE 2. MAP OF THE STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................17
FIGURE 3. HEIGHT CLASS DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUALS OF SOME SELECTED SPECIES AND ALL WOODY
PLANTS ENCOUNTERED IN EACH CHURCH.. ................................................................................33
FIGURE 4. DIAMETER CLASS DISTRIBUTION OF ALL WOODY PLANTS IN ALL PLOTS AND SOME OF MAJOR
TREE SPECIES FOR ALL CHURCHES. .............................................................................................38
FIGURE 5. SPECIES AREA CURVE OF THE EIGHT CHURCH FORESTS STUDIES.................................................38
FIGURE 6. ORDINATION DIAGRAM OF SPECIES FROM THE CORRESPONDENCE ANALYSIS MADE USING THE
SPECIES ABUNDANCE DATA FROM ALL CHURCH FORESTS. .........................................................39
FIGURE 7. HISTORICAL PROFILE OF CHURCH FORESTS IN SOUTH GONDER ZONE IN PARTICULAR AND IN
ETHIOPIA AT LARGE. ...................................................................................................................45

viii
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. AREA OF FORESTS (HA), TOTAL DENSITY (INDIVIDUALS/HA), NUMBER OF SPECIES AND PLANT
2
FAMILIES, BASAL AREA (M /HA) AS WELL AS NUMBERS OF LIVE STEMS (DBH 10 CM)
AND DEAD STUMPS FOUND IN THE EIGHT CHURCHES. ..................................................................26
TABLE 2. LIST, DENSITIES (INDIVIDUALS/HA) AND BASAL AREAS (M2/HA) OF EXOTIC WOODY SPECIES
RECORDED IN FOUR OF THE CHURCH FORESTS. ............................................................................27
TABLE 3. SIMILARITIES IN SPECIES COMPOSITION AMONG THE EIGHT CHURCHES DETERMINED BY
JACCARD’S SIMILARITY COEFFICIENT..........................................................................................27
TABLE 4. DIFFERENT DIVERSITY INDICES OF THE EIGHT CHURCH FORESTS STUDIED. .................................28
TABLE 5. POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF FOLLOWERS FROM FORESTS THAT ARE EITHER PERMITTED OR
FORBIDDEN BY CHURCHES. ...........................................................................................................43
TABLE 6. RESULTS FROM THE SIGNIFICANTLY DEPENDENT ANSWERS GIVEN TO THE MAIN ATTITUDINAL
QUESTIONS. ...................................................................................................................................48
TABLE 7. OPINIONS AMONG THE VARIOUS IDENTIFIED STAKEHOLDERS ON SELECTED ISSUES REGARDING
THE CHURCH FORESTS...................................................................................................................49

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1. ALL SPECIES AND FAMILIES WITH RESPECTIVE ABUNDANCE, DENSITY AND FREQUENCY
FOUND IN ALL THE EIGHT SAMPLED CHURCHES ....................................................................68
APPENDIX 2. CHECKLIST OF ALL INDIGENOUS WOODY SPECIES FOUND IN SOUTH GONDER
ADMINISTRATIVE ZONE (SGAZDA, UNPUBLISHED) .............................................................70

x
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
The speed with which forest resources have been depleted in Ethiopia has brought significant decline in
their biodiversity to the extent that some species are on the verge of local extinction. Though the available
information on the forest resources of Ethiopia is very limited, it is estimated that high forests are
disappearing at the rate of 150,000-200,000 ha annually (EFAP 1994) while the corresponding rate of
plantation, 2000 ha per year, is insignificant and stagnating. The problem of deforestation and decline in or
loss of biodiversity is more pronounced in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, particularly in the South
Gonder Zone, where forests are downscaled to patches and strips on the tops of hills and heads of streams.
As a result, very little of the natural forest of the Northern Ethiopian highlands remains today.

These phenomena are the results of a long-term human occupation of the area, accompanied by sedentary
agriculture and extensive cattle husbandry, spurred by the rapid growth of both human and animal
populations. The deterioration of natural resources not only destroys the environment, but also undermines
the very foundation on which economic growth and long-term prosperity depend. Viswanathan (1986)
noted that “a traveller can see only a very few trees remaining here and there as remnants of the old
vegetation, which once flourished in the area”.

In such devastated areas, conserving and maintaining woody diversity has been a very challenging task,
and most approaches haven’t brought any significant results. The only areas where one can observe
forests/trees in northern Ethiopia are in the surroundings of churches. These patches of natural forest have
survived as a result of the traditional conservation system and protective patronage of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Tewahido Churches (Yeraswork Admassie 1995).

1.2. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church (EOTC), an indigenous and integral Christian Church of
Africa, is one of the oldest Churches in the world and founding member of the World Council of Churches.
The word ‘Tewahido’ is the Ethiopian term meaning ‘made one’, the best expression conveying the faith
of the church. It emphasizes the inseparable unity of the Godhead and Manhood in the Person of Christ.
The EOTC is considered to belong to the One, Holy, Universal and Apostolic Church founded by Jesus
Christ (Aymro Wondmagegnehu and Motovu 1970).

Ethiopia embraced Christianity and maintained the doctrine of Christ from the era of the Apostles to the
present day, as it is narrated in the Holy Bible (Acts 8:26-39). The history of St. Phillip the Apostle
baptizing the Eunuch, who travelled to Jerusalem for prayer, is of great interest for the Ethiopian Church
history. Eunuch was a man of high rank, the Finance Minister of Candace Queen of Ethiopia (Anonymous,

1
1991). The EOTC is numerically the largest of the five non-Chalcedonian Eastern Churches - the Coptic,
the Ethiopian, The Syrian, the Indian and the Armenian, which were historically called “The Oriental
Orthodox Churches” to distinguish them from the “Byzantine Orthodox Churches” (Aymro
Wondmagegnehu and Motovu 1970).

The EOTC believes that the church is a community founded by God in the crucified, risen and glorified
Christ, the incarnate Son of God, and guided and bounded by God and the Holy Spirit. Its members accept
the faith in Jesus Christ and are united under the teaching and administrative rules enjoined by the
Patriarch with the council of Bishops. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has a system of administration by
which its members are to be guided. Two aspects are discerned in the administration structure: (a)
Religious affairs conducted by the patriarch and the Holy Synod, and (b) Secular affairs managed by an
Administrative Board. It has over 30 million followers, 400,000 clergies and 35,000 churches in Ethiopia.
Moreover, it has several followers and Archbishops in other countries (Aymro Wondmagegnehu and
Motovu 1970; Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).

A church is also a building set apart for worship, and the name is used only for such structures as are for
the general use of the faithful, as distinguished from chapels, which are for some community or family.
Churches are consecrated, but it is the ‘Tabot’ or the Arc of the Covenant, which gives sanctity to the
church in which it is placed. Thus, every Ethiopian church must be honored with ‘Tabot’. Churches are
usually built in pleasant spots and are surrounded with walls of massive stone and patches of trees, which
add to the solemnity, and the quietude of the building. These churches are not only religious spots but are
also biodiversity spots.

The local people call the churches with the surrounding trees as debr or geddam. Debr or Geddam is seen
by the followers as the most holy place religiously as well as a respected and powerful institution socially.
It is also expected from outside to be a viable and a functioning site ecologically from the whole landscape
in the area. They are visible from a great distance, with a majestic appearance, usually built upon a small
hill overlooking the village.

1.3. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church and Forests/Trees: Placed in A

Historical Perspective
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church has long history of planting, protecting and preserving of trees.
If a traveller can see a patch of indigenous old aged trees in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, most
probably he/she can be sure that there is an Orthodox Church in the middle. This observation is not only a
recent phenomenon, but goes back many years as the event of deforestation has been occurring in the area
for centuries. Many travellers on their route have observed and had an impression that old aged indigenous
trees were becoming confined around churches. In his study of Forest History of Ethiopia from early times
to 1974, Melaku (1992) has shown this picture as follows:

2
♦ Bruce who visited Ethiopia in 1769, and who continued his journey to Gonder has observed that in Waldeba
(near Gonder) trees were found only around churches.
♦ The British traveller, Charles Beke, who made various journeys to most parts of Gojjam, Gonder, Wello and
north Shewa from 1841 to 1843, noted that “scarcely a tree being to be seen, with the exception of small groves
which invariably surround the churches”.
♦ Plowden, who was British counsel for Ethiopia from 1848 to 1860, described the vast region from Tigray to
Gojjam as fertile, but he noted the lack of large timber in the region except "the great sycamore (Ficus
sycomorus) and species of cedar (Juniperus procera) growing around the church". Adding to his observation,
Plowden (1868) noted " The first thing probably that will strike the traveller in Abyssinia is the almost entire
absence of high trees, except immediately surrounding the churches, which nearly all the conspicuous elevations,
built on become from this fact, visible at great distances, and generally guide the wearied stranger to some hamlet
in the neighborhood".
♦ Markham, secretary of the Royal Geographical Society of Britain, who accompanied the British military
expedition to Ethiopia in 1867-68, observed trees confined to churchyards in Adigrat (Tigray), and that Wadla
(Wello/Gonder) was treeless with the exception of clumps of Kosso (Hagenia abyssinica) and other trees around
the churches.

Although the main purpose of churches is as places for worship, burials and meditating religious festivals,
they also provide valuable (and often unique) and secured habitats for plants and animals, as well as
microorganisms and green spaces for people to rest the stressed mind. Church compounds are the
monasteries of trees and other biodiverse resources where one can animate trees escaped from being
destroyed forever under the shelter of the church value and esteem. Many indigenous trees and shrubs,
which in some places were destroyed completely over the last century, are still found standing in the
compounds of remote rural churches (Asseged and Taye unpublished; Taye Bekele 1998). The area of
forest cover preserved by the Ethiopian Orthodox churches in some parts of the country has been
estimated. For instance the very many churches existing in Tigray are estimated to contain about 660
hectares of forest. These patches of forests are used as sources of seeds for raising seedlings in nurseries
(TFAP 1996).

In other words, church compounds are serving as in situ conservation and hot spot sites for biodiversity
resources, mainly indigenous trees and shrubs of Ethiopia, which in turn give prestige for the religious
sites. As a result, these forests are sanctuaries for different organisms ranging from microbes to large
animals, which have almost disappeared elsewhere (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).

Historically, most of the church forests were destroyed and burned with the churches and other precious
heritages by the anti-Christian expedition led by Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim (generally known as ‘Gragn’ meaning
‘left handed’) in the beginning of the 16th century. After ‘Gragn’ was killed in 1543, most of the churches
and monasteries were reconstructed together with their forests (Aymro Wondmagegnehu and Motovu
1970). Some scholars have written that one third of the land of Ethiopia, with all its resources, used to
belong to the church before the 1974 Revolution (Cohen and Weintraub 1975). Out of that land holding, a
smaller proportion of it was known to be forestland. In the process of nationalization of private properties
during the socialist regime (Proclamation No. 31 of 1975), the EOTC was left without its land holdings,
including the forests, which have been preserved for centuries. The fate of those forests was ruthless

3
exploitation and destruction, which in turn brought a severe reduction in biological diversity and ecological
imbalance as well (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).

1.4. Religion and Forests/Trees at Global Level

Trees surrounding debr and geddam are synonymous with the term sacred groves in most literature. The
tradition of the sacred grove is well known in Ethiopian tradition as well, be it in the experience of
traditional religion (e.g. the Oromo sacred tree or the adbar) or in the clump of trees that customarily
envelope the Christian Debr (Bahru Zewde 1997).

Sacred groves are smaller or larger ecosystems, set aside for religious purposes. The origin of sacred
groves can be attributed to the slash and burn system of agriculture, where several forest patches were left
standing around farmlands. These groves came to be institutionalized as centers for culture and religious
life (Gadgil and Vartak 1976). Taboos and social sanctions protect the sacred groves from deterioration
due to human interference. These habitat patches may be the only primary forests remaining locally.
Several relict, endemic and endangered species have been recorded from sacred groves. Sacred groves,
which form examples of in situ conservation sites and act as a refuge for species, are becoming
ecologically important in the light of the current rates of deforestation and species loss. They buffer against
the depletion of genetically adapted local variants and overall biodiversity in a region. They can serve as
important recruitment areas to surrounding ecosystems. Sacred groves are of great economic significance
too. Some of the species, so preserved, are already known to be of considerable value for the
pharmaceutical industry, timber, and non-forest products while others could acquire importance in the
future (Colding and Folke 1997; King et al. 1997; Pandey and Kumar 2000).

At the global level, sacred groves are well recognized and have been reported from Afro-Asian countries
like Nigeria, Ghana, Syria, Turkey, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and India (Appiah-Opoku and
Mulamoottil 1997; Chandrashekara and Sankar 1998; Sibanda 1997). The doctrine of the religions behind
those sacred groves may vary but ultimately the experience of conserving trees in the name of religion is
apparent worldwide. Thus, trees not only meet the economic and ecological needs of the people, but also
form an integral part of their culture and spiritual tradition.

1.5. Ethnoforestry
Ethnoforestry is the creation, conservation, management and utilization of forest resources by local
communities through traditional practices and belief (Pandey 1999; Pandey and Kumar 2000). It is not to
be confused with participatory forestry or joint forest management. Ethnoforestry represents the traditional
ecological wisdom of indigenous peoples of the world. Protection offered to habitats is classified as
protection (conservation) ethnoforestry. Traditional methods of regeneration of livelihood species by
people are classified as plantation ethnoforestry. While traditional methods of growing trees and crops in

4
farmlands are called ethnoagroforestry. Amongst the different forms of protection ethnoforestry: Sacred
groves, Sacred trees, Temple forests and Sanctified forests are more related to religions and beliefs of the
local community in different parts of the world.

1.6. Problem Statement and Justification

Examination of the contribution of the sacred forests to biodiversity conservation offer perspectives on the
sacred forests as a model for environmental protection (Camara 1994). Thus the role of natural sacred sites,
particularly sacred groves, is attracting increasing interest in international organizations and conservation
organizations such as UNESCO and the WWF. They have significant relevance for the implementation of
Section 15.4.j of Agenda 21 of the Conservation of Biological Diversity which stresses more on the use of
traditional wisdom and practices for conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity (Agenda 21
1992; Chandrashekara and Sankar 1998).

To study and manage human dominated and influenced ecosystems effectively, it is essential to (not just
intuitively) understand human behavior or activity (Dompka 1996). To understand human behavior, it is
necessary to disclose the underlying mechanisms. Many studies have reported that human behavior is
influenced by demographic factors (Liu et al. 1999), social factors (tradition, culture, perception, intention,
choice, value system, wants, needs) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), economic factors (production,
consumption) (Ehrlich 1988), and ecological factors (forest conditions and the like) (Pebley 1998). In this
regard Liu (2001) argues that, the lack of integrating ecological-demographic-socioeconomic-behavioral
factors leads to failures in understanding and solving real-world problems.

The sustainable use of environmental resources stems from a combination of two factors: (1) the
possession of appropriate local knowledge and suitable methods or technology to exploit resources, and (2)
a philosophy and environmental ethics to keep utilization abilities in check and to provide ground rules by
which the relationships between humans and environmental systems remain sustainable (Appiah-Opoku
and Mulamoottil, 1997; Sadler and Boothroyd 1993).

Deforestation in the northern highlands of Ethiopia, specifically in South Gonder, is becoming an

unstoppable process dating back many hundreds of years. In fact, nowadays there is no extensive natural
forest cover in the area except remnants and patches mainly around churches and inaccessible areas. In
much of the landscape of northern Ethiopia, the lush vegetation on the hillsides surrounding a church or a
monastery presents a sharp contrast to the surrounding bare ridges and mountain slopes. They are the only
localities covered by tree vegetation and not affected by gully erosion (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished).
The term deforestation may refer to a wider forest area clearance, but can still be applicable for South
Gonder, as the rate is very rapid relative to the existing forestlands. Plantations established with many
efforts were destroyed overnight during the government change and even the remaining ones are under
encroachment at present. Ultimately, the size of the forest patches and the number of trees in the whole

5
landscape is decreasing from year to year, with no regeneration option, rather subsequent soil depletion
and land degradation. Preserving the remnant indigenous woody species in concrete ground before their
entire elimination is, undoubtedly, an urgent task.

The management and conservation of forests and trees in the whole landscape has been a very challenging
task as none of the 'externally' designed systems, approaches and dominant conservation paradigms
imported and tried halted deforestation (Dessalegn Rahmato 2001). Moreover, most of the approaches tried
have been indifferent to the traditional institutions’ principles and customs. In the course of carrying out
environmental conservation activities, important local traditional institutions that should have been taken
into partnership were alienated due to a lack of insensitivity towards them that led to mishandling relations
(Yeraswork Admassie 1995).

