KARABÜK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
RAIL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

RAIL SYSTEM ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS (RSE 101))

LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTERS
I. RAIL TRANSPORT AND ITS ELEMENTS

II. RAIL TRACK AND INFRASTRUCTURE

III. SUPERSTRUCTURE OF A RAIL SYSTEM

IV. RAIL VEHICLES & TRACTION TECHNOLOGIES

V. WHO IS RAIL SYSTEM ENGINEER? WHAT IS HIS JOB?

Assist. Prof. Dr. M. Emin AKAY

September 2016, Karabük
 CHAPTER I
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ITS ELEMENTS

Transport system includes four elements, such as (a) the way, (b) the unit of carriage, (c) the motive
power unit, (d) the terminal, and (e) human power. In detailed expression there are many items impacting
transport system, such as whole elements are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Transportation system elements

a. The Way (the track)

The ways for rail transport are called as the track. Track consists of two rails and their complementing
items such as sleepers, turnouts, ballasts, fasteners, etc. Natural ways are cheap and free, and have no
maintenance costs unless we try to improve them artificially. The sea, the air, the rivers, and footpaths
are all natural ways.
Railways, Highways and motorways, canals, tramways tunnels, and monorails are similarly constructed.
Clearly these are not free' like may be borne socially rather than privately. If the costs are borne by the
ratepayer and taxpayer we may have what is an apparently freeway built the owner usually has sole use
of it. This owner then charges for its use by other persons, to recoup the capital costs.
 Figure 2. Rail track

b. The Unit of carriage (Rail vehicles)

Vehicles or craft must be used in transportation. The efficiency of the mode of transport depends to some
extent on the flexibility and adaptability of the unit of carriage used. Road vehicles are adaptable than
railways rolling stock because they are not entirely tied to the way: aircraft and ships are even less tightly
bound by the way on which they travel.

Figure 3. Electric Multiple Unit – EMU

Rail system vehicles are locomotives, passenger & freight wagons, Multiple Units (DMU & EMU) or
High Speed Train Sets. Even a pipeline can be considered as unit of carriage. It is not very adaptable in
its behaviour: we cannot expect it to carry gas until noon, milk from noon till 3 p.m., and petrol from 3
p.m. to midnight. In choosing our method of transport the adaptability of the unit of carriage will be a
major consideration.
 Figure 4. Electric locomotive

c. The Motive power unit (Engines & motors)

Every vehicle must be driven and the choice of a propulsion unit depends upon the strength of the vehicle,
the speed required, the available fuel, and other factors. Today the steam engine, the first great prime
mover, has been largely replaced by the petrol engine, the jet engine, the diesel engine and the electric
motor.
Both diesel and electric power have been using to energize rail vehicles.

d. The Terminal (Stations)

Nearly every journey involves junctions where we can transfer from one form of transport to another. A
port is usually regarded as a terminal for ships, but in fact it is also a terminal for trains, roads, pipelines,
and aircraft. The terminals used for passenger transport named as stations, gares and bahnhof. There are
many of tracks and platform for trains.

Figure 5. An electric locomotive including transformer (Nr. 1)

 Figure 6. Diesel engine for locomotives

Stations for freight transport named as “Marshalling yard”. Freight loading and unloading, changing,
transferring and accumulating for depot operation are operated in marshalling yard. There are lot of
tracks for quick and efficient operations.

In planning efficient transport systems, commercial firms and transport authorities must view the
interchange of facilities as being part of a unified whole. Congestion in terminals in the past has spelt the
death of transport system, as it did when the congestion on the canals led to the growth of railways.

Figure 7. Berlin Hauptbahnhof

 Figure 8. Marshalling yard for freight trains

e. Human power (workforce)

Workforce is neceassary and basic elements to comply whole transport system. Its human power to design,
build, operate, and manage the rail transportation services. Work force is also repairs tracks, vehicles,
installations, prepare traffic safety and precast risks and dangers to provide secure transport.
Transportation systems offer various jobs and positions such managers, engineers, technicians, skillful
employees. Some activities for safety train operations need qualified people such as certifications, testing,
checking of whole system.

VOCABULARY OF RAILWAY TERMINOLOGY

Please select at least 20 terms used in this chapter, find their Turkish meaning and write in Table.
Turkish English Turkish English
 CHAPTER II

RAIL TRACK AND INFRASTRUCTURE

Rail vehicles use rail system structure while moving. Rail system structure consist of two elements,
infrastructure and superstructure. Infrastructure includes tracks, bridges, viaducts, and tunnels.
Superstructure constain necessary items such as overhead lines, third rail, signal systems, automatic train
protection equipments, etc.

1. Track

The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the structure consisting
of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties (sleepers, British English) and ballast (or slab track), plus the
underlying subgrade. It enables trains to move by providing a dependable surface for their wheels to roll.
For clarity it is often referred to as railway track (British English and UIC terminology) or railroad
track (in US). The term permanent way also refers to the track in addition to lineside structures such as
fences etc.

1.1. Track Structure

1.1.1. Traditional track structure (Ballasted track)

Notwithstanding modern technical developments, the overwhelmingly dominant track form worldwide
consists of flat-bottom steel rails supported on timber or pre-stressed concrete sleepers (railroad ties in
the US), which are themselves laid on crushed stoneballast. In figure 1 track infrastructure is given.

Figure 1. Section through railway track and foundation showing the ballast and formation layers.
The layers are slightly sloped to help drainage.

Most railroads with heavy traffic use continuously welded rails supported by sleepers (ties) attached
via baseplates which spread the load. A plastic or rubber pad is usually placed between the rail and the
tieplate where concrete sleepers (ties) are used. The rail is usually held down to the sleeper (tie) with
resilient fastenings, although cut spikes are widely used in North American practice. For much of the 20th
century, rail track used softwood timber ties and jointed rails, and a considerable extent of this track type
remains on secondary and tertiary routes. The rails were typically of flat bottom section fastened to the
ties with dogspikes through a flat tieplate in North America and Australia, and typically of bullhead section
carried in cast iron chairs in British and Irish practice.

Jointed rails were used, at first because the technology did not offer any alternative. However the
intrinsic weakness in resisting vertical loading results in the ballast support becoming depressed and a
heavy maintenance workload is imposed to prevent unacceptable geometrical defects at the joints. The
joints also required to be lubricated, and wear at the fishplate (joint bar) mating surfaces needed to be
rectified by shimming. For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily operated
railroads.

Timber sleepers (ties) are of many available timbers, and are often treated with creosote, copper-
chrome-arsenic, or other wood preservative. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers (ties) are often used where
timber is scarce and where tonnage or speeds are high. Steel is used in some applications.

The track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the ties and
allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage.

1.1.2. Ballastless track

A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the heavy demand for maintenance could be recoverd
by using ballastless track. In its simplest form this consists of a continuous slab of concrete (like a highway
structure) with the rails supported directly on its upper surface using a resilient pad.

However ballastless track is very expensive in up-front cost, and in the case of existing railroads
requires closure of the route for a somewhat long period. Its whole life cost can be lower because of the
great reduction in maintenance requirement.

Figure 2. Ballastless high-speed track in China

Ballastless track is usually considered for new very high speed or very high loading routes, in short
extensions that require additional strength (e.g. rail station), or for localised replacement where there are
exceptional maintenance difficulties, for example in tunnels.
1.1.3. Ladder track

Ladder track utilizes sleepers aligned along the same direction as the rails with rung-like gauge
restraining cross members. Both ballasted and ballastless types exist.

Figure 3. Ladder track at Akabane Station

2. Rails

A rail is a steel bar extending horizontally between supports which is used as a track for rail road
vehicles. Rails can be divided in two types

1. Flat Footed Rails

2. Groove type rails.

Figure 4. Cross-sections of flat-bottomed rail, which can rest directly on the sleepers, and bullhead
rail which sits in a chair(not shown)

Figure 5. Groove type rail used in urban rail transport.

2.1. Rail classification (weight)

Rail is graded by weight over a standard length. Heavier rail can support greater axle loads and higher
train speeds without sustaining damage than lighter rail, but at a greater cost. In Europe, rail is graded in
kg/m and the usual range is 40 to 60 kg/m.

2.1.1. Joining rails

Rails are produced in fixed lengths and need to be joined end-to-end to make a continuous surface
on which trains may run. The traditional method of joining the rails is to bolt them together using
metal fishplates, producing jointed track. For more modern usage, particularly where higher speeds are
required, the lengths of rail may be welded together to form continuous welded rail (CWR).

a. Jointed track

Jointed track is made using lengths of rail, usually around 20 m long (in the UK) and 12 or 24 m long
(in North America), bolted together using perforated steel plates known as fishplates (UK) or joint
bars (North America). Currently long rails 72 m long produced by Kardemir Co. are used in Turkish State
Railways (TCDD) network.

