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0521666244 - Geodynamics, Second Edition

Donald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert
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GEODYNAMICS
Second Edition

First published in 1982, Don Turcotte and Jerry Schubert’s Geodynamics became
a classic textbook for several generations of students of geophysics and geology.
In this second edition, the authors bring this classic text completely up-to-date.
Important additions include a chapter on chemical geodynamics, an updated
coverage of comparative planetology based on recent planetary missions, and a
variety of other new topics.
Geodynamics provides the fundamentals necessary for an understanding of
the workings of the solid Earth. The Earth is a heat engine, with the source of
the heat the decay of radioactive elements and the cooling of the Earth from
its initial accretion. The work output includes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and mountain building. Geodynamics comprehensively explains these concepts
in the context of the role of mantle convection and plate tectonics. Observations
such as the Earth’s gravity field, surface heat flow, distribution of earthquakes,
surface stresses and strains, and distribution of elements are discussed. The rhe-
ological behavior of the solid Earth, from an elastic solid to fracture to plastic
deformation to fluid flow, is considered. Important inputs come from a compari-
son of the similarities and differences between the Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury,
and the Moon. An extensive set of student exercises is included.
This new edition of Geodynamics will once again prove to be a classic text-
book for intermediate to advanced undergraduates and graduate students in
geology, geophysics, and Earth science.

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Donald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert
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Donald L. Turcotte is Maxwell Upson Professor of Engineering, Department of

Geological Sciences, Cornell University. In addition to this book, he is author
or co-author of 3 books and 276 research papers, including Fractals and Chaos
in Geology and Geophysics (Cambridge University Press, 1992 and 1997) and
Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets (with Gerald Schubert and Peter
Olson; Cambridge University Press, 2001). Professor Turcotte is a Fellow of the
American Geophysical Union, Honorary Fellow of the European Union of Geo-
sciences, and Fellow of the Geological Society of America. He is the recipient
of several medals, including the Day Medal of the Geological Society of America,
the Wegener Medal of the European Union of Geosciences, the Whitten
Medal of the American Geophysical Union, the Regents (New York State)
Medal of Excellence, and Caltech’s Distinguished Alumnus Award. Professor
Turcotte is a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Gerald Schubert is a Professor in the Department of Earth and Space Sci-

ences and the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at the University of
California, Los Angeles. He is co-author with Donald Turcotte and Peter Olson
of Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets (Cambridge University Press,
2001), and author of over 400 research papers. He has participated in a num-
ber of NASA’s planetary missions and has been on the editorial boards of
many journals, including Icarus, Journal of Geophysical Research, Geophysical
Research Letters, and Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences. Professor
Schubert is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and a recipient of the
Union’s James B. MacElwane medal. He is a member of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences.

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0521666244 - Geodynamics, Second Edition
Donald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert
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GEODYNAMICS
Second Edition

DONALD L. TURCOTTE
Professor of Geological Sciences
Cornell University

GERALD SCHUBERT
Professor of Earth and Space Sciences
University of California, Los Angeles

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Donald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert
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PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, VIC 3166, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa
[Link]

C Cambridge University Press 2002

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First edition published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1982.

Printed in the United States of America

Typefaces Times Ten 9.75/12.5 pt., Formata and Melior System LATEX 2ε [TB]

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Turcotte, Donald Lawson.
Geodynamics / Donald L. Turcotte, Gerald Schubert. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Geodynamics applications of continuum physics to geological
problems, c1982.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-521-66186-2 – ISBN 0-521-66624-4 (pb.)
1. Geodynamics. I. Schubert, Gerald. II. Turcotte, Donald Lawson. Geodynamics
applications of continuum physics to geological problems, c1982. III. Title.
QE501 .T83 2001 2001025802

ISBN 0 521 66186 2 hardback

ISBN 0 521 66624 4 paperback

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Donald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert
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Contents

Preface page xi
Preface to the Second Edition xiii

ONE. Plate Tectonics 1

1–1 Introduction 1
1–2 The Lithosphere 5
1–3 Accreting Plate Boundaries 6
1–4 Subduction 9
1–5 Transform Faults 13
1–6 Hotspots and Mantle Plumes 14
1–7 Continents 17
1–8 Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates 22
1–9 Triple Junctions 35
1–10 The Wilson Cycle 38
1–11 Continental Collisions 41
1–12 Volcanism and Heat Flow 46
1–13 Seismicity and the State of Stress in the Lithosphere 49
1–14 The Driving Mechanism 54
1–15 Comparative Planetology 55
1–16 The Moon 56
1–17 Mercury 58
1–18 Mars 59
1–19 Phobos and Deimos 64
1–20 Venus 65
1–21 The Galilean Satellites 67

