AIRCRAFT LOADING CONCEPTS SESSION 8

Loads is a general term referring to the forces that act on any structure,
causing them to deflect and vibrate, thus giving rise to stresses and strains.
With aircraft calculation of the loads is an extremely important part of the
design process

Safe operation of aircraft requires all hold cargo and baggage to be

weighed (or an accurate estimate of weight provided by using “standard”
values), it must be loaded correctly and secured to prevent movement in
flight.

Loading should be in full accordance with the generally applicable

regulations and limitations, the operators loading procedures and in
accordance with the instructions given by the person with overall
responsibility for the loading process for a particular flight. These loading
instructions must match the requirements for baggage/cargo distribution
stated within the aircraft load and trim sheet.

What is stowage on an aircraft?

In nautical terminology, stowage is the amount of room available

for stowing materials aboard an airplane. In container stowage planning
refers to the arrangement of containers on board a containers or Pallets.

UNIT LOAD DEVICE {ULD}

A unit load device (ULD) is a pallet or container used to load luggage,
freight, and mail on wide-body aircraft and specific narrow-body aircraft. It
allows a large quantity of cargo to be bundled into a single unit. Since this
leads to fewer units to load, it saves ground crews time and effort and helps
prevent delayed flights. Each ULD has its own packing list (or manifest) so
that its contents can be tracked
What is considered a wide body aircraft?

A wide-body aircraft, also known as a twin-aisle aircraft, is a jet airliner with

a fuselage wide enough to accommodate two passenger aisles with seven
or more seats abreast. The typical fuselage diameter is 5 to 6 m (16 to 20
ft).
 Boeing 747 and Airbus A380. Other wide-bodies, configured for GA,
include the Boeing 777, Boeing 787, Boeing 767, Airbus A330/340, MD-11
and MD-11ER

Bulk Loading
Many narrow body short haul aircraft are bulk loaded with loose individual
items of baggage and cargo. In this case, baggage loading will be by item
count, with prescribed assumptions about the average weight per bag used
to complete the load and trim sheet; precise figures will often vary

Netting is used to restrain bulk loaded loose baggage items within holds so
that they do not move in flight. Any load that shifts in flight will move the
aircraft’s center of gravity and can cause control difficulties (in extreme cases
causing loss of control) and prevent baggage door opening post flight. Cargo
netting may also be used to divide larger holds into sections.

Bulk Loading is usually accomplished by delivery of items to the aircraft in a

baggage train of towed trailers. To help ensure each hold compartment is
loaded correctly, a particular trailer may only contain the baggage destined
for only one designated compartment. The trailer is unloaded into the
aircraft hold via conveyor belts and finally positioned in the hold by loaders
working within it. Usually, bulk loading of baggage items uses a system
whereby loading crews are informed that the last bag for loading on a
particular flight has arrived by use of an ‘End Bag’ identification tag - the
tag is applied to the last checked bag sent to the aircraft. A system of
stickers and a reconciliation sheet may also be used, where each printed
baggage tag has a bar-coded sticker, which is removed and stuck onto the
re-conciliation sheet as the bag is loaded. This helps ensure that all
checked baggage for that flight has been loaded and accounted for.

Unit Load Devices

Most wide bodied aircraft, and increasingly some narrow bodies, are able
to use the much simpler system of aluminum containers called Unit Load
Devices (ULD) These can be used to consolidate baggage or cargo items
before being loaded into the aircraft hold by specialized hydraulic lift
equipment. The ULDs are then maneuvered manually to a final position on
board by use of a roller floor, before being finally secured in position.

ULDs must either be weighed, or the number of baggage items per

container must be within a specified range and standard baggage unit
weights applied.
Special Procedures
Under either system, special procedures may be prescribed for abnormal
loads such as:

 those covered by Dangerous Goods Regulations

 heavy items
 oversize items
 items with have unusual dimensions/proportions.