Fishplates are usually 600 mm long, used in pairs either side of the rail ends and bolted together
(usually four, but sometimes sixbolts per joint). The bolts may be oppositely-oriented so that in the event
of a derailment and a wheel flange striking the joint, only some of the bolts will be sheared, reducing the
likelihood of the rails misaligning with each other and exacerbating the seriousness of the derailment.

Figure 6. Bonded main line 6-bolt rail joint on a segment of 76.9 kg/m rail.

Small gaps known as expansion joints are deliberately left between the rail ends to allow for expansion
of the rails in hot weather. The holes through which the fishplate bolts pass are oval to allow for movement
with expansion.

Because of the small gaps left between the rails, when trains pass over jointed tracks they make a
"clickety-clack" sound. Unless it is well-maintained, jointed track does not have the ride quality of welded
rail and is less desirable for high speed trains. However, jointed track is still used in many countries on
lower speed lines and sidings, and is used extensively in poorer countries due to the lower construction
cost and the simpler equipment required for its installation and maintenance.

A major problem of jointed track is cracking around the bolt holes, which can lead to breaking of the
rail head (the running surface).

b. Insulated joints

Where track circuits exist for signalling purposes, insulated block joints are required. These compound
the weaknesses of ordinary joints. Specially-made glued joints, where all the gaps are filled with epoxy
resin, increase the strength again.

As an alternative to the insulated joint, audio frequency track circuits can be employed using a tuned
loop formed in approximately 20 m of the rail as part of the blocking circuit. Another alternative is the axle
counter, which can reduce the number of track circuits and thus the number of insulated rail joints
required.

Figure 7. Insulated rail joints

c. Continuous welded rail

Most modern railways use continuous welded rail (CWR), sometimes referred to as ribbon rails.
In this form of track, the rails are welded together by utilising flash butt welding to form one continuous
rail that may be several kilometres long, or thermite welding to repair or splice together existing CWR
segments. Because there are few joints, this form of track is very strong, gives a smooth ride, and needs
less maintenance; trains can travel on it at higher speeds and with less friction.
 Figure 8. Welded rail joint

Welded rails are more expensive to lay than jointed tracks, but have much lower maintenance costs.
The first welded track was used in Germany in 1924 and the US in 1930 and has become common on main
lines since the 1950s.

Flash butt welding is the preferred process which involves an automated track-laying machine running
a strong electrical current through the touching ends of two unjoined pieces of rail. The ends become
white hot due to electrical resistance and are then pressed together forming a strong weld. Thermite
welding is a manual process requiring a reaction crucible and form to contain the molten iron. Thermite-
bonded joints are also seen as less reliable and more prone to fracture or break.

If not restrained, rails would lengthen in hot weather and shrink in cold weather. To provide this
restraint, the rail is prevented from moving in relation to the sleeper by use of clips or anchors. Anchors
are more common for wooden sleepers, whereas most concrete or steel sleepers are fastened to the rail
by special clips which resist longitudinal movement of the rail. There is no theoretical limit to how long a
welded rail can be.

However, if longitudinal and lateral restraint are insufficient, the track could become distorted in hot
weather and cause a derailment. Distortion due to heat expansion is known in North America as sun kink,
and elsewhere as buckling. In North America a rail broken due to cold-related contraction is known as
a pull-apart. Attention needs to be paid to compacting the ballast effectively, including under, between,
and at the ends of the sleepers, to prevent the sleepers from moving. In extreme hot weather special
inspections are required to monitor sections of track known to be problematic.

After new segments of rail are laid, or defective rails replaced (welded-in), the rails can be artificially
stressed if the temperature of the rail during laying is different from what is desired. The stressing
process involves either heating the rails causing them to expand, or stretching the rails
with hydraulic equipment. They are then fastened (clipped) to the sleepers in their expanded form. This
process ensures that the rail will not expand much further in subsequent hot weather. In cold weather the
rails try to contract, but because they are firmly fastened, cannot do so. In effect, stressed rails are a bit
like a piece of stretched elastic firmly fastened down.
 Figure 9. Rail anchor

CWR rail is laid (including fastening) at a temperature roughly midway between the extremes
experienced at that location (this is known as the "rail neutral temperature"). This installation procedure,
along with normal track structure strength, is intended to prevent tracks from buckling in summer heat or
pulling apart in winter cold. In North America, because broken rails are typically detected by the signaling
system; they are seen as less of a problem than heat kinks which are not detected.

d. Expansion joint

Joints are used in continuous welded rail when necessary, usually for signal circuit gaps. Instead of a
joint that passes straight across the rail, the two rail ends are sometimes cut at an angle to give a smoother
transition.

Figure 10. An expansion joint manufactured by Vossloh.

 In extreme cases, such as at the end of long bridges, a breather switch (referred to in North America
and Britain as an expansion joint) gives a smooth path for the wheel while allowing the end of one rail to
expand in relation to the next rail.

3. Rail sleeper (tie / Rail support)

A railroad tie (also called a cross-tie in North American usage, or a railway sleeper outside North
America) is a rectangular object on which the rails are supported and fixed. The tie has two main roles:

- to transfer the loads from the rails to the track ballast and
- the ground underneath, and to hold the rails to the correct width apart (to maintain the rail
gauge). They are generally laid transverse (perpendicular) to the rails.

Figure 11. Sleeper of cast concrete blocks supported by steel bar.

Since the beginning of rail age, there are three types of sleepers; wooden, steel and concrete.
Technical properties of sleepers are varying depending on service conditions such as light rail, conventional
rail, heavy rail or high sped rail systems.

Figure 12. Concrete sleepers

 Nowadays wooden sleepers are mainly used in switches / turnouts, bridges, and tunnels regions for
safety purposes.

Figure 13. Wooden sleeper with Standard Pan V baseplate used under plain rail in vertical flatbottom

4. Fixing rails to railroad ties

A rail fastening system is used to fix rails to railway sleeper or railroad ties, which is usually consisted
of rail anchors, rail tie plates, chairs, fasteners, spikes, screws, bolts, etc. The selection of a fastening
system must be made with utmost care for rail road safety can’t be compromised.

In figure 13 complete rail fasteners are shown.

Figure 14. Rail fasteners assembly

Various types of fastenings have been developed to meet the requirements of railway development.
Namely, there are fastening with rail spike with base plate above the tie, E-clip Fastening, Pandrol Fast
Clip Fastening, Tension Clamp Fastening, Bolt Clamp Fastening, Tack Joint and Chairs Fastening, and Steel
Spring Keyed rail in Chair Fastening.

Figure 15. A pandrol type rail fasteners

5. Track Layout

The geometry of the tracks is three-dimensional by nature, but the standards that express the speed
limits and other regulations in the areas of track gauge, alignment, elevation, curvature and track surface
are usually expressed in two separate layouts for horizontal and vertical.

Figure 16. Nabla Clip Rail Fastening System

Horizontal layout is the track layout on the horizontal plane. This involves the layout of three main
track types:

- tangent track (straight line),

 - curved track, and
- track transition curve (also called transition spiral or spiral) which connects between
a tangent and a curved track.

Vertical layout is the track layout on the vertical plane including the concepts such as
crosslevel, cant and gradient.[13][14]

5.1. Gauge, Track gauge

During the early days of rail, there was considerable variation in the gauge used by different systems.
Today, 60% of the world's railways use a gauge of 1,435 mm known as standard or international
gauge. Gauges wider than standard gauge are called broad gauge; narrower, narrow gauge.

Some stretches of track are dual gauge, with three (or sometimes four) parallel rails in place of the
usual two, to allow trains of two different gauges to use the same track.

Figure 17. Measuring rail gauge

5.2. Track Layout in Vertical Plane

Vertical track layout covers vertical curves and gradient shown in Figure 18 and 19.

a. Gradient (ramp): Gradient means vertical inclination of track in an angle. If there is a + gradient, track
is getting higher alonside of ramp. Otherwise – gradient shows us track is getting lower. Cruising alongside
of ramp needs more energy for traction. Going down alongside of negative ramp, gravity attracts train, so
either braking energy or dynamic brake application should be needed.

Şekil 18. Eğimin gösterilmesi

d = yatay eksende hat boyu, Δh = yükselme değeri, l = eğimli hat yüzeyi uzunluğu, α = eğim açısı
 Şekil 19. Vertical curve in railway

5.3. Track Maintenance

Track needs regular maintenance to remain in good order, especially when high-speed trains are
involved. Inadequate maintenance may lead to a "slow order" (North American terminology, a "slack" or
speed restriction in the United Kingdom) being imposed to avoid accidents.

