CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the study

Information and Communication technology (ICT) tools are common resources used in

educational settings. ICT for basic education policy put clear that ICT includes all forms of

technologies which can enhance student learning such as all computer application, Television and

Video as well as radio programs and media (Kibga, 2013; MoEVT, 2007). These tools can range in

complexity from the most basic such as calculator, word process and presentation soft ware to

more complex tools such as storage package, simulators or video editing package that in turn

requires grater user skills. The internet has also saverved as a teaching, learning and storage

resourses in which in ensuring information and communication abilities in the management of

examinations and documents (Tillya, 2010).

The advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have brought many

changes in the economic and social life. ICT has been taken as an enabler of many services that

lead to individual and national development. It brings advantages in many sectors, which in turn

bring about national development. International leaders, donors and funders are also supporting the

integration of ICT in many areas that promote social development and innovation . In the area of

education, improved school administration and increased performance are some of the advantages

of such ICT integrations. The Tanzania Development Vision 2025 among other things, stresses on

the importance of having a well learned and educated society by 2025 which will contribute to the

national development. ICTs are bringing many opportunities for achieving the goals of the Vision.

1
In the education sector, ICTs have changed the pedagogical practices. It is through the use of ICT

that innovation and creativity is promoted in many areas of development.

According to the National Bureau of Statistics , Tanzania has a total of 4,753 secondary schools as

of 2015, of which 3,692 are public and 1,061 are private including Rombo district. The use of ICT

in Assessment is still low and is hindered by many factors including lack of ICT devices and

power problems. The Government through MoESTVT has implemented several programmes and

initiatives that aim at integrating ICT in the teaching and learning process. Such initiatives include

National Programme on ICT for Secondary School Teachers ; the e-Schools Project and the

introduction of ICT Curriculum in Secondary schools. However, the readiness of secondary

schools to effectively integrate ICT in examinations management and of teachers in terms of

knowledge and skills has not yet been fully explored. This paper looks into the readiness of

schools in terms of infrastructure present and the skills and ICT gadgets possessed by secondary

school teachers towards ICT integration in examinations management and the way forward

towards successful ICT usage in examinations management in secondary school schools.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has caused a major paradigm shift in how we

approach the gathering, storage, retrieval, and analysis of information in every industry

(Jankowski, 1996). ICT is becoming increasingly used in schools and educational institutions, and

has been established in professional and classroom practice. What is clear is that any ICT

implementation needs to address specific business objectives and is a means to an end; namely to

improve school management; not just as a change for the sake of change but a change to enable the

school realize its set objectives.

2
Head of schools in secondary schools, continue to take increasing interest in the scope of this field

where a lot of money has been invested in the purchasing of ICT tools such as computers ,

however it is important to note that despite all that effort little research work has been undertaken

which considers aspects of ICT and school examinations [Link] and school

examinations management is an important issue, since it is well recognized that senior managers in

schools have a major impact upon classroom and curriculum practices, and that the use of ICT

within schools is permeating aspects of school practice to the extent that it will impact upon the

practice of all staff and school activities at large (Passey, 2002).

The information systems available designed for the purpose of improving school examinations

management include reporting systems, monitoring and tracking systems, parental alert software,

development planning, business management, timetabling and communications all of which, if

used properly can result into education development, Jankowski, (1996). Secondary school

administrators in Rombo should see the incorporation of ICT facilities into the Management of

their schools and the administrations uses management information systems like salary, results and

registry management system, fees tracking records and payment system to assist in record keeping,

examination and financial management of the schools , (Bashange, 2004).

ICT stands for Information and Communication Technologies and it can be defined as a diverse set

of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage

information (Victoria, 2002). In this study, ICT was used to refer to the use of internet, Databases

and computer applications in the management of secondary schools.

Management broadly refers to organizing, planning, directing, monitoring, controlling and

evaluation of resources in the organization. In this study, it will refer to planning, directing,

3
monitoring and controlling of school resources which include finance, examinations, records and

information flow in the school. Management is dedicated to ensuring the highest possible

standards and achievement in all areas of the school's work. Good management styles can result

into a clear strategic thinking and planning for improvement of the school (Taylor, 2004). Much

emphasis was put on how ICT can enhance school effectiveness and assist managers in planning,

directing, monitoring and controlling of school resources.