Principal Hold Loading Risks

The principal risks associated with loading of aircraft holds are as follows:

 Holds are not loaded by the loading crew in accordance with the
Loading Instructions provided - and the Load Instruction/Report Form
is not amended to reflect these changes.
 Where the loading has been different to the original
Loading/Report Form and the Loading/Report form is updated, the last
minute change (LMC) has not been correctly applied to the original
load sheet calculations and checked for mass and balance limits.
 The load is not secured or restrained appropriately
 Unauthorized items are loaded (e.g. dangerous goods).
 Aircraft structure (or propeller blades if applicable) is damaged by
unintended impact from mechanized loading equipment. Such impacts
may go unnoticed by the loading team or in some cases is noticed but
not reported. This may happen when the load team can see no
apparent damage so consider reporting the impact unnecessary.
Where the aircraft structure is formed using composite materials all
impacts must be reported. While evidence of significant damage to a
metal structure is usually clearly visible, this is not necessarily true for
composite materials. Although the skin may appear to be undamaged,
the core of a composite structure may have deformed or have been
significantly weakened.

Consequences of Mis-loading
 Loss of Control in flight
 Runway Excursion during takeoff or landing
 Aircraft Hold Damage during flight

Accidents and Incidents

The following events listed are related to Cargo Aircraft Loading:
 A333, Sydney Australia, 2017 (On 10 December 2017, it was
discovered after completion of an Airbus A330-300 passenger flight
from Sydney to Beijing that freight loading had not been correctly
documented on the load and trim sheet presented to and accepted by
the Captain and as a result, the aircraft had exceeded its certified
MTOW on departure. The Investigation found that the overload finding
had not been promptly reported or its safety significance appreciated,
that the error had its origin in related verbal communications during
loading and noted that the aircraft operator had since made a series of
improvements to its freight loading procedures.)
 B748, Prestwick UK, 2017 (On 30 March 2017, a significant
amount of fuel was found to be escaping from a Boeing 747-8F as
soon as it arrived on stand after landing at Prestwick and the fire
service attended to contain the spill and manage the associated
risk of fire and explosion. The Investigation found that the fuel had
come from a Bell 412 helicopter that was part of the main deck
 cargo and that this had been certified as drained of fuel when it
was not. The shipper’s procedures, in particular in respect of their
agents in the matter, were found to be deficient.)

The following events listed are related to Passenger Aircraft Hold

Loading:
 A306, Paris CDG France, 1997 (On 30 July 1997, an Airbus A300-
600 being operated by Emirates Airline was departing on a scheduled
passenger flight from Paris Charles de Gaulle in daylight when, as the
aircraft was accelerating at 40 kts during the takeoff roll, it pitched up and
its tail touched the ground violently. The crew abandoned the takeoff and
returned to the parking area. The tail of the aircraft was damaged due to
the impact with the runway when the plane pitched up.)
 DH8B, Nuuk Greenland, 2019 (On 30 May 2019, a DHC8-200
departing from Nuuk could not be rotated at the calculated speed
even using full aft back pressure and the takeoff was rejected with
the aircraft coming to a stop with 50 metres of the 950 metre long
dry runway remaining. The initial Investigation focus was on a
potential airworthiness cause associated with the flight control
system but it was eventually found that the actual weights of both
passengers and cabin baggage exceeded standard weight
assumptions with the excess also resulting in the aircraft centre of
gravity being outside the range certified for safe flight.)

ULD Identification
Containers and pallets should be identified by a unique combination of
letters and numbers. The IATA standard system comprises 3 leading
letters, 4 or 5 numerals and 2 trailing letters. The 3 leading letters (eg AKE,
PMC) define the type of ULD, the 4 or 5 numerals are a unique number
allocated by the operator and the 2 trailing letters show a 2 letter ICAO
code which indicated the owner which may be an airline (eg BA) or a ULD
leasing company (eg JG). Full details of the coding standards are found in
the IATA ULD Technical Manual. ULDs may also carry a bar code, which
will usually replicate the visible IATA-standard code.