Thus, it is time to take the opportunity of the locally and traditionally tested conservation systems in order
to conserve and maintain the vanishing and endangered woody species’ diversity resources and ecosystem
in the area mentioned. In this perspective, this study attempts to look into tree conserving traditions of the
EOTC, which has been successful in resisting the flood of deforestation for many decades in the area.

Despite what the EOTC has done to conserve a significant proportion of the forests in the country, the
church does not receive the recognition and support it deserves (Taye Bekele et al. unpublished). Thus, we
have to recognise this tradition as an opportunity and explore possibilities of using it in future conservation
programs. In order to explore the strength and opportunity of this tradition, the significance of the resource
we have in these churches and monasteries should be known. The philosophy behind conserving these
resources and the prospect of adopting these values and ethics to expand the forest resource base should be
studied and pointed out, which is the main concern of this paper.

2. CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

2.1. Conceptual Framework
This section attempts to conceptualize the main concepts involved in the present study.

2.1.1. Indigenous Institutions

In general terms, institutions are a set of complex norms regulating the action of persons in the process of
social interaction. According to the Encyclopedia Americana (1963) they are aspects of the structure of a
social system.

While presenting the issues of institutions in this study, it is strongly focused on the concepts of
‘Indigenous Institutions’. They represent established local systems of authority and other phenomena,
derived from the sociocultural and historical processes of a given society. They originate from local

6
cultures, have firm roots in the past, and are variously referred to as informal, pre-existing, or native
institutions (Appiah-Opoku and Hyma 1999; Appiah-Opoku and Mulamoottil 1997). For the purpose of
this study, indigenous institutions are viewed to occur at the local or community level, reflecting the
knowledge and experiences of the local people. In contrast, ‘Non-Indigenous or Formal Institutions’ are
established via forces external to a given community, and are characterized by functional and structural
arrangements that are fairly standard.

The nature and organization of indigenous institutions revolve around three principles: behavioral
alternatives, goal orientation and social norms (Apter 1968; cited in Appiah-Opoku and Hyma 1999).
Environmental ethics and practices in indigenous societies are often rooted in these abstract principles.
Thus, it is argued here that indigenous institutions can serve as entry points in the search for local options
and broad-based approaches to the management of natural resources.

2.1.2. Religion

Religion doesn't have a universally agreed definition. It may vary from the perspective of background,
profession, attitude, etc. The Encyclopedia Americana (1963) defines religious philosophy as “a rational
reflection on the nature of religion and on the meaning and truth of man's beliefs about a divine reality”.

Whatever definition religion may have, in this paper it is attempted to conceptualize its meaning from a
functionalist approach. As its name indicates, a functionalist definition is one that lays stress on the
functions rather than the belief content of religion. The functionalist contends that what is essential in
religion is the role it plays in society, the way in which religion serves to bind together the members of a
community into one coherent whole. This makes a functionalist definition true to the etymology of
religion, which may stem from the Latin ‘relgiare’ ('to bind'). A recent functionalist definition is found in
the work of J.M. Yinger (Clack and Clack 1998). Yinger's claim is that what distinguishes a religious
institution from a non-religious institution is its concern with the ultimate. These utilitarian (an action is
right from its function and wrong otherwise) and ultimate concerns are perennial factors in the human
condition, which no amount of good governance could achieve. Thus he defines religion as “a system of
beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with these ultimate problems of life”.

In religion, there are commandments and ethical elements, which are to be observed through which the
salvation is completed. It is a powerful factor in elevating the object of worship, the religious relation and
the religious life. Through the commandments and ethics within the religion, the sphere of the sacred is
enlarged and committing life to these rules is an aspect of the religious vocation, ethical duty and a
religious obligation. On the other hand, when the notion of divine personality or ability to be committed to
the commandments and ethics is weak or lacking, commandments and ethics inevitably assume a worldly
or negative character (Encyclopedia Britanica 1964).

7
 2.1.3. Biodiversity

Biodiversity can be defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources and the ecological
systems of which they are a part; this includes compositional, structural and functional diversity at
regional-landscape, ecosystem-community, species-population or genetic level (Gove et al. 1994;
Heywood et al. 1995). As the definition implies, biodiversity is a very wide notion. Not withstanding the
breadth of the concept of biodiversity, diversity of species remains its most frequently and widely applied
measure (Gaston, 1996; Heywood, et al. 1995). Thus this paper focuses on the species level particularly on
woody species diversity level.

The values, driving forces and human influences as well as the measure for the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity, vary greatly within and between cultures. This aspect of biodiversity is,
therefore, sometimes referred to as cultural diversity, recognizing the important role of sociological,
ethical, religious and ethnobotanical values in human activities. The importance of this interdependence is
now beginning to be recognized again in traditional resource management systems in many developing
countries (Gaston 1996).

When we deal with biodiversity conservation and management, we do have different methods and tools to
achieve this. One of these approaches is the in situ conservation system around which this paper spines
about. The in situ approach includes methods and tools that protect species, genetic varieties and habitats
within the evolutionary dynamic ecosystems of the original habitat or natural environment. It involves the
establishment or management of protected areas such as strict nature reserves (wilderness areas, national
parks, national monuments) natural landmarks, habitat/species management areas, protected landscapes
and seascapes and managed resource protected areas (IUCN, 1994 in Gaston 1996).

2.1.4. Sustainability and Conservation of Natural Resources

Conservation is the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable
benefit to current generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future
generations. Thus, conservation is positive, embracing preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization,
restoration, and enhancement of the natural environment. Here, sustainability is a key factor in conserving
and utilizing natural resources such as forest, and refers to the aspiration of the current generation without
compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generations.

Sustainability in natural resource management has three dimensions: Environmental, Economical and
Social. Social sustainability reflects the relationship between development and social norms. An activity is
socially sustainable if it confirms with social norms, or does not stretch them beyond a community's

8
tolerance for change, which entirely needs the genuine participation of the local society and its institutions
(Upton and Bass 1995).

2.2. Theoretical Perspective

The world today is pre-occupied with the search for sustainable development, including the sustainable use
of resources, economic sustainability and social sustainability (Sibanda 1997). As a contribution towards
finding a lasting solution, strategies are being drawn up and many ideas are being tested. National
legislation, international conventions and agreements are being made in an attempt to address
unsustainable consumer patterns and consumerism in general. The world is still far from finding that magic
solution or formula. While some progress is being made, the overall picture remains gloomy.

The main reason for the failure in natural resource conservation is due to the adoption of external
technology with new institutional arrangements and overlooking the existing tradition. For obvious
reasons, policy makers, in developing countries are drawn towards international environmental
prescriptions that have much stronger links with western science and policy, than with the socio-economic
and institutional conditions in their nations. Giddens (1990) refers to this phenomenon as
phantamorgoriscism. In conditions of modernity, places become increasingly phantasmagoric, i.e. locales
are thoroughly penetrated by, and shaped in terms of social influences quite distinct from them (Giddens
1990; Powell 1998). Thus, the potential contribution of indigenous institutions to environmental
assessment in these developing countries has often been overlooked. This is not strange (Appiah-opoku
and Mulamoottil 1997).

In the worst case, the local institutions and traditions with accumulated knowledge and experience, are
considered as hindrance for development and conservation of natural resources. The western concept of
‘‘development’’ is widely interpreted as necessitating change, and it is often characterized as a movement
from the old or archaic to the new, or from traditional to modern ways of life. That which is old and
unchanged is reflexively categorized as underdeveloped. Based on this notion, indigenous institutions and
indigenous life-styles are often regarded as clear signs of underdevelopment and as obstacles to socio-
economic advancement. They are erroneously viewed as excessive baggage that is borne by society with
no relationship to its basic processes of self-preservation except in so far as it disrupts them (Dove 1990).
Views of nature by native or indigenous peoples have too often been unjustly viewed as somehow
inherently simple, primitive, or naive, reflective of an earlier. Therefore, considered as inferior stage in
human cultural progress; and beyond this, however poetic or endearing, as completely irrelevant to our
sophisticated modern needs and times (Knudtson and Suzuki 1992). Accordingly, one ubiquitous element
in development and conservation planning is the depreciation and attempted alteration or elimination of
indigenous cultures or life-styles (Appiah-opoku and Mulamoottil 1997; Dove 1990).

9
In reality, development does not mean a wholesale and blind acquisition of symbols or signs of modernity.
Nor does it imply that everything about indigenous life-styles must be rejected in favor of an alien or
modern system. Instead, development implies building on existing ways of doing things to make the
processes more sustainable. The search for sustainable development and the conservation of natural
resources must consider and examine the role of indigenous institutions and their ecological knowledge in
environmental conservation and local sustainability (Fig. 1).

Hence, there has to be a reversal in thinking and approach in a natural resource conservation and
management from modernist to a social-constructionist paradigm (Fig. 1). The social constructionist
approach is predicated on the assumption that the terms by which the world is understood are social
artefacts, products of historically situated interchanges among people (Gergen 1985 cited in Denzin &
Lincoln 1994). The fact and problem of deforestation is multiple; there is no single reality. Reality is the
result of the social processes accepted as normal in a specific context, and knowledge claims are
intelligible and debatable only within a particular context or community (Fish 1989 cited in Denzin and
Lincoln 1994). The society has constructed a fact about deforestation and has formulated its solution
through the local institution. However, the ultimate outcome is still the same to the modernist approach.

Constructivists are deeply committed to what we take to be objective knowledge and truth is the result of
perspective. Knowledge and truth are created, not discovered by mind. They emphasise the pluralistic and
plastic character of reality- pluralistic in the sense that reality is expressible in a variety of symbol and
language systems; plastic in the sense that reality is stretched and shaped to fit purposeful acts of
intentional human agents (Denzin & Lincoln 1994).

As religion is one of the strong and powerful indigenous institutions, religious perspective towards
conservation, the past and present experience in the field of interest should coincide to our planning and
objective settings if sustainability is to be achieved. If EOTC is taken as an entry point, it can be argued
that success begins there. Because it will have a cumulative knowledge of thousands of years, experiences
of many people, wisdom of the spirit mediums, the wise council of elders and the able leadership of
religious leaders, institutions in managing and conserving resources and strong sanctions and ‘gizet’ for
outliers (Sibanda 1997).

Sibanda (1997) also claims that African philosophy on resource utilisation and environmental protection is
spiritually based. Major conservation efforts and the control of resource use were/are influenced by this
spirituality. Religious beliefs and taboo systems are at the centre of life as a whole. Africans’ spiritual
world-view creates respect for nature, reverence for mountains, forests, animals and rivers. Out of
reverence is born conservation and from it sustainable resource utilisation practices. One can prove how
nature can be respected through religion by looking at the very many EOTC and monasteries in Ethiopia.

10
Therefore, the social constructivist paradigm was employed as the main interpretative to look into the
problem, complementary to this, methodologies belonging to the positivist tradition such as, quantitative
survey data and other forms of statistical analysis were used to diversify perspectives and so in turn make
the overall study more rigorous.

11
 Problem Perception
Socially constructed perspective

Super natural God

Disapproval & Anger Punishment

Drought
Deforestation in Disaster
churchyards

Consequence
Ecological
Disturbance

Modern or Ecologist perspective

Solution Perception
Socially constructed perspective

Sacred and Holy Religious Customs & Norms

Local Institutions

Tested

Preservation
Trees and other bio- &
resources in church Sustainability Conservation
yards

Ecologically Viable
& Scientific Principles &Legal control
Functional 'Formal' Institution

Modern or Ecologist perspective

Figure 1. Alternative paradigms for the problem and solution at hand

3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study attempts to address the following pertinent questions:

♦ What is the extent / size of the Forest area and standing stock under the church?
♦ What is the diversity of the species, i.e. species richness and evenness and what is the regeneration
status of the species?

12
♦ What benefits were obtained, and what benefit can be exploited from church groves?
♦ Are there any management practices in tending and utilization of those trees?
♦ What is the significance of EOTC in maintaining the forest resources of the area/country?
♦ What is the attitude of the church scholars towards the forests in the yards of churches?
♦ What is the attitude of different groups of the local community towards the forests in the yards of
churches?
♦ How/Why does the church preserve the forests?
♦ What are the opportunities of churches in the conservation of forest resources?
♦ What are the threats to churches in their endeavours to conserve forest resources?

4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The overall objective of this study was to assess the opportunity and prospect of the EOTC in conserving
natural forest resources and the associated woody species diversity in Ethiopia. The specific objectives of
the study were to:

♦ Study the diversity and regeneration status of woody species in forests found around selected
churches;
♦ Carry out a socio-economics survey that would enable to understand the philosophy, guiding
principles, opportunities, constraints and prospects of the EOTC in the conservation of forest
resources in general and woody species in particular; and
♦ Forward recommendations that could help to enhance the role of EOTC in the conservation of
forest resources and the associated biodiversity in the country.

13
5. MATERIALS AND METHODS
5.1. Study Area
The study was conducted in South Gonder Administrative Zone (SGAZ), which is one of the
Administrative Zones in the Amhara National Regional State (Fig. 2). Its geographical location is between
110 02′ - 120 33′ N and 370 25′ - 380 41′ E with an altitude range of 1500-4231 m. The capital town,
DebreTabor is located 600 km North of Addis Abeba. SGAZ has an area of about 14,299 km2 of which
about 9% is classified under ‘Kolla’ (500 –1500 masl), 73% under ‘Woynadega’ (1500-2300 masl), 16%
under ‘Dega’ (2300- 3200 masl) and 2% under ‘Wurch’ (> 3200 masl) Agro-Climatic Zones. SGAZ has 10
Administrative Districts, known locally as ‘Woredas’ with a total population of 2,050,539. Of the total
population, 1,041,373 are male and 1,009,166 female. The average family size is about five (2001 census).
In SGAZ, there are 1404 churches, and 95% of total population is member of the EOTC (SGAZDPED
unpublished).

The rainfall is characterized by a bimodal distribution with the major rainy season being from June-August
and the ‘Belg’ from March-May. The annual average rainfall varies between 400 –700 mm and the annual
average temperature ranges between 9.3 - 23.7o C. The topography comprises uneven and ragged
mountainous highlands, extensive plains and also deep gorges. It is one of the degraded and eroded areas
in the region. The common soil types are Vertisol, Cambisol, Rigosol, Liptosols, Flovisols and Arenosols.

According to the Zonal Department of Agriculture (SGAZDA unpublished) the total forest cover in SGAZ
is 20,882 ha, comprising 16,660 ha of natural forest and 4222 ha of man-made plantations. The forest
cover accounts for only 1.4% of the total area of SGAZ. This figure does not include the forest resources
found in the yards of the EOTC. The common tree and shrub species found in the natural forests are listed
in Appendix 2. The common wildlife found in the area are: hare, duiker, common bushbuck, klipspringer,
anubis baboon, common genet, python, hyena, bush pig, serval, leopard, antelope, porcupine, civets,
vervet monkey, colobus monkey, and common jackal (SGZDA Unpublished).

5.2. Churches Selected for the Study

Eight churches were selected for the actual study from SGAZ in six Woredas. Most of the churches were
found surrounded by forests/trees. From top view position, the churchyards are almost circular in shape.
The churches are immediately surrounded by open space for worship and festivals, which in turn is
enveloped by the forest. In every EOTC, the graveyard is located at the southwestern side of the church in
the forest. Hence, the southwestern part of the forest is, somewhat, disturbed while the rest is intact. The
churches selected for the study are briefly described below.

5.2.1. Quar Debre Luel Kidus Michael

14
This church is found in Fogera Woreda, and was built in the 15th Century in the name of St. Michael. It is
located at 110 51′ N and 370 40′ E at an altitude of 1850 m. The church has 850 Christian household
members. The actual forest covers 3 ha. The church has a very large Eucalyptus woodlot and farmlands
surrounding the natural forest.

5.2.2. Zahara Debre Miheret Kidus Michael

This church is found in Dera Woreda, and was built in the middle of the 16th Century in the name of St.
Michael. It is located at 110 48′′ N and 370 34′ E at an altitude of 1934 m. The church has 250 Christian
household members. The actual forest area surrounding the church covers 8 ha. There is a ‘holy water’ in
the forest blessed by the church supposed to bless and protect those who use it against the powers of
darkness. The church administrator explained that the area was covered by water before the church was
built, which might be the extension of Lake Tana.

5.2.3. Gibtsawit Kidist Mariam

This church is found in Ebinat Woreda, and was built around the year 1620 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the
name of St. Mary. It is located at 120 07′ N and 380 05′ E at an altitude of 2290 m.a.s.l. The church has 350
Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 8.7 ha.

5.2.4. Dengolt Debre Medalhu Kidist Mariam

This church is found in Estie Woreda, and was built around the year 1300 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the
name of St. Mary. It is located at 110 36′ N and 380 04′ E at an altitude of 2500 m.a.s.l. The church has 400
Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 25 ha. This site is highly encroached by the
local and nearby town dwellers. According to the church scholars and dwellers, there are two sections of
the forest. The inner section, next to the church demarcated by a stone fence, is entirely forbidden for
animals while in the outer section of the forest, animals are free to rest under the shade. It is forbidden to
cut down trees. The Eucalyptus woodlot, which belongs to the church, had been established next to the
natural forest to compensate for what had been lost through encroachment.