5.3.1. Manual maintenance

Track maintenance was at one time hard manual labour, requiring teams of labourers, or trackmen
who used lining bars to correct irregularities in horizontal alignment (line) of the track, and tamping and
jacks to correct vertical irregularities (surface). Currently, maintenance is facilitated by a variety of
specialised machines.

Figure 18. In USA trackmen responsible for maintenance of a particular section of railway are in
operation. One man is holding a lining bar (gandy), while others are using rail tongs to position a rail.

5.3.2. Maintenance with work train

A work train is one or more rail cars intended for internal non-revenue use by the railroad's operator.
Work trains serve functions such as track maintenance, maintenance of way, revenue collection, system
cleanup and waste removal, heavy duty hauling, and crew member transport.
 Figure 19. A Work car in Virginia providing support for a track maintenance operation

Types of work trains

- Locomotives and cab units

- Track maintenance equipment (track geometry cars, ballast regulators, ballast tamper cars, ballast
cleaners, stoneblowers, rail grinders, Sperry rail cars, ballast loaders/removers, hopper cars, continuous
welded rail handlers, weld cars, track renewal train)
- Flood cleanup cars (reach cars, pump cars, hose cars)
- Snow removal cars and De-icer cars
- Rail inspection cars
- Refuse motor cars and Revenue collection cars
- Rail adhesion cars
- Crane cars, Dump cars & Flatbed cars
- Signal supply cars
- Tanker cars and Vacuum cars, and Rider cars

5.3.3. Rail lubrication

Train motions through curves can cause major damage to wheels and rail, thereby raising
maintenance requirements, causing noise pollution and increasing costs. In order to reduce the impact
ofrail curve damage, researchers focussed on wheel/rail wear, types of lubricators and lubricants and the
placement and operation of curve rail lubrication systems.

5.3.4. Rail inspections and measurement

Rail inspections utilize nondestructive testing methods to detect internal flaws in the rails. This is done
by using specially equipped HiRail trucks, inspection cars, or in some cases handheld inspection devices.
 Figure 20. Flange oilers lubricate wheel flanges to reduce rail wear in tight curves.

A rail inspection machine applied by TCDD is shown in Figure 21. This machine uses both laser and
ultrasonic waves. Lasere wave find surface and subsurface faults, ultrasonic waves find internal fauts and
cracks.

Figure 21. Non-Destructive (NDT) rail inspection machine - ROGER 400

Figure 22. Maintenance of way equipment.

 Figure 23. A tie replacement train in operation.

Rails must be replaced before the railhead profile wears to a degree that may trigger a derailment.
Worn mainline rails usually have sufficient life remaining to be used on a branch
line, siding or stub afterwards and are "cascaded" to those applications.

In the UK, the cess is used by track repair crews to walk to a work site, and as a safe place to stand
when a train is passing. This helps when doing minor work, while needing to keep trains running, by not
needing a Hi-railer or transport vehicle blocking the line to transport crew to get to the site.

6. Turnouts, Ties
A mechanism providing to change way of track is called as Turnouts or Ties. Manual or motor-driven
Turnouts are used in railways. In figure 24 simple left-hand turnout is seen. In this tie, rail on the right goes
straight ahead, and left rail turns left.

Figure 24. Simple left-hand tie.

Ties are various with 4 types such as simple, complex, english and cross-type. A english – type
turnouts is given in Figure 25.
 Figure 25. Cross - type (english) tie

7. Bed and Foundation

Railway tracks are generally laid on a bed of stone track ballast or track bed, in turn is supported by
prepared earthworks known as the track formation. The formation comprises the subgrade and a layer of
sand or stone dust (often sandwiched in impervious plastic), known as the blanket, which restricts the
upward migration of wet clay or silt.

There may also be layers of waterproof fabric to prevent water penetrating to the subgrade. The track
and ballast form the permanent way. The term foundation may be used to refer to the ballast and
formation, i.e. all man-made structures below the tracks.

Figure 24. Intercity-Express Track, Germany (right), Japanese high-speed line, mats have been
added to stabilize the balast (left)

Additional measures are required where the track is laid over permafrost, such as on theQingzang
Railway in Tibet. For example, transverse pipes through the subgrade allow cold air to penetrate the
formation and prevent that subgrade from melting.
 The sub-grade layers are slightly sloped to one side to help drainage of water. Rubber sheets may be
inserted to help drainage and also protect iron bridgework from being affected by rust.

8. Track geometry

Track geometry is three-dimensional geometry of track layouts and associated measurements used
in design, construction and maintenance of railroad tracks. The subject is used in the context of standards,
speed limits and other regulations in the areas of track gauge, alignment, elevation,curvature and track
surface.

Figure 25. Various of track gauges

Although, the geometry of the tracks is three-dimensional by nature, the standards are usually
expressed in two separate layouts for horizontal and vertical.

8.1. Track Layout

8.1.1. Horizontal layout

Horizontal layout is the track layout on the horizontal plane. This can be thought of as the plan
view which is a view of a 3-dimensional track from the position above the track. In track geometry, the
horizontal layout involves the layout of three main track types:

- tangent track (straight line),

- curved track, and
- track transition curve (also called transition spiral or spiral) which connects between a tangent
and a curved track.

8.1.2. Vertical layout

Vertical layout is the track layout on the vertical plane. This can be thought of as the elevation
view which is the side view of the track to show track elevation. In track geometry, the vertical layout
involves concepts such as crosslevel, cant and gradient.
8.2. Reference rail

The reference rail is the base rail that is used as a reference point for the measurement. It can vary
in different countries. Most countries use one of the rails as the reference rail. For example, the United
States uses the reference rail as the line rail which is the east rail of tangent track running north and
south, the north rail of tangent track running east and west, the outer rail (the rail that is further away
from the center) on curves, or the outside rails in multiple track territory.

For Swiss railroad, the reference rail for tangent track is the center line between two rails, but it is
the outside rail for curved track.

8.3. Track gauge

Track gauge or rail gauge (also known as track gage in the United States) is the distance
between the inner sides (gauge sides) of the heads of the two load bearing rails that make up a single
railway line. Each country uses different gauges for different types of trains. However, the 1435 mm in
gauge was the basis of 60% of the world's railways.

8.4. Transverse elevation

8.4.1. Crosslevel

Crosslevel (or cross level) is the measurement of the difference in elevation (height) between the
top surface of the two rails at any point of railroad track. The two points (each at the head of each rail)
are measured at by the right angles to the reference rail. Since the rail can slightly move up and down,
the measurement should be done under load.

Figure 26. The measurement of crosslevel between two rails

It is said to be zero crosslevel when there is no difference in elevation of both rails. It is said to
be reverse crosslevel when the outside rail of curved track has lower elevation than the inside rail.
Otherwise, the crosslevel is expressed in the unit of height.

The speed limits are governed by the crosslevel of the track. In tangent track, it is desired to have
zero crosslevel. However, the deviation from zero can take place. Many regulations have specification
related to speed limits of certain segment of the track based on the crosslevel.
 For curved track, most countries use the term cant to express the difference in elevation and related
regulations.

8.4.2. Longitudinal elevation

a. Track gradient

The term track gradient is relative elevation of the two rails along the track. This can be expressed
in the distance traveled horizontally for a rise of one unit, or in terms of an angle of track gradient or a
percentage difference in elevation for a given distance of the track.

The allowable gradients may be based on the ruling gradient which is the maximum gradient over
which a tonnage train can be hauled with one locomotive. In some countries, momentum
gradient which is a steeper but shorter gradient may be allowed.

Figure 27. Explanation of track gradient

d = distance traveled horizontally, Δh = rise, l = slope length, α = angle of track gradient

This is usually when there is a track gradient is connected to a leveled tangent track that is long
enough with no signal between them so that train can build momentum to push through steeper grade
than it can be without momentum.

In curved track (with or without cant), there will be curve resistance to push the trains through the
curve. The allowable gradients may be reduced on curves to compensate for the extra curve
resistance. The gradient should be uniform along the track.

8.4.3. Vertical curve

Vertical curve is the curve in vertical layout to connect two track gradients together whether it is
for changing from an upgrade to a downgrade (summit), changing from a downgrade to an upgrade or
valley, changing in two levels of upgrades or changing in two levels of downgrades.
 Figure 28. Vertical curve in rail line

8.5. Curvature

In most countries, the measurement of curvature of curved track is expressed in radius. The shorter
the radius, the sharper the curve is. For sharper curves, the speed limits are lower to prevent an outward
horizontal centrifugal force to overturn the trains by directing its weight toward the outside rail. Cant may
be used to allow higher speeds over the same curve.