Certification of ULD
Containers, pallets, and nets are in most cases required to be approved for
use (“certified”) by the airworthiness authority for the country where the
manufacturer is located. Currently the 2 most commonly used certification
standards are:

 FAA - Technical Standards Order (TSO) C90c and

 EASA - ETSO C90c,
though other countries such as China, Australia etc have complementary
standards for certification of ULD.

Certified and Non Certified ULD

The great majority of ULD are designed and sold as certified ULD, however
there are some exceptions. These can be identified by the first letter of their
identification code:

Certified container A

Non Certified container D

Certified pallet P

Non-certified pallet F

Correct use of ULD

1. Every ULD should be inspected before use to determine if any
damage has occurred which would render the ULD unserviceable.
2. Baggage and cargo should be loaded evenly, paying attention to
maintaining the center of gravity of the load with the 10% of the
center of the base.
3. After completing the load, the door of the container must be securely
closed.
4. No certified ULD may be used for flight unless its manufacturers
plate/marking (also known as TSO plate) is attached and legible.
This plate/marking is required by the rules of the certifying authorities
(eg FAA, EASA etc) and is a legal requirement.
 5. Container doors shall always be securely closed or secured in an
open position.
A ULD not loaded in compliance with these instructions may very well not
be able to carry out its defined purpose of providing restraint to the
contents in flight, and should not be allowed on board the aircraft.

Loading of pallets is similar to loading containers; particular attention

should be given to the cargo net being used to secure the load to the pallet.
Cargo nets are subject to severe wear and tear and are often found to be
unserviceable, however there is an all too common tendency to use cargo
nets in an unserviceable condition or to attempt some kind of “unauthorized
repair”; neither of these actions is acceptable. 

Loading / Unloading of Containers

1. Always check the unit before starting loading. Any damage found
must be below the required damage limits otherwise the ULD is not
airworthy.
2. If the cargo is to be protected from possible rain damage by the use
of plastic sheets, these should be taped inside the container. The use
of plastic sheeting around the outside of the container is subject to
restrictions: the material must meet FAA/ EASA burn rate
requirements and the manufacturers plate (TSO Plate) must remain
visible.
3. Cargo or bags should be stacked in an interlocking fashion as far as
possible.
4. Avoid placing heavy cargo in the outboard section of the container
(overhanging section) as this can cause the container to rock or tilt to
the outside, causing loading difficulties.
5. Ensure that cargo/ baggage in the door side does not extend to the
point that the door is not flat when closed.
6. Inspect the loaded ULD to ensure it is within the designated contour.
It may appear that a container is within its contour by the nature of its
structure, however there are extremely small clearances between the
container and the cargo hold liner in many aircraft and even a small
distortion in the container structure (as may occur due to certain
types of damage, or from loading heavy cargo in the overhanging
section of the container) can result in the container touching the hold
walls, causing considerable damage and grounding the aircraft (hold
liners are fire containment devices and if punctured the aircraft
 cannot take off). Care must be taken that all ULD are within their
designated contour before they are loaded to the aircraft.
7. Consult airline guidance for any heavy items which may require
spreader boards to spread the weight on the base and may require
additional tie down using cargo straps.
8. When closing the door, do not use hammers or other excessive force
to operate latches etc as these will almost certainly not be openable
on arrival at destination.
9. Never use knives to cut open a container door