5.2.5. Mekane Semayat Kidus Gelawdiwos

This church is found in Dera Woreda, and was built around the year 1500 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the
name of St. Claudius. It is located at 110 38′ N and 370 48′ E at an altitude of 2549 m.a.s.l. The church has
800 Christian household members. In this case, the main church is some 300 meters away from the edge of
the forest. The church scholar explained that the church was right in the middle of the forest in the past. A
new church (sub-parish) had been built on the other edge of the forest. The actual forest area comprises
100 ha. There is a ‘holy water’ in the forest blessed by the church supposed to bless and protect those who
use it against the powers of darkness. The local people allow their cattle in the forest to rest under the
shade of the trees to protect them from strong sunshine and storms. Bees produce honey at the main gate of
15
the church without being disturbed since the establishment of the church and the honey is believed to be
medicinal.

5.2.6. Hiruy Kidus Giorgis

This church is found in Farta Woreda, and was built in the year 360 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the name of
St. Gorge. It is located at 110 51’ N and 380 03’ E at an altitude of 2611 m.a.s.l. The church has 350
Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 4 ha, which is well protected by a fence from
outside encroachment. Bees make honey on the window of the church with out being disturbed, and the
honey is believed to be medicinal.

5.2.7. Debresena Kidist Mariam

This church is found in Farta Woreda built in the first half of the 16th in the name of St. Mary. It is located
at 110 51′ N and 370 59′ E with an altitude of 2690 m.a.s.l. The church has got 300 Christian households as
members. The actual forest area is 11.5 ha surrounding a sloping hill. Though the church building is under
maintenance the forest is still well protected.

5.2.8. Ascha Menbere Luel Kidus Michael

This church is found in Lay-Gaynt Woreda, and was built in the year 1940 (Ethiopian Calendar) in the
name of St. Michael. It is located at 110 43′ N and 380 28′ E at an altitude of 3100 m.a.s.l. The church has
200 Christian household members. The actual forest area covers 1.6 ha. This church has large Eucalyptus
woodlot surrounding the natural forest.

16
Figure 2. Map of the study Area

17
5.3. Methods of Data Collection
5.3.1. Sampling Design

The general sampling design for the vegetation census and socio-economic survey was a two-stage
sampling procedure. In the first stage, out of many churches found in SGAZ (referred to as population
here), 8 churches were selected purposively from the different agro-climatic zones (mainly based on
altitude). Since documents that show the distribution of churches in agro-climatic zones was not available,
post-stratification was employed (Shiver and Borders 1996). In the second stage, secondary units (referred
to as working units here) were selected within each primary sampling unit (selected churches/Debr). The
working units for the vegetation sampling were plots in the forested area and for the socio-economic study
the religious scholars and followers were considered.

5.3.2. Area of Forest Cover

The area of the forest cover at each church was calculated by employing traverse lines rounding the outside
border. The traverse was taken by using a compass to get a bearing, measuring tape and clinometer to
obtain the horizontal distance. Then the site was sketched on paper using a scale, and the area was
calculated by using a transparent grid. The area occupied by the church buildings and open spaces was
measured and subtracted from the total area to get the actual forest area. Moreover, the altitude and the
global position (longitude and latitude) were recorded for each church using an altimeter and GPS.

5.3.3. Vegetation census

For the vegetation census, parallel transects were laid out. The first transect was aligned randomly at one
side of the forest using a compass; then the others were laid systematically at 50 m intervals from each
other. Then, along the first transect line a 10 m X 10 m sample plot (working plot) was marked randomly
and then the same size of the plots were marked at 50 m intervals systematically on all other transects. A
compass and measuring tape were used to locate sample plots along the transects. Clinometer readings
were made on slopes to obtain horizontal ground distances between transects and sample plots. Two
measuring tapes bisecting at right angles over the center of the plot were laid out and used as a reference in
locating the four corners of the plot, and the square plot was fenced by using bright ribbon. Since the forest
at Mekane Semayat Gelawdeyus was so extensive, the transects and sample plots were laid at 100 m
intervals.

All woody plants, within the working units, were identified and recorded. However, exotic species data
was excluded from the whole analyses as the objective of the paper was to deal with indigenous woody
species. Plant identification was done by referring to the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea: volume 2, part 1
(Edwards, et al. 2000), Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea: volume 2, part 2 (Edwards, et al. 1995), Flora of
Ethiopia: volume 3 (Hedberg and Edwards 1989) and Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia (Azene Bekele

18
1993). For species that proved difficult to identify in the field, herbarium specimens were collected, dried
properly and transported to the National Herbarium at Addis Abeba University for identification. Diameter
(at 1.3 m above the ground unless there is abnormality) of all living woody plants having ≥ 10 cm were
measured using calipers and diameter tape. Trees with multiple stems at 1.3 m height were treated as a
single individual and DBH of the largest stem was taken. If the tree was buttressed and abnormal at 1.3 m,
the diameter was measured just above the buttress where the stem assumes near cylindrical shape. The
numbers of living stems and dead stumps were counted and recorded while the heights of all woody
species were measured using a hypsometer.

5.3.4. Socio-economic Survey

5.3.4.1. Attitude of the local community and Church Scholars

Semi-structured questionnaires were prepared to undertake the household survey. It was pre-tasted before
using it on a wider scale, and some improvement was made to the questionnaire. From each selected
church (primary sampling units) 5% of the church followers (adherents) were randomly chosen and
interviewed. Four churches were selected for the socio-economic survey in light of the short duration of
the study; accordingly 122 household heads, in the four churches, living close to the church forests, were
interviewed.

At least three church scholars were selected randomly and interviewed with open-ended questions. ‘Church
Scholars’ refers to the Priests, ‘Merigeta’ and other scholarly hierarchies and clergy that serve in that
specific church. Moreover, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and other PRA tools
(historical profile) were employed for each selected church.

5.3.4.2. Stakeholder Analyses

Stakeholders are persons, groups or institutions with interest in certain programs, activities or projects
(ODA 1995). Stakeholders analysis is an holistic approach or procedure for gaining an understanding of a
system, and assessing the impact of changes to that system, by means of identifying key stakeholders, and
their respective interests in the system. Accordingly, key stakeholders in forest resource conservation and
sustainable development activities and programs in the study area were:

♦ Administrative Bodies: The Peasant Association (at grass root level), Woreda and Zonal Council;
♦ Bureau of Agriculture: Development Agent (at grass root level), Woreda Office of Agriculture and
Zonal Department of Agriculture;
♦ Religious institutions: Debr/Single Church (at grass root level), Woreda Clergy Office and Zonal
Archbishop Office; and
♦ Elders and the community.

19
The common ground, conflicts and possible trade-offs among these stakeholders were seen in the
conservation tradition of the church and future option of taking this tradition for the development of in situ
conservation sites. Patterns of common ground between stakeholders were identified and shown as a basis
for management and proposal options.

5.3.4.3. SWOT Analysis and Secondary Information

SWOT analysis was also conducted to assess the strength, weakness, opportunity and threats of religious
institutions in biodiversity conservation.
Relevant secondary information for the study was also collected from various sources.

5.3.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study covers only a very few selected churches due to a shortage of time and financial constraints.
Nevertheless, it is hoped to provide valuable information and insight that can be of great importance for the
conservation of forest resources and the associated biodiversity in churchyards.

5.4. Methods of Data Analyses

5.4.1. Vegetation

5.4.1.1. Density, Basal Area, Regeneration Status and Similarity

The quantitative structure analysis was made using data from abundance, density and frequency
distribution of each species in the community. Abundance or density of species is defined here as the
number of individuals per given area basis while frequency refers to the number of times a species is
recorded in a given number of repeatedly placed sample plots or sample points (Kershaw 1964 cited in
Mueller-Dombois and Ellen berg 1974). The population structural analysis was made using data from
height class as well as diameter class distribution, referred to as size class distribution. The purpose of
looking at the size class distributions (height and diameter) was to enable to investigate the regeneration
status of the plants (Peters 1996). The height and diameter data were arranged in classes for convenience.

Basal Area (BA) was also calculated, only from plants with a diameter at breast height of ≥ 10 cm, by
using the formula:
πD 2
BA = ………………………………………..(1)
4
Where, D is the diameter of the plant at breast height.

To measure the similarity of churches in species composition, the binary similarity coefficient, which
employs presence/absence of species data in a community, was used. In this study Coefficient of Jaccard,
which is one of the most commonly used binary similarity coefficients (Krebs 1999), was employed.

20
The Coefficient of Jaccard (Sj) is expressed as follows:

a
Sj = ..……………..………………………..(2)
a+b+c
Where, a is the number of species that occur in both churches 1 and 2 (joint occurrences); b is the number
of species that occur in church 1 but not in church 2; and c is the number of species that occur in church 2
but not in church 1.The range of all similarity coefficients for binary data is supposed to be from 0 (no
similarity) to 1(complete similarity).

5.4.1.2. Species Diversity

Diversity, which is synonymous with heterogeneity (Hurlbert 1971 cited in Krebs 1999), comprises species
richness and evenness. Indices that combine both richness and evenness (Heterogeneity) into a single value
are diversity indices. The total number of species in a community is referred to as species richness while
species evenness or equitability explains as to how species abundance is distributed among species.
Diversity has emerged as the most widely used criterion to assess the conservation potential and ecological
value of a site (Magurran 1996).

A. Species Richness

As a measure of species richness, the number of species in a community or sample, S and also two non-
parametric estimators of species richness, the Chao1 and the first order jackknife were used (Gimaret-
Carpentier et al. 1998; Krebs 1999).

The first Chao index (C) is given by:

a2
C= S+
2b …………………..………………………..(3)
The first order Jackknife index (J) is given by:

 (P − 1) 
J= S+k  P  ……....…..……....……….…..(4)
 
Where, S is the number of species found when all sample plots are pooled; a is the number of species that
are represented by a single individual (singletons); b is the number of species that are represented by two
individuals (doubletons); k is the number of species that occur in only one sample plot (unique); and P is
the number of plots sampled.

B. Species Evenness
21
Evenness measures attempts to quantify unequal representation against a hypothetical community in which
all species are equally common (Krebs, 1999). The Evenness or Equitability (E) was quantified by
expressing Simpson's index, 1/D (λ) (where D = Index of dominance), as a proportion of the maximum
possible value λ would assume if individuals were completely evenly distributed among the species. In fact
λmax = S.

The Species Evenness or Equitability (E) is given by:

λ 1 1 λ
E= = s X = ……………(5)
λ max ∑ Pi
2
S S
i =1

Where, S is the number of species found when all sample plots are pooled; Pi is the proportion of total
individuals in the ith species.

Equitability assumes a value between 0 and 1, i.e. it takes a maximum value of 1 when all species in a
sample are equally abundant and then decreases to zero as the relative abundance radiates away from
equitability.

The Shannon-Wiener’s equitability or evenness (J) Index (Krebs 1989) was also quantified for comparison
as follows:
S
− ∑ Pi ln Pi
H′ i =1 H′
J= = = ……………....(6)
H′ max ln S ln S

Where, H' is Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index; S is the number of species found when all sample plots are
pooled; Pi is the proportion of total individuals in the ith species.

C. Heterogeneity

The Heterogeneity or Diversity was measured by Simpson’s Diversity Index that is commonly referred to
as the dominance measure and Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (Begon et al. 1990), which is also referred
to as the information statistic index.

Simpson's Dominance Index (D) is expressed as:

22
 s 2

D= ∑P
i =1
i .………………………………………………..(7)

Where, S is the total number of species in the community (i.e. the richness); Pi is proportion of total
individuals in the ith species.

Since the communities assessed were finite (because of counts of individuals in the samples), to get an
unbiased estimator (Krebs, 1999), the following formula was used:

 ni(ni − 1) 
D = ∑  N (N − 1) ………………..…………………………(8)
 
Where, ni is the number of individuals in the ith species and N is the total number of individuals.

D is the Index of Dominance while the Index of Diversity (λ) is the inverse of D, i.e. 1/D. Index of
Diversity (λ) varies from 1 to s (the number of species in the sample). In this form, Simpson's diversity can
be most easily interpreted as the number of equally common species required to generate the observed
heterogeneity of the sample (Krebs 1999).

The Shannon-Wiener’s Diversity Index (H’) is expressed as:

H' = - ∑P ln p
i =1
i i
…..……………….……………(9)

Where, H' is the Index of Species Diversity, S is the number of species; Pi is the proportion of total
individuals in the ith species.

The Shannon-Wiener Index (H’) increases with the number of species in the community and, in theory, can
reach a very large value (Krebs 1999). The Shannon-Wiener Index can be interpreted as the average degree
of uncertainty in predicting to what species an individual chosen at random from a collection of S species
and N individuals would belong. It can be zero if there is only one species in the sample and takes a
maximum value of LnS for a given number of species (S), when the same number of individuals represents
all species.

The variance of H’ was calculated (Magurran 1996) by

∑ P (ln P ) − (∑ P ln P )
2
i i
2
i i S −1
VarH’= - .................................10
N 2N 2
23
This allows to test the significance difference between two samples

H '1 − H ' 2
t= 1
.................................................11
(VarH '1 −VarH ' 2 ) 2

The Degrees of freedoms (df) were calculated by

(VarH '1 −VarH ' 2 )

2

df =
[(VarH '1 )2 / N1 ]+ [(VarH '2 )2 / N 2 ] .........................................12
Where, H’1 is the diversity of sample 1; N1 is the number of individuals in sample 1; H’2 is the diversity of
sample 2; and N2 is the number of individuals in sample 2.

5.4.1.3. Species Area Curve

The species area curve was drawn by using the number of species accumulated data versus the number of
quadrats. The purpose of drawing the curve was to check whether sufficient sample was taken to record all
the species of the study site.

5.4.1.4. Ordination

Ordination is the arrangement of vegetation samples in relation to each other in terms of their similarity of
species composition and/or their associated environmental controls (Kent and Coker 1992). The vegetation
data were ordinated into different plant groups by an ordination technique using CANOCO (Canonical
Correspondence) computer software (ter Braak 1985). After looking at alternative analytical techniques,
Correspondence Analysis (CA) was selected and used to get maximum egienvalues and better-stratified
groups. After transformation [with Log10 (x+1)], the abundance data of species from all sampled churches
was subjected to CA (ter Braak 1985). Since Acacia brevispica was an outlier, it was excluded from the
analysis.

In CA, points represent both sites and species, and each site is located at the center of gravity of the species
that occurs there. The data used for ordination was the species data found from all churches. Thus, each
point in the graph corresponds to a species, and the distance between points on the graph is an
approximation to their degree of similarity in terms of distribution with in the quadrats. Then, based on the
indirect gradient analysis technique, the factor altitude in this study was correlated to the distribution of
points (Kent and Coker 1992).

5.4.2. Socio-economic Survey

24
The content of the interviews and discussions with the key informants, focus groups, stakeholders,
observations and other qualitative data collected using the informal survey, were analyzed at the spot with
various groups and also analyzed later after coding and compiling the data. For semi-structured interviews
dependant and independent variables were determined. Accordingly sex, age, main occupation education
status and church affiliation were taken as independent variables and attitude related questions were taken
as dependent variables. Once these important dimensions and variables were determined, the results of the
semi-structured questionnaires were quantified and analyzed by χ2 test using the SPSS software (SPSS
1994).

25
6. RESULTS
6.1. Vegetation
6.1.1. Species Composition, Density, Basal Area and Similarity

A total of 97 different indigenous woody species representing 57 plant families and five exotic woody
species were recorded in the eight forest churches studied (Appendix 1). The total number of species and
families in each of the eight churches ranged from 22 and 18 at Ascha to 42 and 22 at Gelawdiwos,
respectively (Table 1). However, density and basal area did not follow the same trend as the total number
of species and families. Hiruy church had the highest density and basal area while Quar and Gibtsawit
exhibited the lowest density and basal area respectively (Table 1). In terms of the number of live stems,
with more than 10 cm diameter at breast height (DBH), Debresena ranked first and Zahara last (Table 1).
The highest number of dead stumps was recorded at Gibtsawit (130) while Hiruy had the lowest number of
dead stumps (Table 1). It is interesting to note that the lowest number of dead stumps was recorded at
Hiruy, which had the highest basal area, and the highest number of dead stumps was recorded at Gibtsawit,
which had the lowest basal area (Table 1). In four of the churches a total of five exotic woody species were
encountered (Table 2).