Figure 29. Curve with superelevation of tracks on the Keystone Corridor near Rosemont.

Due to the limitation of how specific train equipment can make a turn at maximum speeds, there is a
limitation of minimum curve radius to control the sharpness of all curves along a given route. Although
most countries use radius for measurement of curvature, the term maximum degree of curvature is
still used outside of the United States such as in India, but with the radius as the unit.

8.6. Cant

In curved track, it is usually designed to raise the outer rail, providing a banked turn, thus allowing
trains to maneuver through the curve at higher speeds than would otherwise be possible if the surface
was flat or level. It also helps a train steer around a curve, keeping the wheel flanges from pressing the
rails, minimizing friction and wear.
 The measurement of the difference in elevation between the outer rail and the inner rail is
called cant in most countries. Sometime the cant is measured in term of angle instead of height
difference. In the United States, it is measured in height difference and called crosslevel, even for the
curved track.

Figure 30. Railroad track spirit level in place indicating 5" of superelevation between the inside and
outside rails of a curve along the Keystone Corridor near Narberth.

When the outside rail is at higher elevation than the inside rail, it is called positive cant. This is
normally the desired layout for curved track. Most counties achieve the desired level of positive cant by
raising the outside rail to that level which is called superelevation. For Swiss railroad, the cant is done
by rotating at the track axis (center of the two rails) to have outside rail super elevated (raised) at the
half rate of the desired cant and the inside rail under elevated (lowered) at the same half rate of the
desired cant.

When the outside rail is at lower elevation than the inside rail, it is called negative cant (or reverse
crosslevel in the United States). This is not usually a desired layout but it may be unavoidable in some
situations such as curves involving turnouts.

There are regulations which limit the maximum cant. This is to control the unloading of the wheels
on the outside rail (high rail), especially at low speeds.

8.6.1. Cant gradient

Cant gradient is the amount by which cant is increased or decreased in a given length of track. The
change in cant is required in order to connect a tangent track (no cant) to a curved track (with cant)
through a transition curve. The rate of change of cant is used to determine the suitable cant gradient
for a given design speed. Track twist may also be used to describe cant gradient which may be expressed
in percentage of cant change per length unit. However, in England, the term track twist is normally used
in the context of cant gradient with higher values which are considered to be faults.

In the United States, the required cant gradient on a transition curve to achieve smooth connection
between superelevation of curved track and the zero crosslevel of tangent track is called superelevation
runoff. In addition to the runoff specification, the regulations related to allowable rate of change in the
cant is also part of the general specification on the rate of change in crosslevel called warp parameter.
The warp parameter and superelevation runoff help calculate the required length of the runoff for a
transition curve.

8.6.2. Cant deficiency

As described, cant may be used to reduce lateral acceleration on trains traveling on curved track. This
is to balance the centrifugal force (force pushing outward the curve) andcentripetal force (force pushing
inward the curve). At a higher speed, the centrifugal force is higher. On the contrary, higher cant creates
the higher centripetal force. The calculation for this assumes a constant train speed on a constant radius
curve.

When the speed of the train and the amount of cant are in balance (centrifugal matches centripetal),
it is called equilibrium. This would make the components of wheel to rail force normal to the plane of
the track having the same in aggregate for the outside rail as for the inside rail. This would also make the
passengers in the train not to perceive any lateral acceleration (a push toward sideway).

For a fixed amount of cant, the speed that creates balance is called equilibrium speed. For a
constant speed of a running train, the amount of required cant to achieve the balance is
called equilibrium cant.

In practice, trains are not running on equilibrium cants at curves. The situation is called unbalance,
which can be in one of the two following ways. For a given speed, if the actual cant is less than the
equilibrium cant, the amount of cant difference is called cant deficiency. In the other word, it is the
amount of missing cant to achieve the balance. On the contrary, for a given speed, if the actual cant is
higher than the equilibrium cant, the amount of over cant from the balance is called cant excess.

In a shared track configuration for trains with different operating speeds such as freight and higher-
speed rail passenger services, the cant on a curve should be considered for both high and low speeds.
The higher-speed trains would experience cant deficiency and the lower-speed trains would experience
cant excess. These parameters have a significant effect on curve performance which includes safety,
passenger comfort, and wear and tear of equipment and rails.

9. Alignment

The term alignment is used in both horizontal and vertical layouts to describe the line uniformity
(straightness) of the rails.

The horizontal alignment (or alinement in the United States) is done by using a predefined length
of string line (such as 62-foot in the US and 20 meters in Australia) to measure along the gauge side of
the reference rail. It is the distance (in inches or millimeters) from the midpoint of the string line to the
gauge of the reference rail. The design horizontal alignment for tangent track is zero (perfect straight line
on the horizontal layout). The design horizontal alignment on the curved track in the United States is 1
inch for each degree of curvature. Any other readings indicate deviations.
 The vertical alignment (or profile in the United States, but not to be confused with rail profile) is the
surface uniformity in the vertical plane. The measurement of uniformity is done using a predefined length
of string line (normally the same length used in horizontal alignment) along the track. If the midpoint of
the measurement has higher elevation, it is called hump deviation. On the other hand, if the midpoint
has lower elevation, it is called dip deviation.

These deviations from design alignment are used as parameters to assign speed limits.

10. Track geometry car

A track geometry car (also known as a track recording car) is an automated track inspection
vehicle on a rail transport system used to test several geometric parameters of the track without
obstructing normal railroad operations.

Some of the parameters generally measured include position, curvature, alignment of the track,
smoothness, and the crosslevel of the two rails.

Figure 31. Track geometry car

The cars use a variety of sensors, measuring systems, and data management systems to create a
profile of the track being inspected.

10.1. Advantages of using track inspection cars

Trac9 inspection was originally done by track inspectors walking the railroad and visually inspecting
every section of track. This was hazardous as it had to be done while trains were running. It was also
manpower intensive, and inspectors were limited in the amount of track they could inspect on a given
day. Manual instruments had to be used to measure various parameters of the track.

The primary benefits of track geometry cars are the time and labor saved when compared to doing
manual inspections of track. Track geometry cars may travel up to 335 kilometers per hour, inspecting
track the whole time. More commonly, on freight railroads, geometry cars travel at track speed (up to
seventy miles per hour) in order to minimize service disruptions. Current track geometry cars may cover
large portions of the system in a single day. Many times, maintenance gangs will follow the geometry car
and fix defects as the geometry car moves along the track.
 Because track geometry cars are full-sized rail cars (with the exception of some lighter hi-rail geometry
cars), track geometry cars also provide a better picture of the geometry of the track under loading (when
compared to the manual methods which did not take this into account). Finally, track geometry data is
generally stored and can be used to track trends in the degradation of track. This data can be used to
pinpoint and predict trouble spots in the track and plan maintenance programs accordingly.

10.2. Parameters measured

The tolerances of each parameter varies by the Track class of the track being measured. In the United
States, geometry cars generally classify each defect as either "Class II" or "Class I" (though the exact
name may vary by the railroad).

A class II defect is known as a maintenance level defect, meaning that the track doesn't meet a
particular railroad's own standards. Each railroad has their own standard for a maintenance level defect.
A class I defect is a defect in violation of the Federal Railroad Administration's (FRA) track safety standards.
Railroads must fix these defects within a certain period of time after their discovery or else they risk being
fined.

➢ Alignment - "Alignment is the projection of the track geometry of each rail or the track center line

onto the horizontal plane," (FRA Definition). Also known as the "straightness" of the tracks.
➢ Crosslevel - The variation in cant of the track over the length of a predetermined "chord" length

(generally sixty-two feet). On straight or tangent track, ideally there should be no variation, while on
curves, a cant is generally desired.
➢ Curvature - The amount by which the rail deviates from being straight or tangent. The geometry car
checks the actual curvature (in Degree of curvature) of a curve versus its design curvature.
➢ Overhead lines (or catenary) - Measures the height and stagger of contact wire, the position of

catenary masts or poles, and the positions of the wire bridges if applicable.
➢ Rail gauge - The distance between the rails. Over time, rail may become too wide or too narrow. In

North America and most of the world, standard gauge is 4 feet, 8.5 inches.
➢ Rail profile - Looks for rail wear and deviations from standard profile.

➢ Warp - The maximum change in crosslevel over a predetermined chord length (generally sixty-two
feet).