Loading/ Unloading of Pallets and Nets

1. Carry out a pre loading check to determine that the pallet and net are
serviceable before loading begins. Particular attention should be
given to the cargo net being used to secure the load to the pallet.
Cargo nets are subject to severe wear and tear and are often found
to be unserviceable. It is important to determine that the net is
serviceable before starting to load the pallet.
2. If plastic sheeting is to be used this must be underneath the pallet
net.
3. Load cargo in an interlocking manner as far as possible. Ensure the
load is within the specified contour. Overhanging loads ( as used in
lower deck loads) must be built in such a manner that the
overhanging sections will not collapse in flight.
4. After loading all cargo the net shall be used as follows:
1. Place the net over the load, attach the net fittings to the seat track
using even spacing along the sides
2. Use the “reefing hooks” along each side to take up any excess net
body (as found on less than full contour loads)
3. Use the corner ropes ( lashing lines) or other corner closing devices as
fitted to close and lightly tension the net .
Dangerous Goods

Articles or substances which are capable of posing a risk to health, safety,

property or the environment and which are shown in the list of dangerous
goods in the Technical Instructions or which are classified according to
those Instructions.

ICAO Provisions
Dangerous goods must be carried only when subject to specific restrictions
on their packaging, quantity carried, stowage location, proximity to other
items, or category of flight. ICAO Annex 18 to the Chicago Convention The
Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, deals with all aspects of the
subject. In general, it sets down the broad principles which determine
whether items are acceptable for carriage by air. One of the applicable
Standards requires that Dangerous Goods are carried only in accordance
with ICAO Doc 9284, ‘Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of
Dangerous Goods by Air’ which is generally referred to as the "Technical
Instructions". The Technical Instructions amplify the basic provisions of
Annex 18 and contain all the detailed instructions necessary for the safe
international transport of dangerous goods by air.

Contracting States are required under Annex 18 to have inspection and

enforcement procedures in place which will ensure that all Dangerous
Goods are only carried in full compliance with the stated requirements. By
requiring that appropriate National legislation must be in force, this system
ensures governmental control over the carriage of dangerous goods by air
and provides for a world-wide harmonization of safety standards.

The Technical Instructions

The Technical Instructions contain a comprehensive set of requirements
which is based upon a classification of dangerous goods and includes a list
of all those defined. This list identifies those goods which are:

 forbidden under any circumstances;

 forbidden on both passenger and cargo aircraft in normal
circumstances but could be carried in exceptional circumstances
subject to exemption by the States concerned;
 forbidden on passenger aircraft but permitted on cargo aircraft in
normal circumstances; and
 permitted on both passenger and cargo aircraft in normal
circumstances.
The Technical Instructions require that all dangerous goods be packaged
appropriately and usually restrict the quantity per package according to the
degree of hazard and the type of aircraft (i.e. passenger or cargo) on which
the items are being loaded. In the majority of cases, there is no limit on the
number of packages per aircraft. The Instructions also specify the packing
methods to be used and the packaging permitted, together with the
specifications for that packaging including the stringent testing regime
which this packaging must successfully complete before it can be used. In
addition, there are precise requirements for the marking and labeling of
Dangerous Goods packages and in respect of the documentation which
must be prepared whenever such packages are consigned by air.

There is a requirement that every package of dangerous goods should be

inspected externally by the Aircraft Operator or their contracted agent
before carriage to ensure it is in a fit state and appears to comply with all
the relevant requirements. Packages are subject to loading restrictions
including the segregation of those containing incompatible dangerous
goods and securing so as to prevent movement in flight.

The Aircraft Commander must be informed before departure what

dangerous goods are on board and where they are located since, in the
event of an emergency on board (which may not necessarily involve
dangerous goods), the aircraft commander is required, situation permitting,
to inform the appropriate ATC Unit of dangerous goods on the aircraft to
assist the emergency services in their response. The aircraft commander
may exercise discretion in respect of the communication of dangerous
goods information, since he/she must judge the risks involved in diverting
the attention of a member of the flight crew from the primary task of
keeping control of the aircraft during emergency situations.

