Chapter 2
Structural Loading
Installing PV panels onto roofs introduces hazards that can affect the structural
integrity of the roof. Not only does the roof support the dead load of the PV system
itself, but also external forces introduce structural loading. Outside installations
exposes the PV system and roof assembly to hazardous elements such as wind, hail,
snow, debris, and extreme temperatures. These elements introduce substantial loads
to the panels and the roof through wind up-lift, thermal expansion, and debris build-
up. Substantial loads can lead to the destruction of rooftops and PV systems.
“Structural engineers must consider each of these loads separately and in combi-
nation to identify the worst-case loading situation” (O’Brien and Banks 2012).
There are guidelines on the installation, maintenance, and testing of PV systems
that can help prevent failure of the system due to extreme external forces.
Guidelines depend on what type of mounting is used to attach the PV systems to
the roof. There are three different methods of mounting PV systems to a roof
structure: ballast-only, attached roof-bearing, and structurally attached. Ballast-only
PV systems are weighed down by heavy materials such as concrete to keep them
located in the same position. Ballast-only systems are not attached to the roof
structure. An attached roof-bearing system uses friction clips to secure PV modules
to the beams of the framing system. Structurally attached PV systems are attached
to the roof structure such that the load path is the same for both upward and
downward forces (SEAOC 2012a). The three types of methods: ballast-only,
modular, and structurally attached are shown in Figs. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 respectively.
Each method has advantages and disadvantages with cost and how different hazards
will interact with the system.
There is also another method of attachment, which is BIPV (Building
Integrated), these systems are in more green buildings and are becoming more
popular. This attachment method is most similar to the attached roof bearing sys-
tem. Because this attachment method is dependent on the building that the PV
system is attached to, diverse building designs leads to diverse BIPV systems. The
uniqueness of these systems are displayed in Figs. 2.4 and 2.5.
© Fire Protection Research Foundation 2015 9
R. Wills et al., Best Practices for Commercial Roof-Mounted Photovoltaic
System Installation, SpringerBriefs in Fire, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2883-5_2
10 2 Structural Loading
Fig. 2.1 Ballast-only PV
system ASCE (2013)
Fig. 2.2 Attached roof-
bearing PV system ASCE
(2013)
Fig. 2.3 Structurally attached
PV system ASCE 2013
2 Structural Loading 11
Fig. 2.4 BIPV mounted system (NREL image gallery)
Fig. 2.5 BIPV mounted system (NREL image gallery)
Although these two examples are both BIPV systems they look and behave
completely differently. “Building-integrated systems are integral with the roof or
lay flat on the roof surface such that they do not affect the roof profile. They may
consist of sheets of photovoltaic material attached to the roof membrane by
adhesive, for example” (Maffei 2014). The attachment method can significantly
affect the loads that are being applied to the structure and how it is being handled.
“The roofing industry has learned from experience that ballast-only rooftop
equipment does not necessarily remain stationary. Structurally attached equipment
is more reliable in this regard” (Kirby 2011). An engineer using calculations found
in codes and standards can evaluate structurally attached equipment.
12 2 Structural Loading
Even though structurally attached equipment can be evaluated by an engineer,
the ballast-only systems are difficult to evaluate. There are advantages for ballast-
only systems. “Ballast-only systems avoid the cost and increased water intrusion
risk caused by the roofing penetrations needed for attached systems” Ward (2013).
Ballast-only systems do not puncture the roofing membrane in order to keep them
stable, which avoids the issue of water leaking through the holes created by
structurally attached equipment. Another aspect of the ballast-only PV systems that
creates a hazard for the roofing structure is all the added weight of the ballasting. A
roof needs to be able to support not only the PV systems, but also the heavy ballasts
that are used to hold down the PV systems. As stated before, the structural loading
of the PV systems can be significantly increased when combined with external
forces such as wind.
Modular systems are even more difficult to evaluate than ballast-only systems.
They are attached to the building by screws, clips, or adhesives. A variation of the
attached roof-bearing type is one in which an anchor is used to secure the pedestals
of the solar panels to the roof deck as opposed to the roof framing. In that case, the
designers should consider the load path for the wind uplift load transferring from
the anchor through the deck into the secondary structural framing supporting the
deck.
Structural loading is difficult to be calculated for these attachment methods. This
method is often used for smaller buildings like residential buildings; therefore this
report will focus on ballast-only systems and structurally attached systems.
“It is important that designers and engineers determine loads on modules, fasteners, all
components within the racking system and the applied loads to the roof. Loads must
ultimately be transferred from the modules to the fasteners and racking system, and ulti-
mately through the roof deck and building structure to the ground. This is common
knowledge for most structural engineers. Remember that this likely involves the use of
different effective wind areas based on the load- sharing capability of the component under
analysis. The wind load rating of the module should not be exceeded. Once wind loads are
determined, structural engineers must apply appropriate safety factors and combine loads as
required in ASCE 7-05 Section 2. ‘ASCE Standard 7-05 is the standard for evaluating wind
forces on structures.” The ASCE Standard 7-05 “provides requirements for general struc-
tural design and includes means for determining dead, live, soil, flood, wind, snow, rain,
atmospheric ice, and earthquake loads, and their combinations that are suitable for inclusion
in building codes and other documents” (Thomson Reuters 2013).
“In addition to wind loads, other loads such as snow, seismic and gravity (dead
load) must be taken into account” (O’Brien and Banks 2012). The load that is
provided by the weight of the PV systems themselves is only a portion of the loads
that is going to be imposed on the roofing structure.
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