Track geometry cars used by the New York City Subway also measure:

- Corrugation of running rail surface

- Tunnel and station platform clearances

- Third rail height and gauge

- Vertical gap between third rail and protective board

10.2.1. Non-contact measurement and inspection methods

• Laser Measurement Systems - Measures Rail profile and wear, crosslevel, and Rail gauge
• Accelerometers
• Used measuring measure alignment by finding the acceleration in a certain direction and then

integrating until a position is obtained. These positions are then used to create artificial chords to
measure various several parameters.
• Used to obtain ride quality measurements. If certain accelerations are reached or exceeded freight
can be damaged or passengers may become uncomfortable.
• Video System - Captures video of the right-of-way for further analysis, as well as for Machine
vision inspections of certain track components
• Gyroscope - Oriented in the vertical direction, used to measure cross level and warp. These are
now obsolete, having been replaced by laser measurement systems.[1]
• Proximity sensor - Used to measure surfaces, alignment, and gauge. These are now obsolete,
having been replaced by laser measurement systems.

10.2.2. Contact measurement and inspection methods

• Measuring Wheels - Mostly obsolete, originally used for measuring nearly all parameters, these
have now been replaced by lasers
• Strain Gauges - Used in conjunction with the measuring wheels to translate the various movements
of the measuring wheels into a usable format.

VOCABULARY OF RAILWAY TERMINOLOGY

Please select at least 20 terms used in this chapter, find their Turkish meaning and write in Table.
Turkish English Turkish English

CHAPTER III
SUPERSTRUCTURE OF RAIL SYSTEM
The railroad superstructure system contains items such as railway electrification (overhead lines,
catenary, third rail), signal systems, automatic train protection equipments, etc.
1. Railway Electrification
A railway electrification system supplies electric power to trains and trams without an on-board prime
mover or local fuel supply. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating
stations, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. The railway usually provides its
own distribution lines, switches and transformers.
Power is supplied to moving trains with a continuous conductor running along the track that usually
takes one of two forms. The first is an overhead line or catenary wire suspended from poles or towers
along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings called as third rail. Locomotives or multiple units pick
up power from the contact wire with pantographs on their roofs that press a conductive strip against it
with a spring or air pressure.

1.1. Advantages
Electrification has many advantages. List the positive sides of electric traction here:
a) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

b) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

d) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

e) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

1.2. Disadvantages
Main negative side of electric traction requires significant capital expenditure. List the other negative
sides of electric traction here:
a) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

b) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

d) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

e) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:

• Voltage
• Current: Direct current (DC) or Alternating current (AC)
• Frequency

• Contact system
• Third rail
• Fourth rail
 • Overhead line (catenary)

Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and international
standardization given in Table 1.

Table1. Most commonly used voltages and frequencies by European countries.

Voltage and Countries applied

Frequencies
600 V DC Widespread use in urban rail transport

750 V DC Southern region of United Kingdom,

1500 V DC Southern region of France, The Netherlands

3 kV DC Belgium, Poland

15 kV AC 16.7 Hz Germany, Norway, Austria, Switzerland,

United Kingdom, Portugal, Finland, Turkey, northern region of France,

25 kV AC 50 Hz Belarus, Ukraine, Balkan countries (except Albania), Hungary, Slovakia,
Czech Republic, Russia.

The distance between feeder stations on a 750 V third-rail system is about 2.5 km (1.6 mi). The
distance between feeder stations at 3 kV is about 7.5 km (4.7 mi). Because of these problems, modern
high-speed rail projects have generally used high-voltage AC once the technology became available. Some
DC routes have been converted to AC.

1.3. Overhead Lines

An overhead line is used to transmit electrical energy to trams, trolleybuses or trains.

It is known variously as:

• Overhead contact system (OCS)

• Overhead line equipment (OLE or OHLE)
• Overhead equipment (OHE)
• Overhead wiring (OHW) or overhead lines (OHL)
• Catenary
• Trolley wire

UIC - International Union of Railway uses the generic term overhead line.
Overhead line is designed on the principle of one or more overhead wires (or rails, particularly in
tunnels) situated over rail tracks, raised to a high electrical potential by connection to feeder stations at
regular intervals. The feeder stations are usually fed from a high-voltage electrical grid.
Overhead line is given in Figure 32.
 Figure 31. Overhead line assembly.
Vehicles are taken energy by pantograph from catenary shown in Figure 32.

Figure 32. A rail vehicle takes energy by pantograph.

2. Third Rail or Fourth Rail

The third rail or Fourth Rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding "pickup shoe". Both
overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor but some
systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose.
Fourth rail application is seen in Figure 33.
 Figure 33. Fourth rail application in urban rail network.

3. Signal Systems
Railway transport has been operated by rail guidance so that no steering wheel needed. But trains
following each other should be managed by traffic signals lights and mechanical levers.

Figure 34. Mechanical signal lever (semaphore) in “open” position

Figure 35. Electrical signal lamps

Signal systems are controlled by traffic management center or station control room.
3.1. Interlocking Systems
Switches, signal and rail circuits are getting together to provide interlocking system. This system
generates train control, equipment locking, and mutual controlling of switch positions by using electrical
principles. It is also described as locking and control of a track line. Finally system gives “line is clear”
command and train moves ahead safely.
3.2. Control of Switches / Turnouts
Rail tracks turns their routes by using Switches / Turnouts. Rail switches are commaded by manually
or by remote controled electric motors.

Figure 36. Motor controlled Turnouts

4. Railroad Traffic Control
Railway traffic is controlled by dispatcher in traffic control center. In European train standarts, ERTMS
– European Railway Traffic Management System is applied on tracks alongside. There are several “levels”
of ERTMS.
The ERTMS “levels” define different uses of ERTMS as a train control system, ranging from track to
train communications (Level 1) to continuous communications between the train and the radio block
centre (Level 2).
4.1. ERTMS Level 1
ERTMS level 1 is designed as an add-on to or overlays a conventional line already equipped with
lineside signals and train detectors. Communication between the tracks and the train is ensured by
dedicated balises (known as “Eurobalises®”) located on the trackside adjacent to the lineside signals at
required intervals, and connected to the train control centre. Receiving the movement authority through
Eurobalises, the ETCS onboard equipment automatically calculates the maximum speed of the train and
the next braking point if needed, taking into account the train braking characteristics and the track
description data. This information is displayed to the driver through a dedicated screen in the cabin. The
speed of the train is continuously supervised by the ETCS onboard equipment.
 Figure 37. ERTMS level 1 elements

4.2. ERTMS Level 2

As opposed to level 1, ERTMS level 2 does not require lineside signals. The movement authority is
communicated directly from a Radio Block Centre (RBC) to the onboard unit using GSM-R. The balises are
only used to transmit “fix messages” such as location, gradient, speed limit, etc. A continuous stream of
data informs the driver of linespecific data and signals status on the route ahead, allowing the train to
reach its maximum or optimal speed but still maintaining a safe braking distance factor.

Figure 38. ERTMS level 2 elements

4.3. ERTMS Level 3

Level 3, which is in a conceptual phase, will further increase ERTMS’ potential by introducing a “moving
block” technology. Whilst it is commonly acknowledged that to date, ERTMS level 2 offers considerable
benefits, the use of level 1 already brings significant advantages for the railways and allows for High Speed
travel.
VOCABULARY OF RAILWAY TERMINOLOGY
Please select at least 20 terms used in this chapter, find their Turkish meaning and write in Table.
Turkish English Turkish English

CHAPTER IV

RAIL VEHICLES & TRACTION TECHNOLOGIES

1. VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY
Vehicles used in rail systems are defined in three categories as traction vehicles, trailers / trailing
vehicles, and self propelled cars related to their abilities in motion.
Locomotives as traction vehicles can both generate motive power and pull other vehicles attached to
it. Trailing vehicles named as car sor wagons and have been needing to be pulled by locomotives. Wagons
carry passangers and freight. Self propelled cars comprise both motive power source and passanger
wagons in the form of single or multiple cars.
Self propelled car and rail bus are shown in Figure 39 and Figure 40 simultaneously.

Figure 39. Self propelled car

Self propelled car is serving as single form, it is named as Rail Bus. Cars with two or more items, they
are called as multiple units - MUs. Multiple units are used as diesel multiple units - DMUs, and electric
multiple units - EMUs. Turkish wagon company founded in Adapazarı – TÜVASAŞ manufactures rail buses
and MUs. There are also some rail vehicles for track renewal, and maintenance purposes in rail network.