Effective management by head of schools, governors and school staff are key factors in bringing

about high standards of students’ achievement and school improvement in general. Management is

an important element that harnesses the energies and commitment of teaching staff, students, non-

teaching staff and parents, and provides a clear direction for the work and development of the

school (Taylor, 2004). Management ensures the efficiency of administration and organization of

the school .Management of schools requires proper planning, directing, monitoring and controlling

of resources which include finance, examinations and student/staff records and information flow.

However, many secondary schools in Rombo had weaknesses in management of such aspects yet

they had ICT facilities that would enhance effective management if they were used effectively.

Management of examinations in schools had been characterized by inefficiency in the areas of

finance, information and examination, student/staff records thus resulting into declining academic

standards (Ramalho, 2006). It has been observed, that many secondary schools in Rombo have

got ICT tools, but they have not fully utilized such tools to manage school activities (Ramalho,

2006). ICT can enhance school management in terms of assisting managers and teachers in

organizing, planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation of the school assessment

operations, (Eremu 2007). It has been noted that currently several secondary schools in Rombo

4
have ICT structures but continue with manual system of operations and thus not supporting

examinations management of the school.

Table 1.1 Showing the state of Rombo District ICT infrastructure in the district.

TYPE OF ITEM QUANTITY AVAILABLE

Computers for teachers 63
Computers for students 732
Storage routers (Database computers) 41
TOTAL 836

Source: D.E.O’s Office, July,2020

From table 1 above , the use of ICT in Tanzanian schools is not entirely new. In the late 1960s and

early 1970s primary and secondary schools were provided with radios to enable students to listen

to educational programmes designed by the Ministry of Education in collaboration with and

broadcast by Radio Tanzania, the state radio station. The implementation of the new ICT Policy

for Basic Education will undoubtedly improve access to and use of ICT in education. The policy

foresees the use of a wide range of ICTs, from radio and mobile telephony to computers and

Internet, to reach educational objectives.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The past few years witnessed a host of activities aimed at injecting ICT in Tanzania’s education

sector. From the International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD)-supported

roundtable in Bagamoyo where 11 ICT for education projects were formulated to the Swedish

International Development Agency (SIDA)-supported stakeholders forum of January 2005, which

saw the birth of the Tanzania eSchools initiative and many other activities in between. All this

has, as a result, tremendously increased the awareness of the benefits of ICT within the Education

sector, not to mention the support from several development partners. With the raised awareness

5
the potential that ICT has demonstrated in improving the quality and access to education, the

government, through the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training has recently developed an

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Policy for Basic Education (July 2007) that

will among other things, structure the adoption of ICT within the education sector.

Information and communication technology has caused a major paradigm shift in how schools

manage data and information. The use of ICT in education setting is to support teaching and

administration (Michelle, 2004). There are various challenges in many secondary schools

concerning the management of financial resources, information and examinations, staff/student

records. For example the school bursar would find it hard to identify students who have fully paid

fees, and teachers who have been paid salary with the traditional method of using papers and folder

files for record keeping in a school with a high population of students (Ramalho, 2006). If he/she

will identify them, it would take much time checking and sorting out files, something that would

be done easily with the use of tracking devices of ICT. At times the consequence would be

mishandling and loss of school finances.

There is also a problem of mismanagement of examination exercise in schools, and this involves

delayed submission of examination records, loss of marks, miscalculation of marks, (Byaruhanga,

2002). Yet to my observation if a database was developed, that process would be simplified.

Considering such problems like financial and examination mismanagement, poor record keeping

coupled with poor information flow, the effect will be low level performance of students and staff,

declining academic standards and the eventual closure of schools (Visscher, 2001). This is a

serious threat to the education development of the nation. Few researches however have been

undertaken to find out roles of ICT on management of secondary schools in Tanzania. So it is

6
upon this background that the researcher is motivated to investigate on what ICT can offer as far as

management of examinations in secondary schools is concerned in Rombo district.

1.3. Research Questions

1) What are the roles of ICT on examination setting and testing in secondary schools in

Rombo?

2) What are the roles of ICT on examination record keeping in secondary schools in Rombo?
3) What are the roles of ICT on Examinations grading system in secondary schools in Rombo
District?