Table 1. Area of forests (ha), number of species and plant families, total Density (individuals/ha),
basal area (m2/ha) as well as numbers of live stems/ha (DBH ≥ 10 cm) and dead stumps/ha found in
the eight churches.
Church Area of Species Families Density Basal Area Live Stems Dead
Forest Stumps
Gelawdiwos 100 42 29 1109 52 352 32
Dengolt 25 36 28 1169 35 268 41
Gibtsawit 8.7 35 24 1110 25 490 130
Debresena 11.5 34 27 2141 45 1003 119
Quar 3 34 25 731 100 293 69
Hiruy 4 31 26 2250 110 507 29
Zahara 8 29 22 1186 50 227 41
Ascha 1.6 22 18 1289 28 786 128

The number of species and families common to all churches were only one and three, respectively.
Maytenus arbutifolia was recorded in all the study churches. However, the numbers of common species
and families increased as the churches were stratified in altitude (Table 3). Churches located below 2,300
m, i.e. Quar, Zahara and Gibtsawit, shared nine species and 12 families in common while those located
above 2300 m, i.e. Dengolt, Gelawdiwos, Hiruy, Debresena and Ascha, shared four species and six
families in common (Appendix 1).

The abundance, density and frequency of each species and the contribution of each species to the
community are summarized in Appendix 1. In all the churches, the most abundant individuals were trees
(Appendix 1).

26
Table 2. List, densities (individuals/ha) and basal areas (m2/ha) of exotic woody species recorded in
four of the church forests.
Church/Species Density Basal Area
A. Quar 46 5.0
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
B. Hiruy 314 2.0
Eucalyptus globulus
C. Ascha 114 3.1
Eucalyptus globulus
D. Zahara 51 Young individuals
Cajanus cajan
Casuarina equisetifolia
Eucalyptus camaldulenis
Melia azadrach

The highest similarity (Sj = 0.59) in species composition was found between forests at Dengolt and
Gelawdiwos churches and the lowest similarity (Sj = 0.04) was recorded between forests at Zahara and
Ascha (Table 3). In general, the similarities among the studied church forests were very low, with only five
among the 28 pairs of forests compared scoring Sj values above 0.50 while 15 (ca. 54%) out of the 28 pairs
of forests had Sj values below 0.20 (Table 3).

Table 3. Similarities in species composition among the eight churches determined by Jaccard’s
Similarity Coefficient.
Church Coefficient of Jaccard
Quar Zahara Gibtsawit Dengolt Galawdiwos Hiruy Debersena Ascha
Quar - 0.39 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.12 0.15 0.07
Zahara - - 0.17 0.21 0.29 0.16 0.18 0.04
Gibtsawit - - - 0.27 0.24 0.18 0.13 0.16
Dengolt - - - - 0.59 0.51 0.49 0.18
Galawdiwos - - - - - 0.51 0.55 0.12
Hiruy - - - - - - 0.57 0.17
Debersena - - - - - - - 0.14
Ascha - - - - - - - -

6.1.2. Species Diversity: Species Richness, Evenness and Heterogeneity

Both Chao’s and Jackknife Indices overestimated the species richness for all churches as compared to the
observed number of species (Table 4). According to Chao’s estimate, the highest number of species was
expected at Ascha (150), which had the lowest number of observed species (22); and the lowest at
Debresena (35); While Jackknife estimated the highest number of species at Quar, Dengolt and
Gelawdiwos (49) and lowest at Ascha (36) (Table 4). It can be noted that the forest area and number of
observed species have a positive correlation (r=0.73) (Table 1&4). The Simpson’s evenness indices for all
churches were below 0.5, the first rank being 0.46 (Quar) and last 0.18 (Zahara). It is interesting to note
that the Shannon-Wiener evenness Indices, on the contrary, were above 0.5 for all churches, the first being
0.82 (Quar and Gelawdiwos) and last 0.63 (Ascha) (Table 4). The highest Simpson Heterogeneity (15.7)
was recorded from Quar and lowest (5.3) from Zahara and Ascha; while the highest Shannon-Wiener
Heterogeneity (3.1) was recorded from Gelawdiwos and lowest (2.0) from Ascha (Table 4). The highest
and lowest Shannon-Wiener values were significantly different (P=0.0005).
27
Table 4. Different diversity indices of the eight church forests studied.
Diversity Indices Quar Zahara Gibtsawit Dengolt Gelawdiwos Hiruy Debresena Ascha
Species Richness
Observed species (S) 34 29 35 36 42 31 34 22
Chao 1 (C) 53 40 52 50 50 67 35 150
Jackknife 1 (J) 49 37 48 49 49 43 39 36
Species evenness
Simpson’s Evenness (E) 0.46 0.18 0.3 0.2 0.35 0.27 0.29 0.24
Shannon’s Equitability (J) 0.82 0.70 0.78 0.67 0.82 0.75 0.79 0.63
Heterogeneity
Simpson Diversity (λ) 15.7 5.3 10.5 7.1 14.7 8.51 9.9 5.3
Shannon-Wiener Diversity (H’) 3.0 2.4 2.8 2.4 3.1 2.6 2.8 2.0
Variance of H’ 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.0023 0.0022 0.0048 0.0018 0.024

6.1.3. Regeneration Status

6.1.3.1. Height Class Distributions

The height class distributions exhibited different trends from species to species within a church forest and
among church forests, even for the same species (Fig. 3). In all sampled church forests, 12 different groups
of height class distribution patterns of the species recorded were observed:

A. Species having a high proportion of individuals at the lowest class followed by a sharp decline at the next
class and no or very few individuals at the next higher classes (Fig. 4A); e.g. Bersama abyssinica (Dengolt),
Apodytes dimidiata and Prunus africana (Hiruy);

B. Species with the highest number of individuals at the lowest and a sharp decline at the next class followed by
a more or less gradual decrease towards the higher classes (Fig. 4B); e.g. Diospyros abyssinica (Quar) and
Euphorbia abyssinica (Gibtsawit);

C. Species with no individuals at the lower four classes and gradually increasing numbers of individuals at the
next two higher classes (Fig. 4C); Albizia schimperiana (Quar) and Schefflera abyssinica (Gelawdious);

D. Species with no or a few individuals at the lowest class and a gradual or sharp increase in the number
towards the medium class followed by sharp or gradual decline towards the upper classes (Fig. 4D); e.g.
Juniperus procera (Gibtsawit & Ascha), Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Gibtsawit), Euphorbia abyssinica
(Hiruy), Apodytes dimidiata, Dovyalis abyssinica, Olinia rochetiana, Pittosporum viridiflorum and Teclea
nobilis (Deberesena), Erica arborea and Osyris quadripartita (Ascha);

E. Species having the highest proportion of individuals in the lowest and/or second classes and no individuals
at the next two classes followed by a slight/gradual increase towards the upper classes (Fig. 4E); e.g.
Millettia ferruginea and Mimusops kummel (Zahara) and Prunus africana (Dengolt);

F. Species having individuals at only one of the height classes (Fig. 4F); e.g. Chionanthus mildbraedii (Zahara)
and Psydrax schimperiana (Gibtsawit);

G. Species having fewer individuals at the first class with the number showing a sharp increase at the second
class followed by a sharp drop at the next class and with no individuals at or above the third class (Fig. 4G);
e.g. Acokanthera schimperi (Gibtsawit), Teclea nobilis (Dengolt) and Combretum molle (Gelawdiwos);

H. Species having more or less the same number of individuals at the lower four height classes and a sharp
increase in the number at the next class followed by a decline in the last class (Fig. 4H); e.g. Juniperus
procera (Dengolt);

I. Species having no individuals at the lowest height class and a gradual increase in the number up to the fifth
class followed by a decline at the last class (Fig. 4I); e.g. Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gelawdiwos);

J. Species having no individuals at the lowest class and missing individuals at one or two of the other height
classes (Fig. 4J); e.g. Ekebergia capensis (Gelawdiwos and Hiruy).

28
 K. Species having two individuals each at only the fourth and fifth height classes (Fig. 4K); e.g. Podocarpus
falcatus (Gelawdiwos); and

L. Species having a higher number of individuals at lowest three height classes and a sharp decline to only one
individual at the next class, no individual at the fourth and only one individual at the sixth classes (Fig. 4L);
e.g. Dombeya torrida (Hiruy).

On the other hand, when pattern of the height class distribution of individuals of all the species in each of
the churches is considered, three categories can be recognized:

I. Church forests having a lower number of individuals at the lowest class and a sharp increase at the next class
followed by a sharp decline in the third class and a gradual decline thereafter; e.g. Quar, Gibtsawit, Dengolt,
Galawdiwos and Debresena;

II. Church forests having a higher number of individuals at the lowest class followed by a gradual decline in the
number towards the successive higher classes; e.g. Hiruy and Zahara; and

III. Church forests having very few individuals at the lowest class and sharp increases at the next two classes
followed by sharp declines towards the upper classes; Ascha.

29
Quar
C B I
Diospyros abyssinica All woody plants
Albizia schimperana

4 15 40

Number of individuals
Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

3 30
10
2 20
5
1 10

0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class Height class

Zahara
F E E
Chionanthus mildbraedii M illettia ferruginea M imusops Kummel

8 100
Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

10
6 80
8
60
Num ber of
individuals

6 4
4 40
2 20
2
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class Height class

II
All woody plants

150
Num ber of individuals

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class

30
 Gibtsawit G B D
Acokanthera schimperi Euphorbia abyssinica Juniperus procera

40 25 6

Number of individuals
Number of individuals

Number of individuals
20 5
30
15 4
20 3
10
2
10 5 1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class Height class

D F I
Olea europaea Psydrax schimperiana All woody plants

10 8 120
Number of individuals

Number of individuals
Number of individuals

8 100
6
80
6
4 60
4 40
2
2 20
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class Height class

Dengolt
A H G
Bersama abyssinica Juniperus procera Teclea nobilis

40 40 150
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

30 30
100
20 20
10 50
10
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class Height class

E I
Prunus africana All woody plants

20 400
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

15 300
10 200

5 100
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class

Gelawdiwos

31
 I G J
Chionanthus mildbraedii Commbretum molle Ekebergia capensis

20 80 5
Number of individuals

Number of individuals
Number of individuals
15 4
60
3
10 40
2
5 20 1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class Height class

K C I
Podocarpus falcatus Schefflera abyssinica All woody plants

2.5 4 250
Num ber of individuals
Number of individuals

Num ber of individuals

2 3 200
1.5 150
2
1 100
0.5 1 50
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height clas Height class Height class

Hiruy
A J
L
Apodytes dimidiata Dombeya torrida Ekebergia capensis

15 10 5
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

8 4
10
6 3
4 2
5
2 1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hight class Height class Height class

Euphorbia abyssinica
D Prunus africana
A All woody plants
II

8 100 200
Number of individuals
Number of individuals
Number of individuals

6 80 150
60
4 100
40
2 20 50

0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

Height class Height class Height class

Debresena
Apodytes dimidiata
D D Olinia rochetiana
D
Dovyalis abyssinica
um ber of individuals

um ber of individuals

um ber of individuals

10 40 15
8 30
6 32 10
20
4
5
2 10
0 0 0
 D D I

Ascha D
D D
Erica arborea Juniperus procera Osyris quadripartita

Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

25 15 5
20 4
10 3
15
10 2
5
5 1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class Height class Height class

All woody plants III

Num ber of individuals

40

30
20

10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Height class

Figure 3. Height class distribution of individuals of some selected species and all woody plants
encountered in each Church. Species or churches with a similar pattern are labeled with the same
letter or number. Height classes: 1= < 1 m; 2= 1-5 m; 3 = 5-10 m; 4 = 10-15 m; 5 =15-20m; 6 = ≥ 20m.

6.1.3.2. Diameter Class Distributions

33
Similar to the height class distributions, the diameter class distributions exhibited different trends from
species to species within a church forest and among church forests, even for the same species (Fig. 4). The
diameter class distributions of species revealed seven patterns (Fig. 4A-F) while diameter class
distributions of all individuals in each of the eight church forests showed a more or less similar pattern
(Fig. 4). The seven categories of diameter class distributions of species are:

A. Species having individuals only at the lowest class or the two lowest classes (Fig. 5A); e.g. Chionanthus
mildbraedii (Zahara), Acokanthera schimperi (Gibtsawit), Bersama abyssinica, Teclea nobilis (Dengolt),
Combretum molle (Gelawdiwos) and Apodytes dimidiata (Hiruy);

B. Species having a high proportion of individuals at the lowest class and a sharp decline at the next
class/classes followed by a gradual decline in the number of individuals towards the next classes (Fig. 5B);
e.g. Euphorbia abyssinica (Gibtsawit); Teclea nobilis (Deberesena) and Erica arborea (Ascha);

C. Species exhibiting more or less the same pattern as category ‘B’, but with missing individuals at one or
several of the classes (Fig. 5C); e.g. Diospyros abyssinica (Quar), Millettia ferruginea and Mimusops
kummel (Zahara), Juniperus procera (Gibtsawit & Dengolt), Prunus africana (Dengolt); Dombeya torrida
and Prunus africana (Hiruy);

D. Species having fewer individuals at the first class with the number showing a sharp increase at the next class
or two classes followed by a sharp drop at the next class and a gradual decline thereafter; all species except
one with missing individuals at one or two of the middle classes (Fig. 5D); e.g. Olea europaea subsp.
cuspidata (Gibtsawit), Apodytes dimidiata, Dovyalis abyssinica and Olinia rochetiana (Debresena);

E. Species having very few individuals at the lowest class and with no or fewer individuals in the next class
followed by a sharp increases at the next class or classes and a sharp decline thereafter (Fig. 5E); e.g.
Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gelawdiwos); Euphorbia abyssinica (Hiruy); Pittosporum viridiflorum
(Debresena) and Juniperus procera (Ascha);

F. Species having either no or few individuals at the lowest three classes and missing individuals at the next
four to seven classes followed by few individuals at the upper classes (Fig. 5F); Ekebergia capensis and
Schefflera abyssinica (Gelawdious) and Ekebergia capensis (Hiruy); and

G. Species having no or only one individual at the lowest diameter class/classes but a few individuals at only
one or two of the other diameter classes (Fig. 5G); e.g. Albizia schimperiana (Quar), Psydrax schimperiana
(Gibtsawit), Podocarpus falcatus (Gelawdiwos) and Osyris quadripartita (Ascha).

The diameter class distribution of all individuals in each of the churches followed the pattern
described in category ‘B’ above (Fig. 4)
Quar
G C i
Albizia schimperana Diospyros abyssinica All woody plants

4 15 80
Num ber of individuals

Number of individuals
Num ber of individuals

3 60
10
2 40
5
1 20

0 0 0
1

11

11
1

11

Diam eter class Diam eter class Diameter class

Zahara
A C
Chionanthus mildbraedii
C M imusops kummel
M illettea ferruginea

10 15 100
r of individuals

r of individuals
r of individuals

8 34 80
6 10 60
4 40
5
2 20
 i

Gibtsawit
A B C
Acokanthera schimperi Euphorbia abyssinica Juniperus procera

40 25 8
Number of individuals

a
Number of individuals
Number of individuals

30 20 6
15
20 4
10
10 2
5
0 0 0
1

11
1

9
11

11

Diameter class Diameter class Diameter class

Olea europaea
D G ii
Psydrax schimperiana All woody plants

10 5 150
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

8 4
6 3 100

4 2
50
2 1
0 0 0
1

11

11

11

Diameter class Diameter class Diameter class

Dengolt
A C A
Bersama abyssinica Juniperus procera Teclea nobilis

80 30 200
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

25
60 150
20 35
40 15 100
10
20 50
5
0 0 0
1

9
11

11

11
 C i

Gelawdiwos
E A F
Chionanthus mildbraedii Combretum molle Ekebergia capensis

10 80 2.5
Number of individuals

Number of individuals
Number of individuals

8 2
60
6 1.5
40
4 1
2 20 0.5
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1

11
1

11

Diameter class Diameter class Diameter class

G F i
Podocarpus falcatus Schefflera abyssinica All woody plants

5 2.5 400
Number of individuals
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

4 2 300
3 1.5
200
2 1
1 100
0.5
0 0 0
1

11
11

11

Diameter class Diameter class Diameter class

Hiruy
F
A C
Apodytes dimidiata Dombeya torrida Ekebergia capensis

20 25 5
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

15 20 4
15 3
10
10 2
5 5 36 1
0 0 0
1

9
11

11

11

Diameter class Diameter class Diameter class

 C i
E

Debresena
D D D
Apodytes dimidiata Dovyalis abyssinica Olinia rochetiana

8 60 20
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

50 Number of individuals
6 a 40
15

4 30 10
20
2 5
10
0 0 0
1

9
11

11

11
Diam eter class Diameter class Diameter class

E B i
Pittosporum viridiflorum Teclea nobilis All woddy plants

6 120 400
Number of individuals

Number of individuals

Number of individuals

5 100
300
4 80
3 60 200
2 40
100
1 20
0 0 0
1

9
11

11

11

Diameter class Diameter class Diameter class

Ascha
B E G
Erica arborea Juniperus procera Osyris quadripartita
Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

Num ber of individuals

25 10 8
20 8 6
15 6
4
10 4
2
5 2 37
0 0 0
11

11
1

9
11
1

Diam eter class Diam eter class Diam eter class

 i

Figure 4. Diameter class distribution of all woody plants in all plots and some of the major tree
species for all churches. Species with similar patterns are labeled with the same letter. Diameter
class: 1=<10 cm;2=10-20 cm;3=20-30 cm;4=30-40 cm;5=40-50 cm; 6=50-60 cm;7=60-70 cm;8=70-80
cm;9= 80-90 cm;10=90-100 cm; 11=≥100 cm.