Rail bus shown in figure 2 is produced by TÜVASAŞ is 45 tons empty and 46 tons fully loaded weight.
This car can carry 64 passenger seated and 40 passanger standing. Anadolu Rail bus are powered by 6
cylinder turbochaged Cummins KTA 19 R type engine, generating 410 kW (550 hp) power at 2000 rpm
and can reach up to 140 km/h speed range.

Figure 40. Anadolu rail bus of TÜVASAŞ

2. STEAM TRACTION
2.1. Steam Traction Basics
In this techniques, expanding motion of pressurized steam upon piston can produce motive power for
traction wheels. As seen in figure 41, steam is produced in loco’s furnace by solid fuel burning.

Figure 41. The heat and mechanical energy generating elements of a steam locomotive.

Exercise 1. Write down Turkish meaning of loco’s elements on the table using figure 3.
 English Turkish English Turkish

Coal Steam

Combustion Piston

Water Crackshaft

A complete structure of a locomotive is given in figure 42. Fill the english name of items on the table
and write down Turkish meanings.

Figure 42. Elements of a modern steam locomotive.

Exercise 2. Identyfying the elements of modern steam locomotive given in figure 42.
English Turkish English Turkish
Exhaust steam Saturated steam

Superheated
Hot gases
steam
 Air flow Water

2.2. Steam Locomotives

An early steam locomotive “Coalbrookdale” developed by Richard Trevithick in 1802 in England is
shown in figure 43. This locomotive consists of two axles, motion derived by steam piston turns gears
than rotational motion is transferred to traction wheels as lineer motion, finally wheels are rolled on the
rail surface.
Another steam locomotive “Rocket” engineered by George Stephenson'un in 1829 is given in figure 44.

Figure 43. An early steam locomotive “Coalbrookdale” in 1802.

Figure 44. Steam locomotive “Rocket” by George Stephenson'un in 1829.

Rocket includes traction unit in front of it and tender section on the back with having two axles
both cars. Traction unit an axle is live and another is trailer. Tender carries water and coal.

2.2.1. Hot steam production and stage-power application on steam locomotives

Related with development on steam technology, superheating method is also developed to increase
the enthalpy of steam (Figure 45). Following technologies are also generated such as dual expansion or
triple expansion for more energy efficient steam production.
 Dual expansion was developed by french engineer Mallet. In this application shown in figure 45, low
pressure piston in the front section and high pressure piston in the rear section are installed. Each piston
gives traction energy for 2 or 3 axles.

Figure 45. The basics of Mallet’s locomotive(left) and application (right)

On Mallet locomotive, there are two different axle sets. Front and rear axle sets are connected
together with “flexible joints”. This method offers reducing curve resistance so gives better travel for
locomotive on vertical and horizontal curves.

2.2.2. Why steam traction comes to an end?

Steam traction reached its mature level at the end of first quarter of 1900. But compared to electric
and diesel traction, steam locomotives have been consisting various disadvantages. Lately steam traction
diminishes gradualy and reaches an end.
Steam locomotives are in service intensively in China, Africa, and South America. In various countries
it is used for touristic purposes. The lonely steam locomotive of Turkey is in service at TCDDs Uşak station
and gives nostalgic tours for tourists.

Exercise 3. Survey the weakness / negative sides of steam locomotives and list below.
a. low operational efficiency b. ………………………………………………….

c. ………………………………………………. d ………………………………………………….

e. ……………………………………………… f. genarates lots of air pollutants

g. ……………………………………………… h. ………………………………………………….

ı. ……………………………………………… i. ………………………………………………….

3. DIESEL TRACTION
3.1. Principles of Diesel Traction
In this technology, diesel engine is main motive power. Diesel engine invented by Rudolf Diesel nearly
at the end of 1890s. Mechanical energy is produced by fuel injection into compressed air and combustion
starts. Combustion energy generates high temperature and pressure, so pushes piston. Linear motion of
piston is turned into circular motion by connecting rod and crankshaft. Modern diesel locomotives use
diesel - electric power (DE loco) and transfers mechanical energy into electrical energy form to turn wheels
via traction motors. Diesel engines are manufactured both naturally aspirated and turbocharged. Mainly
modern diesel locomotives in service are equipped with two cycle and turbocharged. This technological
approach are simply and economical.

Locomotives produced in TCDDs vehicle inventory are as follows;

- DE 24000: V16 cylinder form, four cycle, and naturally aspirated,
- DE 22000, DE 33000 and DE 36000 V16 cylinder form, 2 cycle and turbocharged.

3.1.1. Diesel mechanical (DM), Diesel hydraulic (DH), and Diesel electric (DE) traction
principles
In this technology mechanical energy of crankshaft is transferred to locomotives wheels via gear
boxes and cardan shafts. This type of technology is called as “mechanical diesel traction” main was used
in shunting locomotives. Hydraulic clutch and torque converter are used to transfer engine mechanical
energy towards locomotives wheels in diesel hydraulic locomotives. This kind of locomotives are very
practical for shunting and short-range regional passenger train operations. Self propelled cars are also
uses Diesel hydraulic (DH) principles.

Study DH shunting locomotives shown in figure 46 and fill the Exercise 4.

Figure 46. A three-axle DH shunting locomotives (shunter)

 The components of DH mainline locomotive used in British Rail is given in figure 47. Study it and write
their Turkish meaning.

Exercise 4. Study of DH mainline locomotive components

English Turkish English Turkish
Radiator Radiator fan
Radiator fan belt Fluid coupling
Compressor drive Final drive & reverse
belt gearbox
Driving controls Cab
Gearbox Air compressor
Counterbalance Coupling rod
Drive shaft Driving wheels
Diesel engine

Figure 47. DH mainline locomotive used in British Rail and its components

In Turkey 55000 and 15000 types DMUs are used in TCDD network using DH traction principles and
give regional train services.

3.1.2. Principles of Diesel Electric Traction

Diesel engine is a main power source in DE traction. Mechanical energy derived by engine goes to
wheels through steps shown below:
diesel engine → mechanical energy → alternator → AC electric energy → DC rectifier → Direct
current → traction motor energy → traction motor produces circular motion → reduction gear
→ turning of wheels

The elements of a DE locomotive are given in figure 48.

Figure 48. The elements of a DE locomotive

Exercise 5. Write down the Turkish meaning of DE locomotive elements shown in figure 10.
1. Control stand………………………….
7. V-16 Diesel engine..……………….
2. Motor blower…..………………….
8. Radiator….……………………..
3. Rcctifier……..……………….
9. Air compessor………………………….
4. Inverter……………………….
10. Motor……………………
5. Alternator……….……………….
11. Fuel tank……………….
6. Drive shaft………………………….
12. AC - DC……………….

As seen in operational steps shown on the top of page there are multi step energy conversion in DE
locomotives. It is clear that energy losses also occur while energy conversion. This is the weakness of
diesel traction.
Energy losses and balance of a DE locomotive are shown in Figure 49. It could be seen that diesel
engine generates 1.000 Joule energy, only the portion of 265 Joule acts as tractive force for 4 axles. The
remaining energy as 1000 – 265 = 725 Joule is consumed as loss, leakage and auxiliary power. 300 Joules
from radiator to air, 54 Joules to auxiliary circuit are gone. Radiant heat 21 Joules, exhaust gases 300
Joules and traction motor loss are 60 Joules.

Figure 49. Energy balance on DE locos.

According to figure 49, energy efficiency of DE locomotive is 265 J / 1000 J = 0.265 and finally
26.5 %. In other words only a quarter of heat energy produced in diesel engines could be converted into
traction energy form or useful power. This result is twice bigger than steam locomotive but, compared
with electric locomotive is more smaller.
Traction motor has vital role in Diesel locomotives and DMUs to run rail vehicles. Traction motor is
installed on Bogies and generally having reduction ratio of 20 / 90. Motor uses DC electric energy, uses
reduction, and finally turns wheels. According to various traction technologies, Traction motor + Wheel
connection is used in different way, such as one by one or one by two.
In one by one method has been using an axle driven off a single traction motor (independently
motored axle). This approach is widespread used at mainline DE locomotives. In DMUs, High Speed Rail
vehicles (HSR), and metros monomotor type bogies are used. As one by two traction technology, one
traction motor turns two wheels installed between of them. A monomotor type bogie has been using at
Alstom vehicle is given in figure 50.
In figure 50 there is pinion gear installed onto traction motor shaft. Traction energy comes out by
pinion gear and it could turn intermediate gearwheel coupled. Finally intermediate gearwheels give
mechanical power to main gearwheels to turn the wheels. This is traction movement of a rail vehicle.
 Figure 50. Monomotor bogie and its elements.