1.4. Research Hypotheses

i) There is a relationship between ICT and examination setting and testing in secondary

schools in Rombo district?.

ii) There is a relationship between ICT and examinations record keeping in Rombo
district.
iii) There is a relationship between ICT and examinations grading system in secondary
schools in Rombo district.

1.5. Significance of the Study

Results from this study will highlight to school administrators and managers the various areas

where ICT can be applied in management and administration. This research will be of value to

students, who will be in need of understanding contributions of ICT in the field of management

and administration of schools. This research will accumulate knowledge for use by future

researchers about the role of ICT in management of secondary schools.

1.6. Scope and delimitation of the Study

7
The study focused on the use of ICT in management of students’ records, examination, school

finances and information flow in secondary schools of Rombo districts. The study findings applied

to all private and public secondary schools in Rombo district in Tanzania and also to the districts in

less developed areas where the socio economic characteristics are similar to those in the study

district. The same may be the case to rural districts or even developed areas where ICT is of a great

need in education settings. This selected district was a representative of districts in Tanzania that

have schools with the ICT facilities.

1.7. Conceptual framework

Intervening variables
Environment

Finances

Independent variable Dependent variable

1. Database i.e. exam database, 1. Examination management i.e. setting,

financial database timetabling, positioning and grading
2. Computer application i.e. excel 2. Information flow in the school between the
3. Internet i.e. emails, SMS, chat parents, administrators and the teachers
rooms and discussion board

Outcomes

Improved academic performance

Effective communication

Cordial relationship between management, teachers and

students
Fig. 1. Conceptual Frame work

8
Figure 1.1 shows how ICT can support the management functions in a typical secondary school in

Rombo district. In supporting management for example, examination management which includes

setting of examinations, timetabling, positioning and grading of students, ICT structures such as

examination databases, computer applications such as Ms Excel could be used in making the

process quick and effective which impacts positively on the academic performance of the school.

Financial management can be supported by automatic communication to parents via Short

Message Services and emails about the fees balance and children’s fees structure which also

enhances communication and information flow in the school. The databases as ICT structures can

also influence financial management in the school in which the bursar of the school can use these

databases to track down students that have paid school fees and those that have not cleared the

school dues. It can also help in the tracking of teachers’ salaries or management of the payroll

which can assist in the financial management in the school.

Making a school’s internet accessible and utilized by teachers and school administrators would

improve on the information flow in the school. For example administrative tasks can easily be

communicated to members through the use of emails, SMS and chartroom.

The consequent result of effective integration of ICT in administration will be improved academic

performance, effective communication, cordial relationship between management, teachers and

students, effective record keeping and proper financial management.

1.8. Theoretical Framework.

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was developed by Ajzen (1991) which focuses on cognitive

self-regulation. It takes into account a so called perceived behavioral control. Perceived behavioral
9
control refers to the perception of control over the performance of a given behavior. In TRA

rational considerations determine the choices and behaviors of individuals, and individual

intentions determine behavior. Intentions refer to individuals’ plans and motivations to commit a

specific act. Intentions also reflect individual attitudes and the extent to which individuals perceive

a specific act as desirable or favorable. The theory suggests that human behavior is governed by

personal attitudes, but also by social pressures and a sense of control. Ajzen (1991) reviews that

the theory was applied, for example, in studies examining problem drinking or leisure behavior, in

which the theory provided useful information to understand these behaviors, or to implement

effective interventions to change them. In their studies Taylor and Todd (1995) and Mathieson

(1991) compared the ability of TPB and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to explain

behavior and predict an individual’s intention to use ICT, respectively.

Strengths of the theory

The TPB has been used successfully to predict and explain a wide range of health behaviors and

intentions including smoking, drinking, health services utilization, breastfeeding, and substance

use, among others. The TPB states that behavioral achievement depends on both motivation

(intention) and ability (behavioral control). It distinguishes between three types of beliefs -

behavioral, normative, and control. The TPB is comprised of six constructs that collectively

represent a person's actual control over the behavior.