TWO. Stress and Strain in Solids 73

2–1 Introduction 73
2–2 Body Forces and Surface Forces 73
2–3 Stress in Two Dimensions 80
2–4 Stress in Three Dimensions 83
2–5 Pressures in the Deep Interiors of Planets 84

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vi CONTENTS

2–6 Stress Measurement 85

2–7 Basic Ideas about Strain 87
2–8 Strain Measurements 94

THREE. Elasticity and Flexure 105

3–1 Introduction 105
3–2 Linear Elasticity 106
3–3 Uniaxial Stress 106
3–4 Uniaxial Strain 108
3–5 Plane Stress 109
3–6 Plane Strain 111
3–7 Pure Shear and Simple Shear 111
3–8 Isotropic Stress 112
3–9 Two-Dimensional Bending or Flexure of Plates 112
3–10 Bending of Plates under Applied Moments and Vertical Loads 116
3–11 Buckling of a Plate under a Horizontal Load 118
3–12 Deformation of Strata Overlying an Igneous Intrusion 119
3–13 Application to the Earth’s Lithosphere 121
3–14 Periodic Loading 122
3–15 Stability of the Earth’s Lithosphere under an End Load 123
3–16 Bending of the Elastic Lithosphere under the Loads
of Island Chains 124
3–17 Bending of the Elastic Lithosphere at an Ocean Trench 127
3–18 Flexure and the Structure of Sedimentary Basins 129

FOUR. Heat Transfer 132

4–1 Introduction 132
4–2 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction 132
4–3 Measuring the Earth’s Surface Heat Flux 133
4–4 The Earth’s Surface Heat Flow 135
4–5 Heat Generation by the Decay of Radioactive Elements 136
4–6 One-Dimensional Steady Heat Conduction with Volumetric
Heat Production 138
4–7 A Conduction Temperature Profile for the Mantle 140
4–8 Continental Geotherms 141
4–9 Radial Heat Conduction in a Sphere or Spherical Shell 144
4–10 Temperatures in the Moon 145
4–11 Steady Two- and Three-Dimensional Heat Conduction 146
4–12 Subsurface Temperature Due to Periodic Surface Temperature
and Topography 147
4–13 One-Dimensional, Time-Dependent Heat Conduction 149
4–14 Periodic Heating of a Semi-Infinite Half-Space: Diurnal
and Seasonal Changes in Subsurface Temperature 150
4–15 Instantaneous Heating or Cooling of a Semi-Infinite Half-Space 153
4–16 Cooling of the Oceanic Lithosphere 157
4–17 Plate Cooling Model of the Lithosphere 161
4–18 The Stefan Problem 162

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CONTENTS vii

4–19 Solidification of a Dike or Sill 166

4–20 The Heat Conduction Equation in a Moving Medium:
Thermal Effects of Erosion and Sedimentation 168
4–21 One-Dimensional, Unsteady Heat Conduction in an Infinite Region 169
4–22 Thermal Stresses 171
4–23 Ocean Floor Topography 174
4–24 Changes in Sea Level 178
4–25 Thermal and Subsidence History of Sedimentary Basins 179
4–26 Heating or Cooling a Semi-Infinite Half-Space by a Constant
Surface Heat Flux 183
4–27 Frictional Heating on Faults: Island Arc Volcanism and Melting
on the Surface of the Descending Slab 184
4–28 Mantle Geotherms and Adiabats 185
4–29 Thermal Structure of the Subducted Lithosphere 190
4–30 Culling Model for the Erosion and Deposition of Sediments 191

FIVE. Gravity 195

5–1 Introduction 195
5–2 Gravitational Acceleration External to the Rotationally
Distorted Earth 195
5–3 Centrifugal Acceleration and the Acceleration of Gravity 200
5–4 The Gravitational Potential and the Geoid 201
5–5 Moments of Inertia 205
5–6 Surface Gravity Anomalies 207
5–7 Bouguer Gravity Formula 210
5–8 Reductions of Gravity Data 212
5–9 Compensation 213
5–10 The Gravity Field of a Periodic Mass Distribution on a Surface 213
5–11 Compensation Due to Lithospheric Flexure 214
5–12 Isostatic Geoid Anomalies 216
5–13 Compensation Models and Observed Geoid Anomalies 219
5–14 Forces Required to Maintain Topography and the Geoid 223