Search the negative and positive sides of Diesel locomotive traction and list onto the table below.

Exercise 6. The table showing negative and positive sides of Diesel locomotive traction
Comparison of Diesel traction
positive sides / strengths negative sides / weakness

4. ELECTRIC TRACTION
4.1. Electric Traction Principles
Electric traction system is wholly different than other steam and diesel traction modes. Electric traction
system on the contrary of steam and diesel traction, gets energy from electric line or catenary. Steam
and diesel traction vehicles should carry their fuels in their body as any form of gaseous, liquid and solid
forms. It also gives extra weight for vehicle itself and resulted energy loss. In electric traction, energy can
be taken by overhead line or third rail.
National rail network and trams systems use overhead electric line (catenary), other rail vehicles
serving underground environment such as metro, light rail, funicular getting energy by third rail. Mainly
AC electricity is used national rail network and DC electricity in urban rail system.
4.2. Production of Electrical Energy for Electric Traction
Electrical locomotive (shortly Eloco) is shown in figure 51.

Figure 51. The components of electric locomotive

Energy conversion steps are given below:

1. Energy is received from catenary by pantograph,
2. passes through circuit breaker,
3. voltage is decreased at main transformer,
4. transforming AC energy to DC energy form at main rectifier.
5. energy goes to main inverter,
6. it is transformed into AC energy,
7. electric energy is sent to 3-phase AC motors,
8. traction motors turn wheels.

Exercise 7. Defining the Eloco elements as Turkish form.

English Turkish English Turkish
Motor blowers Battery
Compressor Loco cooling fans
Main rectifier Circuit breaker
DC link Pantograph
Main inverter 3 - phase AC motors
Axle brush Main transformer
Auxliary rectifier Auxliary inverter
 In Turkey, electric traction ratio in TCDD network is 30%, and 25 kV voltage at AC catenary used
has been feeding by transformers with 30 kilometers intervals. Network voltage varies between 750 V and
25 kV worldwide.
4.3. Overhead Line / Catenary Technology
Energy receiving method from catenary is shown at figure 52. Energy line consists of two wires such
as suspended cable and conductor cable. Suspended cable on the top carries line weight and energy,
conductor cable receives energy from suspended cable and transfers electricity to pantograph by touching
onto it. Overhead line mainly uses AC for national rail and DC for urban rail system.

Figure 52. AC and DC catenary for electric traction

4.4. Urban Rail System Operating Principles

4.4.1. Trams Operations
Trams are urban rail vehicles for passanger transport traveling on the street level with low speed
having frequent stops and lowered floor. They receive electrical energy from overhead line with single
cable and generally use 50 – 750 V DC voltage. Trolley buses with rubber tyres receive electric energy
from catenary with two cables one of then phase line and another neutral line.
Due to space economy in urban environment, overhead lines for trams and trolley buses are mounted
together on the same mast as seen in figure 13 blue line for trams and green lines for trolley bus.
 Figure 53. Tram and trolley bus lines (blue line for trams and green lines for trolley bus)

4.4.2. Light Rail – LRT and Metro Operations

Urban rail vehicles such as LRT and Metro have been operating mainly underground, fort his reason
they receive energy from third rail beneath rails. If these vehicles go to street level or surface, they
have been transferred to catenary. These application generally use 750 V DC, and some systems also use
1500 Volt DC circuit. Transformers used for electric feeding mainly are set within 2 km intervals.
There are various energy receiver shoes getting electricity from third rail are shown in figure 54.

Figure 54. Energy receiver shoes types in urban rail system

a. top contact type shoe: Here energy shoe contacts on the top of third rail. Sleepers can support third
rail with insulator.
b. top contact with cover type shoe: Energy shoe contacts current rail on the top and protected by a
insulated cover.
c. side contact type: Shoe can contact third rail on side surface. insulated cover mounted on sleeper
both carries current rail and protects it.
d. shoe with bottom contact: In this method current shoe is contacted to third rail at the bottom.
Insulated cover also carries and protects energy rail.

VOCABULARY OF RAILWAY TERMINOLOGY

Please select at least 20 terms used in this chapter, find their Turkish meaning and write in Table.
Turkish English Turkish English

CHAPTER V
WHO IS RAIL SYSTEM ENGINEER? WHAT IS HIS FUNCTION?

Rail System Engineer – RSE is employed in such positions given below;

a. Deisign and Manufacturing,
b. Operations,
c. Certification, Testing and Measurement,
d. Training, Marketing, Starting of rail systems,
e. Vehicle maintenance and repair,
f. Track planning, applying and construction,
g. Signalisation, Electrification and Telecommunication services (SET).

During Rail System Engineering education in Karabük University students are going to equipped some
competencies related to Railway Technology such as theoretical knowledge, handskill and proper
behaviour.

1. Design and Construction

This function consists of two items of Design and Construction of rail systems. Those functions would
be performed in same place or separetly by Rail System Engineer – RSE.
 While making design related with vehicle, system and track some input and operations came into
account listed below:
- Type of vehicle (loco, EMU, DMU, wagon, etc.),
- Materials used for manufacturing (low weight, robustness, service life, cheapness, etc.),
- Supply type of materials and components,
- Vehicle calculation,
- Type rail track (railway, tramvay, Light rail, funicular, monorail, etc.),
- Route of rail line,
- Tecnical properties applied (single / double track, gradient, curvature, energy and signalisation lines,
tunnels, bridges, and viaducts, safety management system, etc.),
- Standarts applied during manufacturing,
- Customer influence upon design,
- Work force and operation planning,
- Calculation of manufacturing cost.

While manufacturing of rail system products, work conditions have some variations. For instance
companies such as METRO İstanbul Co., DURMAZLAR, BOZANKAYA, VA-KO, TÜVASAŞ, TÜDEMSAŞ,
RAİLTUR perform both design and manufacturing work together.
Another company in this category is TÜLOMSAŞ. It manufactures locomotives with foreign licence and
adds some domestic components in its own products. For example;
- with GM - USA licence; DE 22000 and DE 33000 locos,
- GE- USA licence; PowerHaul 3600 type locos,
- with KRAUS MAFFEI – Germany licence; DE 11000 serial shunter locos,
- MTE - Germany licence; DE 24000 locos,
- with TOSHIBA – Japan licence; E 43000 type locos,
- HYUNDAI - ROTEM - Korea licence; E 68000 type locos, has been produced by TÜLOMSAŞ in
Eskişehir plant.
 Figure 1. Manufacturing engineers supervise Wheel fitting.

At the beginning of any kind of manufacturing of a rail vehicle, company imports many parts and
components, later on domestic suppliers provide great amount of materials, spare parts and components
during progressing period of production.
Turkish State Railways – TCDD and metropolitian municipalities also apply design and contruction
work of railway network for national and urban level. TCDD plans and design its own lines and invite
private enterprise companies for contruction tender bid. Metropolitian municipalities offers project bid. For
instance Rail Systems Department of İstanbul metropolitian municipality plans of some new urban
transport lines, offers design bids, and also gives contruction order to comply lines. After completion of
lines METRO İstanbul Co. enters into rail system as a operator.

2. Rail Operations
This function includes system management, carrying passanger and freight cargos. Rail operations
are divided into two activities such as main functions and support services. According to the EU regulations
Turkish Grand National Asssembly – TBMM, put into operation of Turkish Legal Code Nr. 6461 about
“Liberalization of Railway Transportation” (6461 sayılı kanun). Due to legal code of 6461 TCDD Taşımacılık
Co. is established by extracted from TCDD, responsible of passanger & freight transport and vehicle
maintenance in whole turkish rail network. TCDD is still responsible for rail infrastructure and
superstructure services.
According to new legal code of 6461 TCDD Taşımacılık Co. has three department of passanger dept.,
freight dept., and vehicle maintenance dept. In other hand TCDD is also responsible for permanent way
plannning, contruction, maintenance and their related work.
 Figure 2. An sample working environment for railway operations

The are some positions for Rail System Engineer given at various departments are shown below.
- Job positions for RSE in 4th Region Permanent Way Service Directorate:
Permanent way Service Director (Sivas)→ Permanent way Service Assist. Director (Sivas)→ Kayseri
46th Permanent way Maintenance Director → Niğde 461 Permanent way Maintenance Chief

- Job positions for RSE in 5th Region Freight Service Directorate:

Freight Service Director (Malatya)→ Freight Service Assist. Director (Malatya) → Diyarbakır
Director of Logistics → Logistics Engineer

- Job positions for RSE in 3rd Region Installations Service Directorate:

Installations Service Director (Alsancak)→ Installations Service Assist. Director (Alsancak);
Signalling + Installations Service Assist. Director (Alsancak); Telecommunication + Installations
Service Assist. Director (Alsancak); → Electrification Service Engineer (TSE)

- Job positions for RSE in High Sped Train – HST Traffic Service Directorate:
HST Traffic Service Director (Ankara) → HST Traffic Service Assist. Director (Ankara) → HST Konya
Traffic Supervision and Service Director → Traffic Supervision Engineer
- Job positions for RSE in 6th Region Traction Service Directorate:
Traction Service Director (Adana) → Traction Service Assist. Director (Adana) → Adana Locomotive
Maintenance Shop Director → Konya Loco depot Director or İskenderun Wagon Maintenance Shop
Director → Workshop engineer
 Figure 3. Railway operations; a DE loco is ready to depart after “service maintenance”.