Since Aircraft Operators are also aware of what dangerous goods have
been loaded on their aircraft, in the event of an aircraft accident the
Technical Instructions require that they must, as soon as possible, inform
the State in which the accident occurred of what was on board and where it
was located. It is accepted that it is possible, that in some circumstances,
this information may not be instantly available. Operators are also required
to report to the relevant authority all accidents and incidents involving
dangerous goods, and States in turn are required to have procedures in
place to investigate such occurrences.

The Technical Instructions contain training requirements which apply to

everyone involved in consigning, handling and carrying dangerous goods,
cargo and passenger baggage. These include the need for refresher
training at two-year intervals and the keeping of training records. There are
specific responsibilities for shippers and operators. Shippers must ensure
staff preparing consignments of dangerous goods receive training or that
another organization with trained staff is used. Operators must ensure their
own staff and those of their handling agents are trained. Training
programmes for operators are subject to approval by the State of the
operator.

Accidents & Serious Incidents involving Dangerous Goods which

Resulted in a Fire
 A333, Manila Philippines, 2013 (On 7 October 2013 a fire was
discovered in the rear hold of an Airbus A330 shortly after it had
arrived at its parking stand after an international passenger flight. The
fire was eventually extinguished but only after substantial fire damage
had been caused to the hold. The subsequent Investigation found that
the actions of the flight crew, ground crew and airport fire service
following the discovery of the fire had all been unsatisfactory. It also
established that the source of the fire had been inadequately packed
dangerous goods in passengers checked baggage on the just-
completed flight.)
 B744, en-route, East China Sea, 2011 (On 28 July 2011, 50
minutes after take off from Incheon, the crew of an Asiana Boeing
747-400F declared an emergency advising a main deck fire and an
intention to divert to Jeju. The effects of the rapidly escalating fire
eventually made it impossible to retain control and the aircraft
crashed into the sea. The Investigation concluded that the origin of
the fire was two adjacent pallets towards the rear of the main deck
which contained Dangerous Goods shipments including Lithium ion
 batteries and flammable substances and that the aircraft had
broken apart in mid-air following the loss of control.)

What are the 9 hazard classes?

The nine hazard classes are as follows:

 Class 1: Explosives.
 Class 2: Gases.
 Class 3: Flammable and Combustible Liquids.
 Class 4: Flammable Solids.
 Class 5: Oxidizing Substances, Organic Peroxides.
 Class 6: Toxic Substances and Infectious Substances.
 Class 7: Radioactive Materials.
 Class 8: Corrosives.
 Class 9: Miscellaneous Hazardous Materials.
LOAD LIMITATION
The lower of limit and ultimate loads, limit load is defined as the
maximum load that an aircraft is expected to see at any point in the service
life of that aircraft. Limit loads can be expected in any given direction
(forward or down etc.) or a combination of more than one directions
(example forward+ up etc.).
Operator Procedures on Cargo Loading and Unloading. An operator’s
procedures about aircraft loading and unloading should address:
Aircraft Floor and ULD Base Load Limits.
The operator’s procedures should address the aircraft’s floor load limits if
the operator loads cargo directly onto the aircraft’s floor. These limits can
be expressed as area load or linear/running load limits. The procedures
also should address floor load limits for a ULD base if the ULD
manufacturer has a limit. Operators should base these procedures on
information from the aircraft manufacturer. The procedures should address
how to distribute, or shore, cargo weight greater than a floor load limit.
Aircraft Weight Limits.
The operator’s procedures should address the weight limits for aircraft
cargo positions, floors, zones, and compartments, and measures to ensure
the operator does not exceed them. The operator should base these limits
on information from the aircraft manufacturer
Aircraft CG Range Limits.
The operator’s procedures should address the CG range limits for the
aircraft, and longitudinal, lateral, and vertical CG limits for cargo positions.
The procedures also should prevent an operator from exceeding these
limits. The operator should base these procedures on information from the
aircraft manufacture
Cargo Requiring Special Handling Procedures.
Some cargo may require additional or unique procedures to protect cargo
or the aircraft during handling, acceptance or loading, or in flight. Examples
of special handling procedures include ceremony or instructions for
transporting human remains, feeding live animals in transit, signature
service forms for tracking mail/cargo, compatibility with hazmat, protective
gear when handling cryogenics, etc. The operator’s procedures should
address cargo loads requiring special handling,