Weakness of the theory

It assumes the person has acquired the opportunities and resources to be successful in performing

the desired behavior, regardless of the intention. It does not account for other variables that factor

into behavioral intention and motivation, such as fear, threat, mood, or past experience. While it

10
does consider normative influences, it still does not take into account environmental or economic

factors that may influence a person's intention to perform a behavior. It assumes that behavior is

the result of a linear decision-making process, and does not consider that it can change over time.

While the added construct of perceived behavioral control was an important addition to the theory,

it doesn't say anything about actual control over behavior. The time frame between "intent" and

"behavioral action" is not addressed by the theory.

Application of the theory in the study.

This theory examined how best to assimilate the use of ICT across organizational work processes,

and how ICT use becomes routinized in the activities associated with those processes. The focus

was on the actual usage of ICT in organizations especially in schools. Assimilation refers to the

extent to which the use of a technology diffuses across organizational work processes and becomes

reutilized (Cooper and Zmud, 1990; Fichman and Kemerer, 1997). ICT adoption in secondary

schools is very important especially in examinations settings in Rombo district Tanzania

1.9. Operational definition of terms.

Information Communication Technologies (ICT) in this study refers to the computer and internet

connections used to handle and communicate information for learning purpose.

E learning: - is a learning program that makes use of an information network- such as the internet,

an intranet (LAN) or extranet (WAN) whether wholly or in part, for course delivery, interaction

and/or facilitation. Web-based learning is a subset of e learning and refers to learning using an

internet browser such as the module, blackboard or internet explorer (Tinio, 2002). Blended

Learning: - refers to learning models that combines the face-to-face classroom practice with e-

learning solutions. For example, a teacher may facilitate student learning in class contact and uses

11
the module (modular object oriented dynamic learning environment) to facilitate out of class

learning.

Learner- centred learning environment: - is a learning environment that pays attention to

knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring with them to the learning process where

its impetus is derived from a paradigm of learning called constructivism. In the context of this

article, it means students personal engagement to the learning task using the computer and or the

internet connection.

12
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

This chapter includes the review of related theories, empirical study of relating studies and the

identification of the research gap from the empirical study.

2.2.0 Review of Related Theories.

2.2.1 Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)

Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) was developed by Venkatesh et

al. (2003) . Venkatesh et al developed this theory through reviewing eight models/ theories which

explain ICT usage, namely Theory of Reasoned Actions (TRA) , Technology Acceptance Model

(TAM) , the motivational model, Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), a model combining TAM

and TPB, the model of PC utilization, Diffusion of Innovations (DOI), and the social cognitive

theory. The purpose of UTAUT is to explain a user’s intentions to use ICT and the subsequent user

behavior. The model considers four constructs as direct determinants of user acceptance and usage

behavior, namely performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating

conditions. There are four key moderating variables: gender, age, experience, and voluntariness of

use. The authors stated that UTAUT provides a tool for managers to assess the likelihood of

success of technology introductions and to understand the drivers of acceptance in order to design

interventions, which include, e.g., training or marketing. UTAUT focuses on users who may be

less willing to adopt and use new systems.

13
Fig 2.1. Theory of acceptance

Strength of the theory

UTAUT provides a tool for managers to assess the likelihood of success of technology

introductions and to understand the drivers of acceptance in order to design interventions, which

include, e.g., training or marketing. UTAUT focuses on users who may be less willing to adopt and

use new systems.

Weakness of the theory

It does not account for other variables that factor into behavioral intention and motivation, such as

fear, threat, mood, or past experience. While it does consider normative influences, it still does not

take into account environmental or economic factors that may influence a person's intention to

14
perform a behavior. It assumes that behavior is the result of a linear decision-making process, and

does not consider that it can change over time.

Application of the theory in the study

This theory examined how best to assimilate the use of ICT across organizational work processes,

and how ICT use becomes reutilized in the activities associated with those processes. The focus

was on the actual usage of ICT in organizations especially in schools. In secondary school in

Rombo District adoption of ICT will be very crucial especially on the management of

examinations given that examinations are very important in determination of educational products.