SIX. Fluid Mechanics 226

6–1 Introduction 226
6–2 One-Dimensional Channel Flows 226
6–3 Asthenospheric Counterflow 230
6–4 Pipe Flow 231
6–5 Artesian Aquifer Flows 233
6–6 Flow Through Volcanic Pipes 234
6–7 Conservation of Fluid in Two Dimensions 234
6–8 Elemental Force Balance in Two Dimensions 235
6–9 The Stream Function 237
6–10 Postglacial Rebound 238
6–11 Angle of Subduction 242
6–12 Diapirism 244
6–13 Folding 249

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viii CONTENTS

6–14 Stokes Flow 254

6–15 Plume Heads and Tails 259
6–16 Pipe Flow with Heat Addition 262
6–17 Aquifer Model for Hot Springs 264
6–18 Thermal Convection 266
6–19 Linear Stability Analysis for the Onset of Thermal Convection
in a Layer of Fluid Heated from Below 267
6–20 A Transient Boundary-Layer Theory for Finite-Amplitude
Thermal Convection 272
6–21 A Steady-State Boundary-Layer Theory for Finite-Amplitude
Thermal Convection 274
6–22 The Forces that Drive Plate Tectonics 280
6–23 Heating by Viscous Dissipation 283
6–24 Mantle Recycling and Mixing 285

SEVEN. Rock Rheology 292

7–1 Introduction 292
7–2 Elasticity 293
7–3 Diffusion Creep 300
7–4 Dislocation Creep 307
7–5 Shear Flows of Fluids with Temperature- and
Stress-Dependent Rheologies 311
7–6 Mantle Rheology 318
7–7 Rheological Effects on Mantle Convection 323
7–8 Mantle Convection and the Cooling of the Earth 325
7–9 Crustal Rheology 327
7–10 Viscoelasticity 329
7–11 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Behavior 333

EIGHT. Faulting 339

8–1 Introduction 339
8–2 Classification of Faults 339
8–3 Friction on Faults 341
8–4 Anderson Theory of Faulting 343
8–5 Strength Envelope 347
8–6 Thrust Sheets and Gravity Sliding 347
8–7 Earthquakes 350
8–8 San Andreas Fault 355
8–9 North Anatolian Fault 359
8–10 Some Elastic Solutions for Strike–Slip Faulting 361
8–11 Stress Diffusion 367
8–12 Thermally Activated Creep on Faults 368

NINE. Flows in Porous Media 374

9–1 Introduction 374
9–2 Darcy’s Law 374
9–3 Permeability Models 375

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CONTENTS ix

9–4 Flow in Confined Aquifers 376

9–5 Flow in Unconfined Aquifers 378
9–6 Geometrical Form of Volcanoes 387
9–7 Equations of Conservation of Mass, Momentum, and Energy
for Flow in Porous Media 390
9–8 One-Dimensional Advection of Heat in a Porous Medium 391
9–9 Thermal Convection in a Porous Layer 393
9–10 Thermal Plumes in Fluid-Saturated Porous Media 396
9–11 Porous Flow Model for Magma Migration 402
9–12 Two-Phase Convection 405

TEN. Chemical Geodynamics 410

10–1 Introduction 410
10–2 Radioactivity and Geochronology 411
10–3 Geochemical Reservoirs 415
10–4 A Two-Reservoir Model with Instantaneous
Crustal Differentiation 417
10–5 Noble Gas Systems 423
10–6 Isotope Systematics of OIB 424

APPENDIX ONE. Symbols and Units 429

APPENDIX TWO. Physical Constants and Properties 433
Answers to Selected Problems 437
Index 441