6.1.4. Species Area Curve

The number of species at each church forest showed a relatively sharp increase initially with increasing
number of plots followed by a declining rate of increase (Figure 5). The exceptions to this trend were
forests at Quar and Ascha.

45
Cumulative No. Of Species

40 Quar
35 Zahara
30
Gibstawit
25
20
Dengolt
15 Gelawdious
10 Hiruy
5 Debresena
0
Ascha
1

13

17

21

25

29

33

37

41

45

49

53

Numbe r of Plots

Figure 5. Species area curve of the eight church forests studies.

38
 6.1.5. Ordination

The Correspondence Analysis ordinated the species recorded from all the churches into four groups (G1-
G4) (Fig. 6). These groups were:
♦ G1: characterized by the association of Hypericum revolutum- Erica arborea - Gnidia glauca- Myrsine
africana occurring above 3000 m;
♦ G2: characterized by the association of Olinia rochetiana-Ekebergia capensis-Dombeya torrida-Dovyalis
abyssinica-Podocarpus falcatus occurring between 3000 and 2300 m;
♦ G3: characterized by the association of Acokanthra schimperi-Euclea divinorum-Psydrax schimperiana-
Premna schimperi occurring 2300 and 2000 m; and
♦ G4: characterized by the association of Cordia africana-Croton macrostachyus-Millettia ferruginea-
Mimusops kummel-Olea europaea occurring below 2000 m.

The special feature, which is set almost at equal distance from the four communities, is brought by Juniperus
procera.
+8 Hyre Otto
Mase
.0 Erar Rune

Gngl Phov

Nuco Sesi
Asae Doan
Star
Olca
Eudi
Pssc
RhreOsqu Oleu
Clmy
Acsc
G3
Jagr Rhvu
Prsc
Roab

G1

Jupr

Fivam
Ptst Grfe
Ciau
Fi th Hiaf

G2 Caau Xiam Veam Ardo

ScabCaed
Clhi Clab Rhgl G4
Euab Fiva
Savi Dipe Cato

Bupo Acpu
Phdo Acab
Pivi Vemy Maar Jusc Coaf Ceaf Diab
Crma
Mysa Doto Stab Aral
Doab Fiov Beab Alsc Addi
- Figure 6. Ordination diagram of species from the Correspondence Analysis made using the species
Pofa Teno
Fisu Unsp Emsc Chmi
Mife
Astr Rhpr
Mala Bran Pisp
abundance data from all church forests.DrstThe Eigenvalues
Alab Apdi Urhy Praf
Como
Segi Rial for Coar
axisMiku1 &2 are 0.29 and 0.27 Meaz
2.respectively. The abbreviations on the figure are the combination of the first two letters of the genus
Olro Gasa
Erbr Clan Brmi
Caol

PhreEkca
0 and species name of the plants listed in Appendix 1.
-3.0 +9.0

39
6.2. Socio-Economics
6.2.1. Philosophy of EOTC in the Conservation of Forests

Church and monastery forests didn’t come in to existence by mere chance. Results from this study suggest
that, it is by the commitment and effort of the holy fathers and mothers based on a strong theological basis
and biblical thoughts. According to the prominent church scholars, including the Archbishop and the Holy
Scriptures of the church (The Holy Bible, King James Version), the main theological bases and religious
perspective in conserving forest resources were stated as follows:

™ The Church on the earth signifies and symbolizes the new heaven, the holy city, New Jerusalem
coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride, adorned for her husband. Thus, it
should have the same semblance and appearance as the Eden heaven was. The Holy Bible states
about Eden as “ And the Lord God planted a garden east-ward in Eden; and there he puts the
man whom he had formed. And out of the ground made the lord God to grow every tree that is
pleasant to the sight, and good for food…And a river went out of Eden to water the Garden; and
from thence it was parted, and became in to four heads. ” (Genesis 2: 8-10). Therefore, the
church like Eden was beautified with many plants, animals and other organisms and the holy
water/streams infinitely has been surpassing from these forests that was believed as proceeding
out of the throne of God. When the first man was placed in Eden there was a task given for him
along with the freedom and pleasure he had. That task was conservation and development of
nature as “ And the Lord God took the man, and put him in to the Garden of Eden to dress it and
to keep it” (Genesis 2: 15). The EOTC followers who are supposed to be the generation of Adam
and children of God should respect and exercise this dictate at least in the church compound if
not possible in the whole landscape.

™ In the creation history, in the beginning, the earth was without form, and void, before it was
prepared to a habitable state. In the preparation process, the Lord God created green plants in the
third day before he created the man on the sixth day. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth
grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself,
upon the earth: and it was so: ... and God saw that it was good” (Genesis 1: 11-13). The first
home for the first man was not an ivory house or a palace overlaid with gold and silver but a
garden furnished and decorated by nature, populated with flourishing and pleasant trees. The
shadow of the trees was his retirement, under them was his dining room; and this was so good
that King Solomon was not arrayed like them in his Kingdom. According to this holy statement,
forests and other plants were shown how they were necessary for human worldly life and
pleasure. It has also shown their right to exist in earth as long as man exists as they were created
in one of the days of the creation week. So, no one has the right to destroy them except the Lord
God who made them and armed with the biblical perspective, it would be suicidal to destroy
them by man whom they were created for.

™ Trees have a strong attachment with the failure of the first man and with the process of saving
human beings by the Lord Jesus Christ. “ And the Lord God commanded the man, saying, of
every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: but of the tree of the Knowledge of good and evil,
thou shalt thereof thou shalt surely die (Genesis 2: 16-17). Unfortunately, the first persons
violated the commandment and ate the special tree. The consequence was a curse. Later, based on
God’s promise, the Lord and the savior Jesus Christ came to save Adam and his generation. This
was done by Jesus’ holy blood, crucified on the holy cross-made of wood/special trees. Moreover
the ark of Noah by which, he, his family and a pair of female and male animals of all types of the
earth were saved from the evil destruction of water, was made of gopher wood (Genesis 6). Thus,
trees and other plants are integrated with the Christian’s religious life and their mere existence
reminds of all the ups and downs of human beings from creation till the end of this world.

™ Trees and forests have been symbolized on several occasions both, in the Old and New
Testaments of the Holy Bible, to remind prospects in the spiritual life of human beings with their

40
 presence and graceful habitation, and the contrary in their absence. In connection with these,
some interesting biblical words can be quoted about trees.

¾ “Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, Nor standeth in the way of
sinners, Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. But his delight is in the law of the Lord; and in
his law doth he meditate day and night. And shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water,
that bringeth forth his fruit in his season; his leaf also shall not wither; and whatsoever he
doeth shall prosper” (Psalm 1: 1-3).

¾ “O God! Thou art my God; early I will seek thee: My soul longeth for thee, how shall I stretch
my flesh in a dry thirsty land, where no tree and water” (Psalm 63: 1-2).

¾ “And by the river upon the bank thereof, on this side, on that side, shall grow all trees for meat,
whose leaf shall not fade neither shall the fruits thereof be consumed: it shall bring forth new
fruit according to his months that is twelve times in the year, because their waters they issued
out of the sanctuary, and the fruit there of shall be for food and the leaf for medicine” (Ezek
47:12).

¾ “I am the true vine, and my father is the husbandman. Every branch in me that beareth not fruit
he taketh away: and every branch that beareth fruit, he purgeth it, that it may bring forth more
fruit…. I am the vine, ye are the branches” (John 15: 1-5). In this statement it is shown that the
Lord and Savior Jesus Christ as a vine tree, believers as the branches and his relation to them as
the source of all their fruitful and spiritual life.

¾ “And he showed me a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the throne
of God and of the lamb. In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there
the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month; and the
leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations” (Rev 22: 1-2).

™ Churches and monasteries are holy places as they are houses of God. The forests/trees grown in
God’s compound are therefore considered as sacred. The trees in the compound are symbolic of
the presence of angels guarding the church. On top of this, they are precious heritages passed
from many generations with the sacrifice of holy fathers and mothers. They have got blessings of
many saints beneath their roots where their holy flesh rested in peace. Therefore, trees in the
compound are not to be cut unless for the purpose of the church itself and the land is not to be
ploughed.

™ Clearly, in the holy bible, the Lord God commanded to preserve and conserve forests/trees as
described in the following statements: “You shall not destroy the trees thereof by forcing an axe
against them, for thou mayest eat of them, and thou shalt not cut them down. Are trees in the
fields men that they should be besieged by you…?” (Deut. 20: 19).

Moreover, in many miracle books of saints and scriptures (the so-called ‘Gedel’, ‘Tamrie Mariam’ and
‘Dersan’) the importance of trees and their holy services are stated.

With the above theological and biblical justifications, trees and other natural resources were much
respected and taken care of for centuries by EOTC. In the natural conservation tradition of EOTC, trees are
much loved and cared for, but this doesn’t mean that trees were worshiped. According to the church
scholars, EOTC has been totally against worshiping trees.

6.2.2. Benefits of Churches from the Forests

Besides the spiritual and theological aspects, trees have several benefits for churches. The main benefits of
churches from the forests can be broadly categorized under products and services.

41
6.2.2.1. Products

Forests around or in the vicinity of churches offer various products summarized below.

™ The durable and strong woods of church forests are used to maintain and reconstruct the church buildings.
Moreover, architectural designs on roofs and walls of the church are made of major and minor products of the
forests.

™ Charcoal required for the internal church services are made of the woody plants in the forests.

™ Some selected trees and minor products are used for making sacramental and sacred utensils such as wine, oil,
incense, drums, crosses, plates, beads and prayer sticks for church services.

™ The fruits, leaves and other parts of some trees are used as food for monks, hermits and church students.
Moreover, some trees and other plants are used as sources of traditional medicine.

™ The churches generate income by selling dead and fallen trees/branches to the followers at a fair price.

™ Some of the plants are used to make ink and dyes, which are, in turn, used to write religious scriptures and
hymns, including the national history, on skins/hides and to draw holy pictures on the inner wall of churches.
Since the ink does not easily fade away, it is possible to read the old church books written many hundreds years
ago. Moreover, the outer cover of these books had been made of wood to increase their durability.

6.2.2.2. Services

The forests also offer a variety of services to churches, which are listed below.

™ They protect the church building from strong wind, storms and soil erosion since the churches were mostly built
on the tops of hills.

™ Forests serve as classrooms for the traditional church school and provide a quite shady environment.

™ Forests create privacy and tranquility for hermits and monks who are praying day and night.

™ They give shade and conditioned atmosphere whenever there are religious festivals and meditations outside the
church buildings.

™ Forests provide sweet and pleasant smells around churches, and create beautiful scenery, impression and
contemplation for prayers.

™ Forests give grace and esteem to churches and play a protective role. The church scholars and followers equate a
church without trees to a naked person. The majestic creation of church forests prompts the followers to fantasize
about how more beautiful and graceful their creator, i.e. God, could be.

™ They indicate the presence of churches in the area from a distance, reminding Christians passing by to bow,
which signifies the deep respect they have for the church of the Almighty.

™ Forests serve as platforms for followers to discuss religious and social issues. Moreover ‘Mahabber and
Senbetie’ (social institutions for making private feasts in the name of God, Saints, Angels) are enjoyed by the
followers with the poor and guests under the ameliorated shade of the forest.

™ Church forests are used as symbols and examples in the teaching and preaching of the Gospel. Moreover, most of
the church songs, hymns and canonicals (‘Satat’) are symbolized and exemplified with trees.

The church forests are primarily reserved for the church services based on the above stated theological
principles and benefits. However, there are some possible forest benefits allowed for the followers under

42
the permission and recognition of the church administrators where as some benefits are entirely forbidden
(Table 5). The strong remark here is that all possible benefits can be obtained only by permission and the
presence of the church scholars and/or administrators. In rare cases, i.e. whenever trees fall down due to
age or damage, the dead wood is sold to the followers at a fair price and at the same time, generates
income for the church. Similarly, though it is entirely forbidden to collect honey produced in the wild,
followers are allowed to hang their own beehives on the peripheral trees of the church to produce honey.

Table 5. Potential benefits to followers from forests that are either permitted or forbidden by
churches.
Potential Benefit Permitted Forbidden

Fuel wood a
Construction wood a
Fodder a
Tree seeds a
Seedlings (Wildings) a
Honey a
Medicine (Tree parts) a
Fruits a
Worldly recreation and enjoyment a
Spiritual contemplation and praying a

6.2.3. Mode of Protection of the Forests by Churches

Churches protect and conserve their forest resources by using two different methods, namely religious
sanctions and/or legal protection.

6.2.3.1. Religious sanctions

The main mode of protection is achieved through creating religious commitment and respect among the
followers. As the church is believed to be the house of God, everything in the compound is sacred and
respected. Every follower is expected to respect and protect the house of God together with the forest
enveloping the church. Cutting a tree in the church compound is considered as denying the presence of
God unless it is for the special purpose of the church. It is believed that cutting in and smuggling of trees
from the church compound would bring a curse and the one who did it is considered as a person who has
violated the Kingdom of God and would be alienated from the church communities. A person that cuts a
tree or even a dead branch for personal use would be presented to the church community/church scholars
and asked to repent and be committed not to repeat the mistake again. If the person fails to admit his/her
mistake voluntarily or makes the same mistake again, he/she would be alienated from the church
community and would not be entitled to services from the church. This sanction is known as ‘Gizet’.
Hence, since Orthodox Christians fear ‘Gizet’, they do not dare cut trees in church forests.

43
6.2.3.2. Legal Protections

Since churches and their forest resources are found in the world where there are different attitudes and
perspectives of people, they also use guards and the civil law to protect their forest resources. At present,
demand for wood is increasing, and religious perspectives are diversified. Therefore, since most of the
churches have assigned guards, encroachers and outlaws are caught and brought to the civil courts for the
appropriate measures. It was reported that though churches are primarily houses of God, they are also
houses looked after by the State, which provides the necessary legal protection to their forest resources.

6.2.4. Historical Profile

The EOTC have preserved their forest resources by using the two modes of protection discussed above. In
this conservation task of the forest resources by EOTC tradition, the church scholars claim many hardships
were encountered and sacrifices paid by past generations. The most prevalent events that have affected the
composition and size of church forests are summarized in Fig. 7.

44
 ?
Land redistribution by EPRDF: considerable forest land of the churches were
redistributed for landless individuals. All of those forestlands were immediately
converted to farmlands. 1991

Villagaization program of ‘Derge’ regime: everybody was forced

to construct a new house in a preset period and site. The only construction
wood resource was the church compound that everybody was forced to
smuggle from the church compounds and thus much of the forest
was affected. 1987-1989

Land redistribution by ‘Derge regime’: considerable

forest land of the churches was redistributed for land less
individuals. All of those forest lands were immediately
converted to farmlands. 1985

Transition from imperial to communist regime:

before the communist regime came in to power one
third of the of the country’s land used to belong to
the EOTC. Out of that a considerable part of the land
was forestland. When the government launched
the privatization of land, all of the church land
except the nearby compounds were nationalized
and redistributed to individuals. Forest lands subsequently
came under merciless destruction. 1974-1976

The expedition of Ebrahim

Ahmed: the Moslem expedition
against Christianity starting from the eastern
part of Ethiopia to the Northern highlands
of Ethiopia led by ‘Gragn’ Mohamed
had burnt many churches and
monasteries. Together with the
churches, forest resources were
burnt and destroyed. 1528-1543

Figure 7. Historical profile of church forests in South Gonder Zone in particular and in Ethiopia at
large.
6.2.5. Attitude of the Local Communities

45
With the continuous and severe deforestation prevalent in different areas, the church forests have survived
because it is believed that they are sacred (49.2%), as a result of the good will of the communities (39.3%)
and due to legal protection (11.5%). In general, about 93% of the respondents confirmed that the church
forests would not have survived if they were not owned by/associated with the EOTC.