2.2.2. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was developed by Ajzen (1991) which focuses on cognitive

self-regulation. It takes into account a so called perceived behavioral control. Perceived behavioral

control refers to the perception of control over the performance of a given behavior. In TRA

rational considerations determine the choices and behaviors of individuals, and individual

intentions determine behavior. Intentions refer to individuals’ plans and motivations to commit a

specific act. Intentions also reflect individual attitudes and the extent to which individuals perceive

a specific act as desirable or favorable. The theory suggests that human behavior is governed by

personal attitudes, but also by social pressures and a sense of control. Ajzen (1991) reviews that

the theory was applied, for example, in studies examining problem drinking or leisure behavior, in

which the theory provided useful information to understand these behaviors, or to implement

effective interventions to change them. In their studies Taylor and Todd (1995) and Mathieson

(1991) compared the ability of TPB and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to explain

behavior and predict an individual’s intention to use ICT, respectively.

15
Figure 2.2. Theory of planned behavior Source: Ajzen (1991)

Strengths of the theory

The TPB has been used successfully to predict and explain a wide range of health behaviors and

intentions including smoking, drinking, health services utilization, breastfeeding, and substance

use, among others. The TPB states that behavioral achievement depends on both motivation

(intention) and ability (behavioral control). It distinguishes between three types of beliefs -

behavioral, normative, and control. The TPB is comprised of six constructs that collectively

represent a person's actual control over the behavior.

Weakness of the theory

It assumes the person has acquired the opportunities and resources to be successful in performing

the desired behavior, regardless of the intention. It does not account for other variables that factor

16
into behavioral intention and motivation, such as fear, threat, mood, or past experience. While it

does consider normative influences, it still does not take into account environmental or economic

factors that may influence a person's intention to perform a behavior. It assumes that behavior is

the result of a linear decision-making process, and does not consider that it can change over time.

While the added construct of perceived behavioral control was an important addition to the theory,

it doesn't say anything about actual control over behavior. The time frame between "intent" and

"behavioral action" is not addressed by the theory.

Application of the theory in the study.

This theory examined how best to assimilate the use of ICT across organizational work processes,

and how ICT use becomes routinized in the activities associated with those processes. The focus

was on the actual usage of ICT in organizations especially in schools. Assimilation refers to the

extent to which the use of a technology diffuses across organizational work processes and becomes

reutilized (Cooper and Zmud, 1990; Fichman and Kemerer, 1997). ICT adoption in secondary

schools is very important especially in examinations settings in Rombo district Tanzania

[Link] of Related Empirical studies

2.3.1. Roles of ICT on examination setting and testing in secondary schools

Tucker (2009) states that “fill-in-the-bubble” testing has dominated student assessment practices in

local, state and national assessments since the invention of the IBM Type. Test Scoring Machine in

1938 in Indonesia. Tucker (2009) asserts that the computer, as scoring tool, replaces the

conventional paper-based multiple-choice or filling the gaps test with computerised versions. The

limitations of multiple-choices tests are still there. However, it is essential to keep in mind that the

use of computers facilitates a more efficient and effective scoring system, and it is expected to be

17
able to minimize errors. Examinations take a long process starting from setting, editing as well as

printing, in which all these activities will be done properly by using ICT.

According to Brown & Abeywickrama (2010), most computer-based tests consist of fixed and

close-ended responses, which are scored by using an automatic electronic scoring machine.

However, in some computer-based tests, such as TOEFL, they offer a written essay section and an

oral production section.. However, Jamieson (2005) discusses the contribution of corpus linguistics

in recent developments of computer-based assessment to providing more authenticity by designing

more complex tasks and structures and by recording written and orals score by using speech and

writing recognition software.

Dawley (2007) include course surveys, exams and testing tools, Internet assessment tools such as

Hot Potatoes, Quia, Exam Builder, rubric tools like Rubi Star and quiz creation tools such as Quiz

Star. In addition, some survey tools are available such as Survey Monkey, Zoomerang, Survey Pro,

Survey Gold and Survey Gizmo. These tools are used to create questions such as multiple choice,

essay, true/false, matching, fill-in-the-blank and ordering types of questions in online testing.

When students are required to take the tests, the Internet availability is necessary. For the offline

setting, a set of questions can be designed by using certain software, such as Adobe Dreamweaver,

which can make an offline version of the test as well as generating the score. The testing programs

can be accessed in a computer independent.