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Preface

This textbook deals with the fundamental physical pro- ical behavior of faults, and the interpretation of gravity
cesses necessary for an understanding of plate tectonics anomalies are emphasized. Thus it is expected that the
and a variety of geological phenomena. We believe that student will develop a thorough understanding of such
the appropriate title for this material is geodynamics. fundamental physical laws as Hooke’s law of elasticity,
The contents of this textbook evolved from a series of Fourier’s law of heat conduction, and Darcy’s law for
courses given at Cornell University and UCLA to stu- fluid flow in porous media.
dents with a wide range of backgrounds in geology, geo- The problems are an integral part of this textbook.
physics, physics, mathematics, chemistry, and engineer- It is only through solving a substantial number of exer-
ing. The level of the students ranged from advanced cises that an adequate understanding of the underlying
undergraduate to graduate. physical principles can be developed. Answers to se-
In all cases we present the material with a minimum lected problems are provided.
of mathematical complexity. We have not introduced The first chapter reviews plate tectonics; its main pur-
mathematical concepts unless they are essential to the pose is to provide physics, chemistry, and engineering
understanding of physical principles. For example, our students with the geological background necessary to
treatment of elasticity and fluid mechanics avoids the understand the applications considered throughout the
introduction or use of tensors. We do not believe that rest of the textbook. We hope that the geology student
tensor notation is necessary for the understanding of can also benefit from this summary of numerous geo-
these subjects or for most applications to geological logical, seismological, and paleomagnetic observations.
problems. However, solving partial differential equa- Since plate tectonics is a continuously evolving sub-
tions is an essential part of this textbook. Many geolog- ject, this material may be subject to revision. Chapter
ical problems involving heat conduction and solid and 1 also briefly summarizes the geological and geophys-
fluid mechanics require solutions of such classic partial ical characteristics of the other planets and satellites
differential equations as Laplace’s equation, Poisson’s of the solar system. Chapter 2 introduces the concepts
equation, the biharmonic equation, and the diffusion of stress and strain and discusses the measurements of
equation. All these equations are derived from first these quantities in the Earth’s crust. Chapter 3 presents
principles in the geological contexts in which they are the basic principles of linear elasticity. The bending of
used. We provide elementary explanations for such im- thin elastic plates is emphasized and is applied to prob-
portant physical properties of matter as solid-state vis- lems involving the bending of the Earth’s lithosphere.
cosity, thermal coefficient of expansion, specific heat, Chapter 4 deals mainly with heat conduction and the
and permeability. Basic concepts involved in the studies application of this theory to temperatures in the con-
of heat transfer, Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid tinental crust and the continental and oceanic litho-
behavior, the bending of thin elastic plates, the mechan- spheres. Heat transfer by convection is briefly discussed

xi

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xii PREFACE

and applied to a determination of temperature in the A comprehensive study of the spatial and temporal
Earth’s mantle. Surface heat flow measurements are variations of the Earth’s magnetic field is also consid-
reviewed and interpreted in terms of the theory. The ered to be outside the scope of this textbook. A short
sources of the Earth’s surface heat flow are discussed. discussion of the Earth’s magnetic field relevant to pale-
Problems involving the solidification of magmas and omagnetic observations is given in Chapter 1. However,
extrusive lava flows are also treated. The basic princi- mechanisms for the generation of the Earth’s magnetic
ples involved in the interpretation of gravity measure- field are not considered.
ments are given in Chapter 5. Fluid mechanics is studied In writing this textbook, several difficult decisions
in Chapter 6; problems involving mantle convection had to be made. One was the choice of units; we use
and postglacial rebound are emphasized. Chapter 7 SI units throughout. This system of units is defined in
deals with the rheology of rock or the manner in which Appendix 1. We feel there is a strong trend toward the
it deforms or flows under applied forces. Fundamen- use of SI units in both geology and geophysics. We rec-
tal processes are discussed from a microscopic point ognize, however, that many cgs units are widely used.
of view. The mechanical behavior of faults is discussed Examples include µcal cm−2 s−1 for heat flow, kilobar
in Chapter 8 with particular attention being paid to for stress, and milligal for gravity anomalies. For this
observations of displacements along the San Andreas reason we have often included the equivalent cgs unit in
fault. Finally, Chapter 9 discusses the principles of fluid parentheses after the SI unit, for example, MPa (kbar).
flow in porous media, a subject that finds application Another decision involved the referencing of original
to hydrothermal circulations in the oceanic crust and work. We do not believe that it is appropriate to in-
in continental geothermal areas. clude a large number of references in a basic textbook.
The contents of this textbook are intended to pro- We have credited those individuals making major con-
vide the material for a coherent one-year course. In tributions to the development of the theory of plate
order to accomplish this goal, some important aspects tectonics and continental drift in our brief discussion of
of geodynamics have had to be omitted. In particular, the history of this subject in Chapter 1. We also provide
the fundamentals of seismology are not included. Thus references to data. At the end of each chapter a list of
the wave equation and its solutions are not discussed. recommended reading is given. In many instances these
Many seismic studies have provided important data are textbooks and reference books, but in some cases
relevant to geodynamic processes. Examples include review papers are included. In each case the objective
(1) the radial distribution of density in the Earth as is to provide background material for the chapter or to
inferred from the radial profiles of seismic velocities, extend its content.
(2) important information on the locations of plate Many of our colleagues have read all or parts of
boundaries and the locations of descending plates at various drafts of this textbook. We acknowledge the
ocean trenches provided by accurate determinations contributions made by Jack Bird, Peter Bird, Muawia
of the epicenters of earthquakes, and (3) details of the Barazangi, Allan Cox, Walter Elsasser, Robert Kay,
structure of the continental crust obtained by seismic Suzanne Kay, Mark Langseth, Bruce Marsh, Jay Melosh,
reflection profiling using artificially generated waves. John Rundle, Sean Solomon, David Stevenson, Ken
An adequate treatment of seismology would have re- Torrance, and David Yuen. We particularly wish to ac-
quired a very considerable expansion of this textbook. knowledge the many contributions to our work made
Fortunately, there are a number of excellent textbooks by Ron Oxburgh and the excellent manuscript prepa-
on this subject. ration by Tanya Harter.