Only 30% of the respondents have utilised the church forests for collecting fuelwood (59.4%), fodder
(24%), construction wood (13.5%) and honey (2.7%). The main reasons forwarded by the respondents who
have never utilised the church forests were a belief in their sacredness (42.2%), possession of other
alternative sources (36.4%), a ban of use by the churches (21.2%). Future benefits expected by the
respondents from the church forests were collection of fuelwood (36.9%), construction wood (19.7%),
fodder (10.7%) and seeds of plants (4.1%), and none (28.7%). The suggestions given on the future
ownership of church forests were to keep them under the ownership of churches (99.2%) and to allocate
them to community members (0.8%). All respondents confirmed that they want to see churches surrounded
by forests since forests provide both products and services to the churches. In the event of encountering
someone cutting trees, respondents indicated that they would try to stop him/her with arguments and
confrontations (56.6%), inform the case to church officials (28.7%), inform the case to leaders of Peasant
Associations and the Police (9%) and do nothing (5.7%).

The major sources of fuelwood for the households were own trees/woodlots (82%), natural forests (9.8%),
market (6.6%) and church forests (0.8%). Similarly, sources of wood for construction were own
trees/woodlots (75.4%), market (18%), community forests (3.3%) and church forests (0%). About 82.8 %
of the respondents perceived that the size of natural forest outside churchyards in their area had decreased
in the past as a result of deforestation. The main solutions forwarded to protect the remaining natural
forests were to launch strict rules (82.8%) and to keep them under the possession of the church (8.2%).

Respondents had perceptions that the size of church forests has decreased (45.9%), increased (31.1%) and
not changed (23%). The reasons given for the increment in the sizes of churches were the planting of new
seedlings by the church community (55.3%) and natural regeneration (44.7%). On the other hand, illegal
cutting (58.9%), improper grave monument construction (14.3%), building construction by the churches
(14.3%) and natural disaster (10.7%) have been held responsible for the decrease in the sizes of churches.
Respondents considered the current sizes of church forests to be enough (54.1%), too small (31.1%) and
too wide (14.8%). It was interesting to note that about 92% of the respondents emphasised that they would
not agree if the State claimed to own the church forests. As to whether the church forests will persist
respected and protected by the people in the future, most of the respondents were positive (77%) and others
were either sceptical (13.9%) or unable to forecast (9%). In this connection, the factors that were projected
to exert pressure/threats on the church forests by the respondents who had negative opinions were the

46
overlooking of church values (64.7%), population increment (23.5%) and prevalent extensive grave
monument construction (11.8%).

Of the public instruments governing the local communities, religious rules/beliefs and sanctions were
considered to have the highest respect by most of the respondents (82%) than civil legislation (0.8%) or
both (17.2%). As to which was most feared were religious rules and sanctions (73%), civil legislation
(4.1%) and both (23%). Among the locally based institutions, the level of trust and respect was indicated
that the clergy/churches are more trusted (98.4%) and respected (98%) than the Office of Agriculture or
PAs.

Most of the respondents (92.6%) expressed their willingness to plant seedlings around the church with
94% of them setting a precondition that the newly planted seedlings must be given for their church. The
preferences of respondents for the type of trees/shrubs to be used for planting around the church were
indigenous species (54.9%), Eucalyptus species (32.8%), other exotic species (8.2%) and all types (4.1%).
Moreover, about 57% of the respondents would like to have similar forests as those around churches on
their land holdings, and of the remaining respondents most (94%) indicated that they had a shortage of land
that prevented them from planting trees while others (4%) claimed that such forests must be unique only to
churches.

Some of the answers given to the above main attitudinal questions were significantly dependent on the
independent variables (Tables 6) while others were not. For instance, the answers given for measures to be
taken personally to stop tree cutting in the churchyard were dependent upon the sex of the respondents
with a probability of 0.977 (1- 0.023).

47
Table 6. Results from the significantly dependent answers given to the main attitudinal questions.

Dependant Variable Degrees of P- Value **

Freedom
A. Sex*
Measures to be taken to stop tree cutting personally 3 0.023
Perception about change in the sizes of church forests 2 0.023
B. Age*
Perception on church forests surviving without the churches 3 0.04
Interest to develop similar forests as around churches on own holdings 3 0.043
C. Main Occupation*
Tree species preference to be planted around churches 9 0.02
D. Education Status*
Perception about dynamics of church forest size 4 0.012
Perception to the present church forest size 4 0.039
E. Church Affiliation*
Perception on why church forests survived 6 0
Response on using church forests 3 0
Future expectations from the church forests 12 0
Suggestions on the future of church forests 6 0.002
Measures to be taken to stop tree cutting personally 9 0.011
Willingness to plant seedlings around churches 3 0.003
Preference of trees/shrubs to be planted around churches 9 0.014
Perception to the current size of church forests 6 0.003
Response on the future persistence of church forests 6 0.011
Interest to develop similar forests as around churches on own holdings 3 0.005
* Independent variable ** subjected to 0.05 level of test

48
 6.2.6. Stake Holder Analysis

There were similarities and differences in opinion among the various identified stakeholders on selected
issues regarding the church forests (Table 7).

Table 7. Opinions among the various identified stakeholders on selected issues regarding the church
forests.
Stakeholder Opinion

Who Who owns Who has the right to use What should be done about What is expected in the future?
protects church forests? the church forests and the future of church forests?
church how?
forests?
EOTC Churches Churches Churches: only when Absolutely important to Recognition; legal protection;
needed keep them under churches Development of projects that
with full ownership and will assist the churches
use rights
State Administrators Churches State* Churches: after prior Advisable to keep them Proper and efficient
recognition and under churches with close utilization of the forests by
permission of Woreda supervision by the churches; permission for
Offices of Agriculture respected bodies utilization
(WOA)

Department/Office of Churches Communities Churches: after prior Advisable to keep them Permission for utilization;
Agriculture recognition and under churches with close replace what is cut; active
permission of WOA** supervision by WOA role of churches in forest task
forces at all levels

Elders and Churches Churches Churches: only when It is absolutely important Protection assistance from the
Communities needed to keep it under the church State
with full ownership and
rights of use

* Like any land and land resources; ** If churches need to cut a tree they are obliged to plant 5 seedlings of the same kind of species one year before cutting.

6.2.7. SWOT Analysis

The results obtained from the SWOT analysis on the conservation tradition, conservation system and the
forest resources of ETOC based on the discussion made with church scholars, administrative bodies,
Woreda Office of Agricultural experts, community elders and field observations are summarised below.

6.2.7.1. Strengths

The strengths of ETOC are their:

™ Strong ability to resist deforestation of the church forests compared with any other traditional and conservation
mechanisms.

™ Interest and commitment to conserve all types of plants in the churchyards. Though a few trees were more
valuable for the churches, all plant species were allowed to grow in the compound irrespective of their purposes
or uses.

™ Willingness to allow the forests to be used as a source of indigenous tree seeds for local communities and state
nurseries.

™ Customary plans to establish trees/forests in the yards of new churches well ahead of time.

49
6.2.7.2. Weaknesses

The weaknesses of EOTC are associated with the absence of:

™ No clear and documented border demarcations of the forests, which encourage encroachment by farmers owning
land adjacent to the forests.

™ No scientific forest management practices except conservation since churches have no financial capability for
training their staff members in the field

™ No inventories of the forests resources and forest management plan.

6.2.7.3. Opportunity/Prospects

The opportunities/prospects of EOTC include:

™ Possession of many indigenous species/forests protected in different agro-ecological/climatic zones, which are
resources of great actual and potential local, national, regional and global (e.g. germplasm and carbon
sequestration) importance.

™ Recognition and acceptance of their conservation strategy of church forests by the local people.

™ Potential of their forest resources for: (a) in situ and ex situ conservation of indigenous plants, which would
ultimately serve as sources of seeds/propagules/germplasm for future development of forests; (b) studying the
vegetation history of adjacent areas in particular and the country at large; (c) deciding species adapted to the sites
in question in future forestry programs; and (d) serving as field laboratories/centres/sites for practical training,
research on biology, ecology, forestry, pharmacology, sociology/anthropology, socio-economics, forest
history/history, etc.

6.2.7.4. Threats

The threats on church forests owned by EOTC include:

™ Grazing of seedlings and trampling of the ground by the domestic animals that are allowed access to the forests
for shelter against the hot sunshine and strong storms in some churches. This may affect regeneration of these
forests.

™ Encroachment into the church forests by individuals for farmlands and settlement as well as cutting of woody
plants for fuelwood. This may lead to a decline in the sizes and diversity (richness and evenness) of the forests.
The encroachment by the local people could be caused by the critical shortage of fuelwood and farmland, which
is spurred by the ever-increasing human and animal populations, or individuals who were pushed and tempted by
‘modernist’ and other religious sects to deny the traditional and religious values.

™ Substitution of indigenous species in church forests by fast growing exotic species. Most of the churches do not
have enough income for church services and other expenses. Hence, there is a tendency of growing eucalyptus in
the churchyards. Moreover, as per the regulation of the Woreda Office of Agriculture mentioned above, churches
are replacing the indigenous trees (for e.g. Juniperus procera) that they cut for various purposes by exotic
species (mainly Cupressus lusitanica) since it is difficult for them to raise/get seedlings of indigenous trees.

™ Construction of monuments and improper grave houses in the forests. Many stone and marble made monuments,
with an average surface area of 2.5 m X 1.5 m (3.75 m2), and small houses were observed covering considerable
segments of the forest areas of churches. Unlike other traditional grave spots, they affect the regeneration
potential of the forest. Construction of monuments and small houses on graves had never been a tradition of
EOTC, and still is not accepted by the church scholars.

™ Death of many old trees without being substituted. Almost all of the churches studied have been serving for more
than a century with their forest resources. Thus, many of the trees are aged and dying without any replacement.

50
This may result in complete losses of valuable indigenous tree species in the future, which in turn lead to the
decline of species composition of the church forests.

51
7. DISCUSSION
7.1. Vegetation
The minimum basal area/ha recorded from the eight churches is similar to that of Chilimo state forest (27.3
m2/ha) while the maximum basal area/ha recorded is similar to that of Wof-Washa state forest (100.3
m2/ha) (Tamrat Bekele 1994). The number of live stems/ha and basal area for the eight churches do not
show any trend of relation (Table 1.) because in some of the churches there are few but big trees and in
others many stems but smaller in diameter. Whereas, the trend of inverse relation between basal area and
number of dead stumps may show the exploitation of stems was the main reason for Basal Area variation
and hence, Gibtsawit is most exploited and Hiruy least exploited and the others fall in between.

The only common species to all sampled churches is Maytenus arbutifolia, which has a wide range of
distribution in Ethiopia and the presence of this species may also indicate those forests that have been
disturbed. The number of common species and families increased as the churches were stratified in
altitudinal range, which might indicate the species composition, corresponds to the altitude gradient. The
Jaccard similarity coefficient among the eight churches showed the same trend that higher similarity
recorded in same altitudinal range (Table3). Except for five pairs, the remaining similarity coefficients are
below 0.5, which means less similarity among the churches and that each church has its own unique
species composition (Table 3.). Thus, all the sampled churches are equally important and sensitive from a
conservation point of view and there will not be redundancy if all of them are to be conserved.

The South Gonder indigenous woody species profile was compared as a checklist with the species
recorded in the sampled churches. Accordingly from the total 125 woody species found in the zone, 81
species were recorded in the eight sampled churches and 16 species were recorded which had not been
listed in the checklist (Appendix 2). In eight churches, 65% of the zonal woody species can be found. This
may reveal the significance of EOTC in woody diversity resource conservation of the study area in
particular and the country in general. On the other hand, the presence of exotic species intermingled with
the indigenous species, may show a fast economic return and seedling availability for pushing the church
to give attention to exotic species.

Species richness estimates by Chao’s index for all churches is higher than the observed number of species,
which indicates that there are many species represented by single individuals (rare species) (Table 4.). It is
especially exaggerated for the Ascha church because of the sensitivity of Chao’s index to sudden change in
the cumulative number of rare species as quadrats were accumulated (Fig. 5) (Dagnachew Gebeyehu,
2001). The Jack 1 also overestimates compared with the observed number of species S, which has
indicated that there are more species found only in single plots (unique) (Table 4.). Jack 1, which is good
in ranking species richness among sites (Dagnachew Gebeyehu 2001), displays a similar trend to the

52
observed number of species across the churches. So the cumulative rank of the species richness by Jack 1
and observed species gives Gelawdiwos to be the first and Ascha to be the last, which in turn follows the
size of the forest area. The presence of many rare and unique species, confirmed by the two estimates,
makes those churches sensitive for conservation, as they are the only remnant forests in the area and the
last option to hold those woody species. The correlation between species richness and size of the forest
area suggests protection of the area of those forests is one of the measures to be taken to conserve the
existing species richness.

The Simpson equitability is low for all sampled churches, which indicates there is an unbalanced
distribution of the number of individuals among different species (Table 4). This means, there are few
species represented by many individuals (Appendix 1). The reason for the low evenness or dominance in
abundance can be attributed to excessive disturbance, variable conditions for regeneration, and exploitation
of some species. The domination of a few species with many unique and rare species invites intervention to
conserve the maximum possible woody diversity. On the other hand the Shannon equitability is higher
because of its dependency on the observed number of species (Dagnachew Gebeyehu 2001). Therefore this
measure is unreliable whenever there is a variation between observed number of species and estimated
species richness.

The heterogeneity indices recorded from each church were compared to that of Chilimo forest, which has
Shannon and Wiener’s H’ = 2.77 and Simpson’s λ= 9.18 (Tadesse Woldemariam 1998). The church Quar,
Gibtsawit, Galaowdiwos and Debresena are showing a higher diversity than that of Chilimo, while Zahara,
Dengolt, Hiruy and Ascha are lower than that of Chilimo. This could show the significance of those sites in
preserving and conserving woody diversity of the area in particular and the country in general.

The height and diameter class distribution, which was taken for comparison, varied in the number of
patterns and species allocation to each pattern (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4). This results from the fact that height is
determined by site factor whereas age, management and intervention determine diameter. Therefore, for
the sake of observing regeneration status and human interference, the diameter distribution showed a good
picture.

Accordingly, the first pattern of the diameter distribution includes (Fig 4A) species with good regeneration
but complete failure of further development, may be they are newly dispersed and arrived species. The
species in the second pattern (Fig. 4B) indicate good regeneration with gradual decreases towards the
mature individuals, which has a higher potential of reproduction and are shade-tolerant. There is a large
probability that the death of an adult tree will be replaced by the growth of individuals from the smaller
size classes and seems to be a self-maintaining plant population. The species in the third pattern (Fig. 4C)
indicates good reproduction but a bad recruitment due to disturbance; thus the population of these species
53
may diminish in the future. The fourth pattern indicates (Fig 4D) fair regeneration but many young
individuals with fewer mature individuals, indicating there was a favorable time for higher reproduction,
which later changed to an unfavorable condition that hampered regeneration. The fifth pattern (Fig. 4E)
indicates poor regeneration due to unfavorable conditions and a higher frequency at the middle class, then
a small number of individuals at the higher class, which might be destroyed by natural disaster,
competition, or cutting. The sixth pattern (Fig. 4F) is with poor regeneration, where the medium sized trees
are selectively cut but there are very big and old individuals, which are no longer reproducing or
regenerating and thus, the population of such species may decrease to the extent of disappearing from the
site. The seventh pattern (Fig. 4G) indicates series disturbance that confined them in a limited class with
few numbers of individuals. The seven patterns may give three cumulative patterns that there are species
concentrated at the lower class, then some species at the middle and others at higher classes, which may
show the species in those remnant church forests are in different successional stages (Demel Teketay 1997;
Tamrat Bekele 1994).

The diameter class distribution for all individuals in all sampled churches revealed almost the same trend
that there were many small to medium sized trees and some big individuals, which gives an inverted ‘J’
shape distribution (Figure 4 i, ii and iii). This may indicate that those church forests are at a different stage
of secondary development (Tamrat Bekele 1994).

The trend of plot number- species accumulated curve for all of the seven churches indicates the samples
taken were almost sufficient to represent the whole area that possibly brings new species (Fig. 5). But for
the church Ascha and Quar, most of the compound was dominated by few numbers of species and only a
segment of the compound had many species. By chance, the last quadrat was laid on the rich segment of
the compound and thus the curve behaved differently from others. This also underestimates the species
richness of the two churches, which is confirmed by the Chao’s index (Table 4).

The outcome of CA reveals four groups are stratified according to altitudinal gradient, which shows
differentiation in species group types have a strong relationship with altitude (Tamrat Bekele 1994). The
species Juniperus procera is laid at equidistant from each group because it has been found in all agro-
climatic zones, moreover this species is the first of all species preferred by the church scholars. This is an
indication for species conservation strategy and site selection that altitude is one of the determining factors
in species distribution.