GoK,(2013). The recently sworn in Government in Kenya seems to have spurred things toward

digitalization in education with the laptop per child initiative. The curriculum developers KICD

(initially KIE) already have digital content to be loaded onto theses laptops). This in itself is leap

towards achieving a future digitalized education system. As the number of candidature continue to

18
rise with every year’s examination registration, so will the need to transform our assessment

systems in order to adequately and efficiently accommodate them.

MoEVT, (2008, 2009 & 2011) . NECTA in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and

Vocational Training (MoEVT) has initiated various ICT Projects leading to the use of ICT in

education sector. One of the interesting projects initiated by NECTA is the use of ICT in secondary

school, teachers colleges, primary school for registrations of candidates for different examinations.

NECTA is offering number of services electronically such as marking of Primary school

examinations by using OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) technologies, online registration;

collection of continuous assessments electronically, dissemination of examination results through

NECTA website, SMS –service for results notifications. This kind of testing has initiated the ICT

usage in secondary schools in Tanzania particularly in Rombo district.

2.3.2. Roles of ICT on record keeping in secondary schools.

Ferrara (2010) suggests that to have portfolio assessment program online, an educational

institution must have high commitment to providing the most suitable technologies to suit

students’ needs. In addition, for online e-portfolios, the availability of Internet access is required to

access the e-portfolio program, since it is a web-based program, even though some e-portfolio

programs also provide offline versions that also need Internet access, but not necessarily for

accessing the program. Strudler and Wetzel (2005) mention two routes of portfolio creation that

can be taken by educational institutions. Some can use off-the-shelf tools such as Microsoft Office

and various Web authoring applications while others can use commercial Web-based systems (e.g.,

Chalk and Wire, John Hopkins’ Portfolio System, Live Text, Professor Portfolio and TaskStream).

19
Another form of assessment that can be utilized by teachers is the portfolio. Oyadure (2014) define

portfolios as being written and integrated collections of students’ work showing effort, progress or

a degree of proficiency. The tendency to use ICT in assessment also influences portfolio

assessment, in which electronic versions of portfolios are developed in many educational

institutions. Therefore, an overview of e-portfolio applications in assessment will be elaborated.

Things such as the organisation and benefits of e-portfolios are discussed. Electronic portfolios

benefit students just like the hard copy portfolio does since an electronic portfolio is basically

trying to replicate the traditional portfolio. Instead of using paper or manually collecting students’

works in bundles, the works are collected in an electronic or computer-based format and saved in

computer data storage or online data storage.

In assessment, the project is considered as an alternative assessment for a constructivist classroom

that provides students opportunity to express what they have learned and help them to define their

own view of the topic. Nitko and Brookhart (2011) recognise two types of project: the individual

student project and the group project. The purpose of an individual student project is to show the

student’s ability to apply and integrate a wide range of abilities and knowledge as well as using

creativity, originality and aesthetics.

Role of ICT in administrative tasks involves maintenance of records, communication and

documents management. In this study automation of stores, students and staff records were used to

determine the effects on ICT in administrative management of private secondary schools in

Nairobi County. Findings in table 2 indicate that 68.75% of private schools have automated their

stores, 56.25% students’ records and 62.50% staff records. This is in line with Meryo and Boit

(2012) assertion that usage of ICT in administrative management involves harnessing technology

for better planning, setting standards, effecting change and monitoring results of the core

20
functions. Secondly, in automating stores schools safeguard assets students examination records

and ensure they are used solely for authorized purposes. Maintaining school stores records is a

very tedious and time-consuming task. ICT manages all stores and sub-store items/consumables

with various details required to be captured for these items. Principals from these schools noted

that appropriate reports like issue of the items to staff and students is available on a mouse click in

most schools and principals concurred that they can analyze the consumption more efficient. Other

benefits noted are getting inventory balances, lots item information, minimum stock, outward and

inward transaction details and many more

MoEVT.(2011, July 22), implemented nationwide education management information system

(EMIS) to produce and manage educational data and information. The EMIS is expected to collect,

process, utilise, and disseminate education data to educational stakeholders on a timely basis. This

project is currently being implemented at the ministry headquarters, however some regional and

districts offices have been provided with computers and printers. Computer training has taken

place for 19 regional education officers, 19 regional academic officers, 35 district education

officers, and 34 statistical and logistics officers. Efforts are underway to ensure that the remaining

districts are trained and provided with computers and printers.