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Preface to the Second Edition

As we prepared our revisions for this second edition of sediments. In Chapter 5 we show how geoid anoma-
of Geodynamics we were struck by the relatively few lies are directly related to the forces required to main-
changes and additions that were required. The reason tain topography.
is clear: this textbook deals with fundamental physical In Chapter 6 we combine a pipe-flow model with
processes that do not change. However, a number of a Stokes-flow model in order to determine the struc-
new ideas and concepts have evolved and have been ture and strength of plume heads and plume tails. The
included where appropriate. relationship between hotspot swells and the associated
In revising the first chapter on plate tectonics we plume flux is also introduced. In addition to the steady-
placed added emphasis on the concept of mantle plumes. state boundary-layer model for the structure of mantle
In particular we discussed the association of plume convection cells, we introduce a transient boundary-
heads with continental flood basalts. We extensively re- layer model for the stability of the lithosphere.
vised the sections on comparative planetology. We have Finally, we conclude the book with a new Chapter 10
learned new things about the Moon, and the giant im- on chemical geodynamics. The concept of chemical geo-
pact hypothesis for its origin has won wide acceptance. dynamics has evolved since the first edition was written.
For Venus, the Magellan mission has revolutionized our The object is to utilize geochemical data, particularly
information about the planet. The high-resolution radar the isotope systematics of basalts, to infer mantle dy-
images, topography, and gravity data have provided namics. Questions addressed include the homogeneity
new insights that emphasize the tremendous differences of the mantle, the fate of subducted lithosphere, and
in structure and evolution between Venus and the Earth. whether whole mantle convection or layered mantle
Similarly, the Galileo mission has greatly enhanced our convection is occurring.
understanding of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter. The use of SI units is now firmly entrenched in geol-
In Chapter 2 we introduce the crustal stretching ogy and geophysics, and we use these units throughout
model for the isostatic subsidence of sedimentary basins. the book. Since Geodynamics is meant to be a text-
This model provides a simple explanation for the for- book, large numbers of references are inappropriate.
mation of sedimentary basins. Space-based geodetic However, we have included key references and refer-
observations have revolutionized our understanding of ences to sources of data in addition to recommended
surface strain fields associated with tectonics. We in- collateral reading.
troduce the reader to satellite data obtained from the In addition to the colleagues who we acknowledge
global positioning system (GPS) and synthetic aperture in the preface to the first edition, we would like to
radar interferometry (INSAR). In Chapter 4 we intro- add Claude Allègre, Louise Kellogg, David Kohlstedt,
duce the plate cooling model for the thermal structure Bruce Malamud, Mark Parmentier, and David
of the oceanic lithosphere as a complement to the half- Sandwell. We also acknowledge the excellent manu-
space cooling model. We also present in this chapter the script preparation by Stacey Shirk and Judith Hohl,
Culling model for the diffusive erosion and deposition and figure preparation by Richard Sadakane.

xiii

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GEODYNAMICS
Second Edition

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