7.2. Socio-economy survey

7.2.1. Church Philosophy

54
The EOTC perceives nature in a holistic manner. Nature includes among others, human beings,
forests/trees, animals, microorganisms, water, other land features and the nation as a whole. This holistic
approach has favoured the respect and veneration of nature, by enriching ecological preservation along
with Humanity and Christianity, which matches to the broader concept of biodiversity conservation.
Accommodating the biblical story of creation and holy verses from other Holy Scriptures to the traditions
of respecting the environment is an important characteristic and strength of the EOTC.

The EOTC philosophy of conserving nature in general and forest resources in particular combines
conservation, proper utilization and development of the resources, which has made the tradition healthy.
Conservation is manifested in the natural resources preserved in the church compound. Proper utilization is
manifested in utilizing the church forest for the church purpose. Where as development is manifested in the
planting habit of seedlings in each church in particular and in national resource development projects run
by one of the structural wing in the church responsible for development and aid named as DICAC
(Development and Inter-Church Aid Commission) in general.

The EOTC philosophy of conserving forests perceives not only the material values of the forests but also
appreciates the services, which can be extracted from the forests. The followers are allowed to benefit from
the minor products and services from the forest with permission. The benefits, which are designated as
permitted and forbidden, are helpful for the sustainability of the resource.

The two modes of protection ‘Gizet’ as a house of God and ‘Legal protection’ as a house of state is a two-
sided blade to protect the resources. Whenever there is a severe shortage of forest resources, people
inevitably overlook religious values and start to violate those values for survival. Moreover, secularism and
the view of other religious sects may degrade the value of the church thus for all of these risks legal
protection is of a paramount importance in addition to the core mode of protection, the religious sanction.

From the historical profile (Fig. 7), it is clear to notice that powerful bodies beyond the church and local
community ignited all of the events. The size of the forest destroyed and the extent of the damage in the
composition is not known/ not documented. However, it can be speculated that especially the recent
damages might have an impact on the population structure of some species, species richness and evenness.
Therefore, the knife of the state should be sharpened to safeguard church forests from such events that may
arise in the future by compensating the church knife, which is blunt for such kinds.

7.2.2. The Attitude of The Local Community

The perception of the community as to how the church forest survived rests on the belief of sacredness and
thus, those church forests could not survive if the churches had not been there. The variable, how the
church forest survived is dependant on church affiliation because from place to place the utility of legal
55
protection to protect the church forest beyond the religious sanctions vary. While the question, could the
forest survive without the church, is dependent on age because younger people probably perceive
deforestation differently to elders due to a lack of experience.

Most of the respondents never utilized the church forest for household uses because they believe they are
sacred and have their own woodlot. The main types of products gained by the local community from the
church forest, for those who utilized are fuel wood followed by fodder. However, the main source of fuel
and construction wood for the community doesn’t include the church forest or it is a very low percentage.
This indicates that the fuel wood they benefited from the church is not considered as a habitual source.

The main expectation of the community in the coming times from the church forest is getting fuel wood
followed by fodder; on the contrary some of the respondents don’t need to utilize the church forest for their
personal use. Where as their suggestion about the future of those forests is to keep under the church and
they always need to see forests enveloping churches, which may indicate the tradition, will continue in the
future whenever new churches are to be built. Thus, their fuel wood expectation seems to depend on if
there are sales by the church as a result of fallen and damaged trees, as was the experience in most
churches. However, the expectation of fodder/practically grazing seems a threat for the future because
there was no permitted experience for grazing. The variables, past benefit, expected benefit and
suggestions about the future of the church forest are dependent on church affiliation because the relation
and utilization arrangement of church forest between the church administrators and the local followers
varies slightly from place to place.

The measures to be taken whenever someone is cutting trees illegally in the church compound, is to stop
the act by argument and confrontation by themselves and secondly to inform the church officials.
However, a smaller portion goes to inform the PA leaders or considers it as none-of their business. This
indicates how the community internalises the tradition and the resources and how a sense of responsibility
is developed. This variable is dependent on the sex of an individual and church affiliation. It is dependent
on gender because females are not physically fit to confront directly so they try to inform the church
officials. It is dependent on church affiliation because the strength of the PA administration and the
availability of church scholars nearby the church affect the decision to stop the illegal cutting.

The perceptions of the dynamics of church forests (as 31% increased, 45 % decreased and 23% no change)
viewed in relation to the perceived decrease of natural forest (82.8%) suggests that the church both
successfully resisted deforestation in the past and at the same time increased the total church forest area.
Moreover, the recommendation given to protect the remaining natural forest suggests retaining the
church’s custodianship as an alternative for conservation in the future. The main reason for the church
forest increment is because new seedlings were planted followed by natural regeneration. But most of the

56
newly planted seedlings were Eucalyptus spp and exotic species due to a lower availability of seedlings for
indigenous species. Therefore, the threat of substitution of indigenous species by others is more
pronounced here. The causes that decrease the church forest on the other hand, (illegal cutting, improper
grave-house and monuments construction, and natural disasters) may continue as a threat in the future. The
variable, dynamics of the church forest, is dependent upon sex and education. The females due to lower
education opportunity and lower engagement in church administration, might perceive things differently to
that of males.

In the perception of the present size of the church forest area, too small means that the area of the church
forest is expected to increase in size. While too wide means that the church has got the maximum possible
forest area, but this doesn’t mean there is a need to decrease the size. This is conformed by the fact that the
community would disagree, if the state tries to shift a portion of the church forest from church ownership
to another form, no matter what the size of their church forest area is. The variable, perception to present
size of the church forest, is dependent on education status and church affiliation. It is dependant on
education status because the more they are educated the more they demand to have forest resources and
perceive the resources as small and vice-versa. It is dependent on churches because the size of the forest
area varies from church to church.

Although a majority of the respondents confirm the persistency of the church forest in the future, it seems
there are issues that the community feels as threats. The threats are the denying and overlooking of EOTC
values, which may increase in the coming generation due to the influence of other religious sects and
‘modernity’ leading to the overlooking of the EOTC values. Moreover, population pressure, leading to a
higher demand of wood and farmland to affect the church forests and lastly improper grave monument
construction will affect the regeneration of the forest. All these risks vary from place to place so this
variable is church affiliation dependent.

The comparison of civil laws & legislation and the religious rules & sanction, which are the two major
governing rules of the community, reveal that the religious rules and sanctions are the main governing
rules in the lifestyle of the local community. This indicates that the main mode of protection for church
forests to be religious sanctions assisted by legal protection.

Among the locally based institutions, results suggest that the church (the clergy) is the one to be trusted
and respected more by the community. This indicates how the church’s beliefs and practices are deeply
imprinted with the lifestyle and personality of the people. Thus, the church can be taken, as an entry point
and platform for any development and conservation programs as it is the central institution among the
community.

57
The willingness to plant seedlings around the churches is very high. But most of the respondents set
preconditions for the planting that the planted seedlings must be given to the church. This is an indication
of how the forest development is strongly associated with the church. As to the type of species to be
planted around the church the main preference was for indigenous species followed by Eucalyptus spp.
The preference of indigenous trees is of great importance from a conservation point of view. However, the
preference of Eucalyptus spp, which seems to be of an economic need to the church, is a threat, which may
entirely substitute those indigenous tree species. These two variables, the willingness and species
preference are church affiliation dependent, that come from the ability of church leaders to motivate the
followers for seedling planting and the income demand of each church could vary. The variable, species
preference is also a main occupation dependent that the handicraft workers preferring more indigenous
species, which are preferable for architectural work than others.

The study area, which is devoid of extensive natural forest, whether it can be reclaimed or not, depends
mainly upon the attitude of the community. The response given to the question ‘whether they would like to
have similar forests as in the churches in their landholdings’ is almost equal in proportion of needing and
not needing. This variable is dependent on age and church affiliation. It is dependent on age because the
lower age classes, that are demanding more agricultural lands, don’t want to see forest reclamation. It is
dependent upon church affiliation because the availability of extra places varies from place to place. In
general almost half of the community responded that they don’t want to develop and reclaim the natural
forest outside of the church compound. Moreover, economical and ecological problems of practicality,
even based on the willing segment of the community, will challenge the reclamation of the natural forest.
Therefore, the church forest will continue being the only remnant of the dry afro-mountain forest in the
area with avoidable threats. This is an alarm that church forests would do well to recognize and protect in
order not to miss the last chance of protecting the indigenous forest of the area.

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7.2.3. Stakeholder Views

The result of stakeholder analysis shows there are points whereby all stakeholders converge and also
diverge. Regarding the view of who has been protecting the church forest, all of them agree that it is the
EOTC.

The owner of the church forest and the right to use it are the divergent views and interests among the
stakeholders. The church and the community hold the same view that the owner and the one who has the
right to use is it is the church at all times. Whereas, the state representatives believe that the owner is the
state but the church has the right to use with prior recognition of the agricultural office. The agricultural
office claims the owner of the forest to be the community, which doesn’t clarify the ownership. Regarding
the utilization right, the Office of Agriculture takes the full authority to control and with its permission the
church can be given the right to use the forest. The permission that can be given from the office of
Agriculture demands to inform the Office of Agriculture one year before whenever the church needs to cut
trees in its compound. If it is permitted, the church has to plant five seedlings, which are of the same kind
of species as that to be cut. The availability of indigenous seedlings is restricted in the government and
private nursery; thus exotic species end up being planted. The church scholars consider the permission
procedure and requirement as a threat. This make them feel detached from the decision-making processes
associated with forest management.

The view about the future of the church forests also diverges among the stakeholders. The EOTC and the
community argue that the forest should be retained under the church with full ownership and right of use.
They strongly argue it is the church that made the resource available so the church should be given full
responsibility with assistance from the state. On the other hand, the state and Office of Agriculture argue
that it is advisable to keep the church under the protection purpose but under close supervision and
authority of the respected body (Agricultural Office).

The expectation around church forest conservation also varies. The EOTC expects recognition of the
tradition and the approval of the full ownership of the church by the state and respected bodies, legal
protection from the government and fund/project based to manage the resource properly under the values
and norms of the church. The community also expects protection assistance from the state. The state in
turn expects the church to utilise the forest resources effectively and efficiently with the approval of the
respected bodies. The Department of Agriculture expects recognition of its technical rules for cutting by
the church and the church to play a great role in the forest taskforce, set at different levels to conserve the
remaining forest resources outside of the church compound.

59
All these divergent views may lead to mistrust and poor co-operation among the stakeholders as each one
of them tries to go their own way, which in turn leads to complete indifference and failure. Therefore a
trade-off on common grounds seems the remedial and resolution for diverging views.

7.2.4. SWOT of the Tradition

The strengths and opportunities are derived from the theological framework of the tradition and
indoctrinating of this tradition among the community. The opportunity and prospects are to be more
pronounced if all stakeholders give positive recognition to the tradition and the resources, along with
material and technical assistance of scholars and the efforts of the higher officials of the church is to be
added.

The weaknesses of the tradition, which are more of a technical nature, are derived from two sources. The
first is from the land tenure system of the area in particular and the nation in general and the other is from
the economic and financial limitations of the church itself. The threats on the other hand are derived from
population pressure, other religious sects, nature, resource limitation and misapplication of the church
traditions and doctrine. The weakness and threats are avoidable if the state, all stakeholders,
scholars/professionals, the church and the community together exert continuous effort. On the contrary, if
nothing is done, sooner or later those church forests may disappear due to the threats.

60
8.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

8.1. Conclusion

The diversity of indigenous woody species and the forest area protected by the eight studied churches are
significant and by and large the contribution of the EOTC in forest resource conservation for the zone in
particular and the country in general is considerable. The basal area of all church forests shows those
forests have a good stock as compared to some of the natural state forests. The studied church forests being
found in different agro-climatic zones and having their own unique species composition surrounded by
bare landscape make them sensitive from a conservation point of view.

The patterns of some of the species population structures suggest at least two major types of plants. The
first, are species able to regenerate in the forest understory and the others are plants which have difficulties
reproducing. The poor regeneration and recruitment status of some species subjected to biological
dynamics in the forest without scientific management intervention; aggravated by external influences
mainly grazing and cutting could lead to the disappearance of some of the species. The diameter class
distribution for all individuals from all the eight churches revealed the forests are at different secondary
development stages. Therefore, the current species composition of the forests may be changed through
time.

Theological thoughts and biblical justifications are the frame works of the EOTC tradition to conserve the
forest resources. The tradition seems holistic, which accounts for the care for all forms of life. According
to the tradition, tree seeds collection, traditional medicine and contemplation in the church forests are
permitted, while collection of fuel wood, construction wood and fodder are forbidden for the community.
The local communities do have higher respect and thrust in the EOTC among other institutions, which has
made the church the central institution and platform for socio-economic issues of the people.

The positive attitude to the resources protected by the church and the acceptance of the church tradition is
thus an opportunity for forest conservation. Therefore, the isolated remnant forests of churches, with their
higher woody diversity are a potential for in situ and ex situ conservation sites. Moreover, with formal
legal protection, in addition to the religious protection method, scientific management intervention and
resource investment, church forests may provide greater prospect in implementing and disseminating
forestry resource conservation, development, research, education and extension programs among the rural
community.

On the other hand, the diverging views mainly on ownership and utility rights among the stakeholders may
affect the strength of the tradition. The influence of population growth with poor available forest resource,

61
attitude and perception diversion of some of the community members due to the temptation of other
religious sects and ‘modernity’ are the major threats. Misapplication of the church tradition among the
followers, mainly monument construction, is also a threat. Unless those threats, which are avoidable, are
not hampered, the quality and quantity of the forest resources could be affected sooner or later. This is not
new from experience and the past forest history of the area in particular and the country in general.

8.2. Recommendation
In order to strengthen the tradition and minimize the threats on the forest resources protected by the EOTC
the following recommendations are suggested:
1. There has to be silvicultural intervention to facilitate the regenerating aptitude of some of the
species in order to assure sustainability of the diversity. The church development commission
(DICAC) may do the intervention. Moreover, forest management plan should be prepared and
exercised.

2. The legal protection of the church forest should be strengthened to make more sharpened the two
sides of the protection mechanisms of the church.

3. The church forest areas ought to be gazetted by the state after a clear demarcation and marked to
stop further encroachment and exclude grazing.

4. It would be wise to train and orientate the church scholars about scientific tree propagation (seed
collection, storage and nursery techniques), silvicultural and forest management technique, which
may diversify their level of knowledge on top of traditional conservation knowledge.

5. The stakeholder divergent views need to converge with consensus and discussion in such away
that this tradition can be more strengthened and recognized.

6. Exotic species should not be planted intermingled with the indigenous woody species, rather they
should be encouraged to be planted on the outer border of the indigenous stands as a buffer zone.

7. Monument construction on grave spots should be prohibited per the tradition of the church, and the
traditional burial system must be encouraged.

8. It is advisable to identify those sites as an in- situ and ex- situ conservation sites for indigenous
woody diversity and other biological organisms with some arrangements without contending the
responsibility and use right of the church.

9. To carry out further studies on patterns of age class distribution, degree of isolation of the plants
from the surrounding plant population, the potential of the soil seed bank and ethno-botany of each
species, to be able to expand the composition and structure of the forest and to extract more
knowledge.

10. Any scientific or outside intervention that may be launched on church forests should be designed
and applied in such a way that it will not overlook the tradition’s theological background and
belief connection to the local community. Instead it must be supplementary and not a substitution
to the tradition so that it can be more productive for the church forest and boosting to the outside
landscape.