3. Certifications, Testing and Measurements

Some international criteria and standards should be fullfilled for vehicle manufacturing, track
construction and other components related to railway technology before putting into operations. Criteria
mentioned above are set by EU Norms and International Union of Railways - UIC. Certified companies
(NoBo) apply some tests and controls, and give certifications for proper companies. There are not NoBo
institutions in Turkey yet. There would be some employment chance for RSE anyway.
In other side, some necessary periodical measurements should be performed alongside of rail track
for safer railway operations. Measurements are applied by test trains or manully operated equipments.
During measurement, some graphical results and data are taken by sensors attached on wheelsets or
other vehicle parts, and getting continious measurement data for long term evaluation.
RSE is also participates these kind of measurement and evaluation period.

4. Commissioning, Training, Marketing and After-Sales Service

Function of RSE is also covers rail system mechanical installations and starting. The related mechanical
system are intallation of turntable, automatic fuel-oil-dust filling facility, winch and lift systems.
Figure 4. Manually handled inspection machine for geometrical measurement alongside the permanent way.

A test train using for complete track control and measurement is given in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Permanent way control and measurement train.

 Figure 6. A DE 24000 type locomotive on the turntable at Konya Depot.

A RSE also has oppourtunity a job to marketing and fair participating of railway related products, and
gives some courses during training.

5. Vehicle Maintenance & Repair

This job consists of periodical maintenance and repair of rail vehicles to get ready for new service
conditions. Activities could be divided into two functions such as mechanical and electrical-electronics
service.
a. Mechanical Maintenance & Repair
This kind of maintenance covers mechanical duty rail vehicles including engine, traction motor, draw
gear, brake system elements, power train, bogie components, frame and chassis. Maintenance activities
should be repeated periodically. There are also refilling of engine water, fuel, anti-sleepage dust. Some
minor, moderate and major overhauls are applied.
b. Electrical and Electronical Maintenance
In the concept of this maintenance some service work are done on electricromechanical and
electronics devices installed in locos, multiple units and passanger wagons.
There are also some maintenance for telecommunication devices, control rooms, computers systems, etc.
 Figure 7. Maintenance work at tram is depot

6. Derailment, Collision, and Accident Research

This is an important work in rail operation sector. If any rail vehicles are involved accidents, collisons
and making derailment, the event should be examined both administrative and technical approach. In
TCDD, there is also accident investigation committee in each regional directorate. Committee should
consist of following people; a traction service engineer, traffic engineer, and permanent way engineer.
This committee examine the reasons of derailment, collisions, and accidents.
Within the organisational structure of Ministry of Transportation, Maritime and Communication, there
is an Accident Investigation Council applying some accident research independently. Due to result of
accident investigation council offers enhancing recommendations to related institutions.

7. Track Planning and Contruction

This job covers track planning and construction. Here a RSE works with Civil Engineer together. Track
planning are done related with vehicle speed, axle force, lateral load onto rails, track gradient and
curvature, cant, etc.
In urban rail network, some different paremeters came into consideration such as distance between
stations, time intervals of trains, cruise speed, vehicle length, actual capacity, etc.
 Figure 8. Contruction of rail track

8. Signalling, Electrification, Telecommunication, Train protection and Control

a. Signalling
Traffic management system which has been providing safer train cruise are named as signalling.
Signalling control centers in which train traffic setting and managing are called as “dispatching centers”
responsible of remote controlled rail system network. In TCDD network nearly 30% of whole line are
commanded by TSI / CTC traffic control system.

Figure 9. Construction of tramvay track

 TSI / CTC traffic control system is commanded by control center using yellow, red and green lights
information.

Figure 10. Signal lights

Figure 11. Train traffic command center (CTC)

TSI / CTC traffic control system includes;

- Centrally data processor,
- Signal transfer unit and satellites,
- Train definition unit,
- Train monitoring panel,
- Protocol device accumulation data of train movements (traingraph) and
- Printer for traingraph.
 Figure 12. Train movements is shown on Traingraph

Additionally there are some extra equipments for wiresless and cable communication with trains
travelling alongside of lines. Nowadays train traffic between Irmak-Çankırı-Karabük and Zonguldak are
controlled by signals (TSI / CTC systems). Applying of TSI system in any railway line gives extra train
operation capacity nearly 30%.
Activities mentioned above also are related with RSE.

b. Electrification
Rail transportion systems use electricity for various needs. Energy generated is distributed to traction
system, traffic management work and signalisation, communication, lifts, escalators, air conditioning
systems, fire protection, warning and extinguishing purposes. Transfer lines, transformers, switching units,
and distribution facilities also are used for electrical energy transfer.
Signalisation, electrification and telecommunication network stretching alongside the railway track are
shown in Figure 13 and 14.

A Pantograph taking electrical energy for loco is seen in Figure 15.

 Figure 13. Energy, telecommunication, and signalling elements in electric railway system

Figure 14. Electric railway system with catenary lines.

c. Telecommunication
Another work for RSE is performing communication services. TCDD uses various comminication
methods such as faxsimile, telephone, institutional e-mail and official correspondence in electronic
medium, telem, telex, GSM-R and GPS. TCDD also has its own telephone network independent from
national telephone network throughout of Turkey.
 Figure 15. A pantograph receives electrical energy from overhead wire.

Telem service works between centers having telem machines and are used to send and receive
telegramms. Telex service are applied for domestic and international correspondence.
Wireless system and GSM-R network are used among managers, dispatchers*, line control personnel
and train drivers. Regular and emergency conditions has been monitoring continiously by wireless system.
Communications coming from various regions are recorded by wireless recorders. Managers have
monitored train positions, and ticket sales simultaneously.
*
dispatcher: train traffic manager

d. Train protection and control

Demir yolu işletmeciliğinde emniyetli ve verimli bir tren trafiğinin sağlanması amacıyla farklı tren
kontrol sistemleri geliştirilmiş olup, bunlardan bazıları; otomatik tren durdurma (ATS), otomatik tren
koruma (ATP), otomatik tren kontrolü (ATC), Avrupa Tren Kontrol Sistemleri (ETCS) dir.
1) Automatic Train Stopping (ATS) System
ATS system is considered as a first step of train protection. In electric train traction system, if a train
violate a red signal and passes it, sistem acts automatically and sents signals to energy line to interrupt
energy flow in order to stop train.
ATS system consists of magnets, receivers installed on locomotives, and built various traffic flow
scenarios and follow train driver commands. So it controls train speed, apply brakes and records whole
actions.
 Figure 16. Elements of ATS System (magnet on the left, control unit on the rigth)

2) Automatic Train Protection System (ATP)

ATP is newly developed technology for protecting train against collision due to signal faults. ATP
mainly controls train speed and compare it proper speed for safe cruising. Comparison uses some data
such as the distance of a train from signals block by block, track geometry (track gradient, speed limit,
curvature, etc.), occupancy of line. If train speed exceeds limits, force train to reduce speed in proper
level or stops it automatically.
3) Automatic Train Control System (ATC)
At the final years of 1990s train speeds reached to level of 250 - 300 km/h. So that it would impossible
to see signals for train drivers. Resultantly ATC system acts as proactively and protects train by controlling
train motion. Here ATC and ATP systems react together.
4) European Train Control System (ETCS)
ETCS is a new train signal control system has been using many European countries. ETCS is also
applied in Turkey for the first phase of Ankara – İstanbul high speed train project. ETCS covers some
common properties for whole European countries. So that system perceives trains coming from different
countries. Traffic could be managed safely.
As a summary, these kind of jobs mentioned above also offers work area for Rail System Engineer.

VOCABULARY OF RAILWAY TERMINOLOGY

Please select at least 20 terms used in this chapter, find their Turkish meaning and write in Table.
Turkish English Turkish English
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