RESTRAINING THR LOAD

Cargo is restrained (tied down) in an aircraft so that it remains stationary in
the cargo compartment when the aircraft is subjected to rough air,
vibration, acceleration, deceleration, and rough landings. The greatest
force exerted on the cargo is usually the forward movement encountered
when the aircraft slows rapidly on landing. When the pilot applies the
 aircraft brakes on landing, the cargo tends to keep moving at a higher
speed. The cargo is also restrained in proportion to its weight, so that it will
not shift when the aircraft turns, takes off, lands, or encounters other forces
while flying. Tie-down equipment is aboard the aircraft to be used as
restraints.
PRINCIPLES OF CARGO RESTRAINT
Cargo loaded in an aircraft is restrained so that it will not shift during any
condition the aircraft experiences in flight. Basic principles of restraint
apply to tying down cargo. Although the details vary for different kinds of
cargo, the basic principles of restraint do not change. The basic principles
follow:

 Tie down cargo to prevent movement in all directions.

 Install tie-down devices to provide adequate restraint without
overstressing the tie-down fitting or damaging the cargo.
 Ensure the tie-down leads directly from the tie-down fitting on the
aircraft floor to the load being restrained.
 Attach tie-down devices in symmetrical pairs. Unsymmetrical tie-
downs cause uneven load distribution and could result in tie-down failure.
 Ensure tie-down pairs in a given direction are equal in type and
length. (Any material subjected to a tension load stretches to a given
percentage of its length. Therefore, the greater the length, the greater the
potential amount of stretch. If two tie-downs of the same type and capacity
restrain a load in a given direction and one tie is longer than the other, the
longer tie has a greater stretch potential. The shorter tie assumes the
majority of any load that may develop. If as a result the shorter tie is
overstressed and fails, the longer tie would be subjected to the full load and
it too would probably fail.)

RESTRAINT CRITERIA
Restraint criteria for aircraft cargo are based on the weight of the cargo
and the forces imposed on it due to changes in motion (changing
direction, slowing down, or speeding up). The force increases as the rate
of change in motion increases.

*The primary restraint criterion is the minimum amount of restraint needed

to keep cargo from moving in a specific direction. A numerical factor (g
factor) called restraint safety factor or load factor has been determined for
cargo aircraft. This figure determines the number of tie-down devices to
use.

*Imagine a passenger traveling in a car at 50 mph. The driver jams on the

brakes for a sudden stop. What happens to the passenger when the
brakes are applied? The same thing happens to the cargo in an aircraft. A
sudden change in direction or speed of the aircraft moves the cargo in the
same manner. The change in motion is called the outside force. The
amount of outside force to which a unit of cargo may be subjected is
called the load or g factor. Multiplying the weight of a unit of cargo by the
g factor results in the amount of required restraint for that unit of cargo:

*Weight x G Factor = Required Restraint

*For example, a unit of cargo weighing 5,000 pounds is to be restrained

from moving forward. The forward g factor for the aircraft is 3. Use the
formula to determine the total load to be restrained: cargo weight (5,000
pounds) times g factor (3) equals the weight to be restrained against
forward movement (15,000 pounds).

DIRECTION OF RESTRAINT
The direction in which the cargo would move if it were not restrained
identifies the restraint criteria applied to the cargo to prevent its
movement. Forward restraint keeps cargo from moving forward in the
aircraft; aft restraint, from moving backward; lateral restraint, from moving
to either side; and vertical restraint, from moving up off the aircraft floor.
The aircraft floor is downward restraint.

LASHING BELTS
PALLETS WITH NET

SINGLE STUD FITTING

DOUBLE STUD FITTING