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Appendix 1. All species and Families with respective Abundance*, Density** and
Frequency*** found in all The Eight Sampled Churches

Quar Zahara Gibts

No Family Name of Species Local Name Life Form

% Frequency

% Frequency
Abundance

Abundance

Abundance
Density

Density

Density
1Fabaceae Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex. Benth. Bazra Girar Tree 1 8 7.7
2Fabaceae Acacia brevispica Harms Kanto Tree 1 5
3Acanthaceae Acanthus pubescens (Oliv.) Engl. Kosheshile Shrub 1 5 4.5 4 20
4Apocynaceae Acokanthra schimperi (DC.)Benth. Merenz Tree 46 23
5Bombacaceae Adansonia digitata L. Bamba Tree 1 8 7.7
6Fabaceae Albizia schimperiana Oliv. Sesa Tree 4 31 23.1 1 5 4.5
7Sapindaceae Allophylus abyssinica (Hochst) Radlkofer Embis Tree
8Icacinaceae Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey ex. Arn. Donga Tree
9Gramineae Arundinaria alpina K.Schum. Kerkeha Stemmed grass
10Gramineae Arundo donax Shembeko Stemmed grass 1 8 7.7
11Liliaceae Asparagus aethiopicus L. Yeset- Kesit Shrub 1 5
12Aspliniaceae Asplenium trichomannes L. Wolenbi Shrub 6 27 18.2
13Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Azamir Tree 2 9 9.1
14Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha ( Hochst.) Bill. Yenebir Tifer Tree 1 5 4.5
15Simaroubaceae Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill. Abalo Shrub 2 15 15.4 5 23 22.7
16Loganiaceae Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Atquar/Anfar Tree
17Fabaceae Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Zigtta/Digtta Shrub/Tree 1 8 7.7 8 40
18Rubiaceae Canthium oligocarpum Hiern Dingay seber Shrub/Tree 5 23 9.1
19Capparidaceae Capparis tomentosa L. Gemero Climber/Tree 2 15 15.4 5 23 22.7 1 5
20Apocynaceae Carissa edulis Vahl. Agam Shrub/Tree 1 8 7.7 2 9 9.1 7 35
21Ulmaceae Celtis africana Burm.f. Kawoot Tree 4 31 15.4 1 5 4.5
22Oleaceae Chionanthus mildbraedii ( Gilg & Schellenb.) Stearn Wogeda Tree 9 41 22.7
23Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Lomi Shrub/Tree 1 8 7.7
24Rutaceae Clausena anisata (Willd.)Benth. Limich/Limbich Tree/Shrub 1 8 7.7
25Ranunculaceae Clematis hirsuta Perr & Guill. Yazo-Hareg Climber
26Verbenaceae Clerodendron myricoides (Hoechst)R.Br.ex.Vatke Misirich Shrub/Tree 2 10
27Euphorbiaceae Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach. Feyele feji Shrub 2 10
28Rubiaceae Coffea arabica L. Buna Shrub/Tree 4 18 18.2
29Combretaceae Combratum mollie R.Br.ex G.Don Kolla abalo Tree
30Boraginaceae Cordia africana Lam. Wanza Tree 2 15 15.4 3 14 9.1 1 5
31Euphorbiaceae Croton macrostachyus Del. Bisana Tree/Shrub 3 23 15.4 3 14 9.1 1 5
32Solanaceae Dioscopodium penninervium Hochst. Almit Shrub
33Ebenaceae Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern)F.White Selechegn Tree 21 162 53.8 16 73 36.4
34Sapindaceae Dodonaea anguistifolia L.f. Kitkita Shrub/Tree 5 25
35Sterculiaceae Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel.) P.Bamps Wulkifa Tree 3 15
36Flacourtiaceae Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.)Warb. Koshim Tree/Shrub
37Agavaceae Dracaena steudneri Schweinf.ex Engl. Itsepatos Tree 6 46 23.1
38Meliaceae Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Lol Tree
39Myrsinaceae Embelia schimperi Vatke Enkoko Climber/Shrub
40Ericaceae Erica arborea L. Asta Tree
41Fabaceae Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Kermo Ayderk Tree
42Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum Heirn Dedeho Shrub/Tree 3 15
43Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Kulkual Tree 33 16
44Moraceae Ficus ovata (Vahi) Yewof Shola Tree
45Moraceae Ficus sur Forssk. Shola Tree
46Moraceae Ficus thonningii Blume Chebaha Tree 2 15 15.4 3 14 9.1 1 5
47Moraceae Ficus vallis-choudae Del. Banbulea Tree 3 23 15.4
48Moraceae Ficus vasta Forssk. Warka Tree 1 8 7.7 1 5 4.5
49Rubiaceae Galiniera saxifraga (Hochst)Bridson Yetota Kolet Tree
50Thymelaeaceae Gnidia glauca ( Fresen.) Gilg Awura Tree
51Tiliaceae Grewia ferruginea Hochst.ex.A.Rich Lenkuata Tree 4 31 23.1 5 23 18.2 3 15
52Celastraceae Hippocratea africana (Willd.)Loes Trign Hareg Climber/Shrub 1 8 7.7
53Hypericaceae Hypericum revolutum Vahl Amija Tree/Shrub
54Oleaceae Jasminum grandiflorum L. Tembelel Climber/Shrub 1 8 7.7 5 25
55Cupressaceae Juniperus procera L. Yeabesha Tsid Tree 3 23 23.1 18 90
56Acanthaceae Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. Ex Nees) T.Anders. Simiza/Sensel Shrub 11 85 84.6 21 95 95.5 1 5
57Myrsinaceae Maesa lanceolata Forsk Kurava/Kelawa Tree/Shrub
58Celastraceae Maytenus arbutifalia (A. Rich.) Wilczek Atat Shrub 3 23 23.1 10 45 45.5 3 15
59Celastraceae Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell Nech Atat Shrub/ Tree
60Fabaceae Millitea ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Birbira Tree 2 15 15.4 19 86 54.5
61Sapotaceae Mimusops kummel Bruce ex DC. Ishe Tree 1 8 7.7 110 500 54.5
 62Myricaceae Myrica salicifolia A.Rich. Shinet Tree
63Loganiaceae Myrsine africana L. Kechem Shrub
64Oleaceae Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen. Anfar Tree
65Oleaceae Olea capensis L. Damotie Woyra Tree 1 5
66Oliniaceae Olea europaea L. Woyra Tree 27 13
67Santalaceae Olinia rochetiana A.Juss. Tifie Tree
68Lamiaceae Osyris quadripartita Decn. Keret Tree/Shrub 2 10
69Palmae Otostegia tomentosa A.Rich. Tinjut Shrub 2 10
70Euphorbiaceae Phoenix reclinata Zembaba/Senel Tree
71Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca dodecandra L'H' erit. Indod Climber 1 5
72Pittosporaceae Pittospirum spp Enqualit Tree 1 5 4.5
73Pittosporaceae Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Ahot Tree
74Podocarpus Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.)Mirb. Zigba Tree
75Verbenaceae Premna schimperi Engl. Chocho Tree 2 15 15.4 17 85
76Rosaceae Prunus africana ( Hook. f .) Kalkm. Homa Tree
77Rubiaceae Psydrax schimperiana Seged Tree 7 35
78Fabaceae Pterollobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan Kentefa Climber/Shrub 1 8 7.7 4 18 18.2 4 20
79Rhamnus Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit. Gesho Shrub/Tree 1 5 4.5
80Anacardiaceae Rhus retinorrhoea Oliv. Talo/Tilem Tree
81Anacardiaceae Rhus glutinosa A.Rich. Embis Tree 1 5 4.5 1 5
82Anacardiaceae Rhus vulgaris Meikle Kamo Tree 1 8 7.7 6 30
83Capparidaceae Ritchiea albersii Gilg Hadesa Tree 1 8 7.7 3 14 13.6
84Rosaceae Rosa abyssinica Lindley Kega Shrub
85Polygonaceae Rumex nervosus Vahl. Embacho Shrub 2 10
86Asclepiadaceae Sarcostemma viminale (L.)R.Br. Moider Hareg Climber
87Araliaceae Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst.ex.A.Rich.)Harms Getem Tree 1 5
88Asteraceae Senecio gigas Vatke Shokolo Shrub
89Fabaceae Senna singueana (Del.)Lock Bisbisha Shrub 1 5
90Apiaceae Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. Yejib dula Tree 1 5
91Menispermaceae Stephania abyssinica (Dillon &A.Rich.) Walp. Nech hareg Climber 1 8 7.7
92Rutaceae Teclea nobilis Del. Seheel Tree/Shrub 14 64 45.5
93 Unidentified Kumbel Tree
94Urticaceae Urera hyselodendron (A.Rich.) Wedd. Lanqueso Climber
95Compositae Vernonia amygdalina Del. Grawa Tree 1 8 7.7
96Asteraceae Vernonia myriantha Hook.f. Qotiqoto Shrub 2 15 15.4
97Olacaceae Ximenia americana L. Inkoy Tree/Shrub 3 23 23.1

Number of quadrats (size of 10mtX 10 mt) assessed for each church was:
Quar = 13, Zahara = 22, Gibtsawit = 20, Dengolt = 54, Gelawdios = 46, Hiruy = 14,
Debresena = 32, Ascha = 7

*Abundance refers number of individuals per area sampled (Number of quadrats X size of the
quadrat)
**Density refers number of individuals per hectare derived from Abundance and
***Frequency refers percentage of plots in which a species was recorded

69
 Appendix 2. Checklist of All Indigenous Woody Species Found in
South Gonder Administrative Zone (SGZDA, Unpublished)
S/ N Family Scientific Name Local Name Life Form F.ch
1 Fabaceae Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex. Benth. Bazra Girar Tree x
2 Fabaceae Acacia brevispica Harms Kanto Tree x
3 Fabaceae Acacia nilotica Cheba Shrub/Tree
4 Euphorbiaceae Acalypha fruticosa Forssk Nacha Shrub/Tree
5 Acanthaceae Acanthus pubescens (Oliv.) Engl. Kosheshile Shrub x
6 Apocynaceae Acokanthra schimperi (DC.)Benth. Merenz Tree x
7 Bombacaceae Adansonia digitata L. Bamba Tree x
8 Fabaceae Albizia amara (Roxb.)Boiv. Sibkana Tree/Shrub
9 Fabaceae Albizia schimperiana Oliv. Sesa Tree x
10 Fabaceae Albizia spp. Sendel Tree/Shrub
11 Sapindaceae Allophylus abyssinica (Hochst) Radlkofer Embis Tree x
12 Icacinaceae Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey ex. Arn. Donga Tree x
13 Gramineae Arundinaria alpina K.Schum. Kerkeha Stemmed grass x
14 Gramineae Arundo donax Shembeko Stemmed grass x
15 Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Azamir Tree x
16 Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.)Baill. Yenebir Tifer Tree x
17 Simaroubaceae Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill. Abalo Shrub x
18 Loganiaceae Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Atquar/Anfar Tree x
19 Fabaceae Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Zigtta/Digtta Shrub/Tree x
20 Rubiaceae Canthium oligocarpum Hiern Dingay seber Shrub/Tree x
21 Capparidaceae Capparis tomentosa L. Gemero Climber/Shrub x
22 Apocynaceae Carissa edulis Vahl. Agam Shrub/Tree x
23 Ulmaceae Celtis africana Burm.f. Kawoot Tree x
24 Oleaceae Chionanthus mildbraedii ( Gilg & Schellenb.) Stearn Wogeda Tree x
25 Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Lomi Shrub/Tree x
26 Rutaceae Clausena anisata (Willd.)Benth. Limich/Limbich Tree/Shrub x
27 Ranunculaceae Clematis hirsuta Perr & Guill. Yazo-Hareg Climber x
28 Verbenaceae Clerodendron myricoides (Hoechst)R.Br.ex.Vatke Misirich Shrub/Tree x
29 Euphorbiaceae Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach. Feyele feji Shrub x
30 Combretaceae Combratum mollie R.Br.ex G.Don Kolla abalo Tree x
31 Combretaceae Combretum aculeatum Zenfok Shrub
32 Boraginaceae Cordia africana Lam. Wanza Tree x
33 Euphorbiaceae Croton macrostachyus Del. Bisana Tree/Shrub x
34 Urticaceae Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.)Hepper & Wood Shunshuna Tree/Shrub
35 Sapindaceae Dodonaea anguistifolia L.f. Kitkita Shrub/Tree x
36 Sterculiaceae Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel.) P.Bamps Wulkifa Tree x
37 Flacourtiaceae Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.)Warb. Koshim Tree/Shrub x
38 Meliaceae Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Lol Tree x
39 Myrsinaceae Embelia schimperi Vatke Enkoko Climber/Shrub x
40 Fabaceae Entada abyssinica Steud.ex A.Rich Ambelta Tree
41 Ericaceae Erica arborea L. Asta/Adale Tree x
42 Fabaceae Erythrina abyssinica Kuara/Korch Tree
43 Fabaceae Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Kermo Ayderk Tree x
44 Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum Heirn Dedeho Shrub/Tree x
45 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Kulkual Tree x
46 Moraceae Ficus ovata Vahl. Yewof Shola Tree x
47 Moraceae Ficus sur Forssk. Shola Tree x
48 Moraceae Ficus thonningii Blume Chebaha Tree x
49 Moraceae Ficus vallis-choudae Del. Banbulea Tree x
50 Moraceae Ficus vasta Forssk. Warka Tree x
51 Rubiaceae Galiniera saxifraga (Hochst)Bridson Yetota Kolet Tree/Shrub x
52 Rubiaceae Gardenia volkensii K.Schum Gambilo Tree
53 Thymelaeaceae Gnidia glauca ( Fresen.) Gilg Awura Tree x
54 Tiliaceae Grewia bicolor Sumaya/Sefa Tree/Shrub
55 Tiliaceae Grewia ferruginea Hochst.ex.A.Rich Lenkuata Tree/Shrub x
56 Rosaceae Hagenia abyssinnica (Bruce) Gmelin Koso Tree
57 Celastraceae Hippocratea africana (Willd.)Loes Trign Hareg Climber/Shrub x
58 Hypericaceae Hypericum revolutum Vahl Amija Tree/Shrub x
59 Oleaceae Jasminum grandiflorum L. Tembelel Climber/Shrub x
60 Cupressaceae Juniperus procera L. Yeabesha Tsid Tree x
61 Acanthaceae Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. Ex Nees) T.Anders. Simiza/Sensel Shrub x
62 Myrsinaceae Maesa lanceolata Forsk Kurava/Kelawa Tree/Shrub x
63 Celastraceae Maytenus arbutifalia (A. Rich.) Wilczek Atat Shrub x
64 Fabaceae Millittia ferruginea (Hochst.)Bak. Birbira Tree x
65 Sapotaceae Mimusops kummel Bruce ex DC. Ishe Tree x
66 Myricaceae Myrica salicifolia A.Rich. Shinet/Kalava Tree x
67 Loganiaceae Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen. Anfar Tree x

70
 68 Oleaceae Olea capensis L. Damotie Woyra Tree x
69 Oleaceae Olea europaea L. Woyra Tree x
70 Oliniaceae Olinia rochetiana A.Juss. Tifie Tree x
71 Cactaceae Opuntia vulgaris Beles Shrub
72 Santalaceae Osyris quadripartita Decn. Keret Tree/Shrub x
73 Lamiaceae Otostegia tomentosa A.Rich. Tinjut Shrub x
74 Palmae Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Seniel/Zembaba Tree x
75 Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca dodecandra L'H' erit. Indod Climber x
76 Fabaceae Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. Yekola Wanza Tree
77 Pittosporaceae Pittospirum spp Enqualit Tree x
78 Pittosporaceae Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Ahot Tree x
79 Podocarpus Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.)Mirb. Zigba Tree x
80 Portulacaceae Portulaca quadrifida L. Marenta Shrub
81 Verbenaceae Premna schimperi Engl. Chocho Tree x
82 Rosaceae Prunus africana ( Hook. f .) Kalkm. Homa Tree x
83 Rubiaceae Psydrax schimperiana Seged Tree x
84 Fabaceae Pterollobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan Kentefa Climber/Shrub x
85 Rhamnaceae Rhamnus staddo A.Rich. Tedo Shrub/Tree
86 Anacardiaceae Rhus retinorrhoea Oliv. Talo/Tilem Tree x
87 Anacardiaceae Rhus glutinosa A.Rich. Embis Tree x
88 Anacardiaceae Rhus vulgaris Meikle Kamo Tree x
89 Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis Chaqima Shrub/Tree
90 Rosaceae Rosa abyssinica Lindley Kega Shrub/Small Tree x
91 Rosaceae Rubus apetalus Poir. Enjory Shrub/Tree
92 Polygonaceae Rumex nervosus Vahl. Embacho Shrub x
93 Salicaceae Salix subserrata Ahaya Tree
94 Araliaceae Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst.ex.A.Rich.)Harms Getem Tree x
95 Euphorbiaceae Securinega virosa (Roxb. Ex Willd.) Pax. & Hoffm Wenahee
96 Fabaceae Senna singueana (Del.)Lock Bisbisha Shrub x
97 Bignoniaceae Stereospermum kunthianum Cham Zana/Washta Tree
98 Myrtaceae Syzygium guineense Dokima Tree
99 Rutaceae Teclea nobilis Del. Seheel Tree/Shrub x
100 Combretaceae Terminalia spp. Akima Tree/Shrub
101 Unidentified Alashumie
102 Unidentified Albey
103 Unidentified Arboji
104 Unidentified Birbirta
105 Unidentified Dabes
106 Unidentified Degdeg Hareg
107 Unidentified Dodo
108 Unidentified Genbez
109 Unidentified Isat-Lash
110 Unidentified Kandura
111 Unidentified Kezikez
112 Unidentified Kumbel Tree x
113 Unidentified Sosich
114 Unidentified Teji
115 Unidentified Tinbilta
116 Unidentified Tules
117 Unidentified Wanat
118 Unidentified Wenbela
119 Unidentified Werchebo
120 Unidentified Woef kentif
121 Unidentified Ybel Genbo
122 Unidentified Yedem Kitel
123 Unidentified Yederie
124 Asteraceae Vernonia myriantha Hook.f. Qotiqoto/Dingurita Shrub/Tree x
125 Olacaceae Ximenia americana L. Inkoy Tree/Shrub x

X- found in the eight sampled churches.

71