2.3.3. Roles of ICT on examinations grading in secondary schools

One of the key design elements of ICT Essentials is the inclusion of progressive formative exams

and a summative exam as described below. While formative exams provide teachers with a

mechanism for gauging student progress, the summative exam provides a mechanism for

documenting student mastery of the technology in the course.

2.4. Summary and the identification of Research gap

21
It is clear that the interactions involved in understanding the roles of ICT in secondary schools are

complex in nature, as yet , planned behavior and acceptance and use of technology is really

attempted. Investigations based on Acceptance and Use of Technology and Planned Behavior

theories are limited due to paucity of data. The above studies provide an important aspect

regarding the roles of ICT on examinations management in secondary schools, they also provides

results and conclusions of researches done in this area of study. Having found minimal literature

on this topic attempts into further research has to be done. The current research thus aims at trying

to fill the gaps identified. It is this research that triggered to investigate the roles of ICT on

examinations management in secondary schools in Rombo district- Tanzania.

22
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the methods and techniques that will be adopted by the researcher in

investigating the role of information and communication technology on examination management.

The chapter presents the research design, target population, sampling procedures, data collection

tools, data collection and analysis procedures and the ethical confirmations in research.

3.2 Research Design

The researcher will adapt mixed methods approach under which convergent parallel design will be

used. According to Creswell (2012), convergent parallel design involves the collection of

qualitative and quantitative data at the same time so as to understand the research problem in

detail. The advantage of using this design is that the weaknesses of one approach are supplemented

by the strengths of another approach. In this study therefore, the design will enable the researcher

to collect quantitative and qualitative data on the role of information and communication

technology in examination management.

3.3 Target Population

Heads of schools, teachers, and academic teachers in secondary schools in Rombo district will be

targeted in this study. According to Basic Education Statistics (2020), there are 51 secondary

schools in Rombo district with 51 heads of schools, 51 academic teachers and 1013 teachers.

Heads of schools will be target because they oversee all the school activities and therefore they

were in a good position of providing information on how information and communication

23
technology is used in the management of examinations. Academic teachers will be included in the

study since they are the ones who are responsible for all school academic matters including

examinations. Therefore, they are expected to give information on the role of information and

communication technology on examination management. Teachers on their side will be used in the

study because they are the ones who set, administer, score and give examination reports.

Therefore, they are expected to give adequate information on how they make use of information

and communication technology in the entire assessment process.

3.4 Description of Sample and Sampling Procedure

The sample for this studywill consist of 7 heads of schools, 7 academic teachers and 63 teachers

making a total number of 77 respondents. According to Mugenda & Mugenda (2003), a sample

size of 30 cases can serve the purpose in descriptive studies. Since the current study is about

describing the role of ICT in the management of examinations, therefore the sample of 77

respondents is considered to be representative of the population.

3.4.1 Schools

Seven out of 51 schools will be selected using stratified sampling technique. The researcher will

first group the schools into private and public categories and then after select 5 schools from the

public category and 2 schools from the private category using simple random techniques. To

achieve this, the researcher will write the names of schools in each category on pieces of papers

fold the papers and place them in a container. Then after, he will pick one paper at a time with

replacement until the required number of schools is achieved. The number of public schools will

be more in the sample because in the population of schools (51) the number of public schools (42)

outweighs that of private schools (9).

24
3.4.2 Heads of Schools

All the heads of sampled schools will be included in the study. Since there is only one head per

school, no sampling technique will be used to obtain the sample from this category of respondents.

This is because sampling is conducted to select some individuals to represent others, as long as

there is only one head per school, sampling is not possible. Due to the vital position they hold in

the management of all school activities including the assessment process, the heads of sampled

schools will automatically be included in the study.

3.4.3 Academic Teachers

As for the heads of schools, the academic teachers from the sampled schools will be automatically

included in the study. The reason for automatic inclusion is that there is only one academic teacher

per school and therefore sampling would be not possible. Since the academic teachers are the ones

responsible for all the academic purposes including the setting, administering, scoring and

reporting examination results, they will be of great significant in this study which aims at

determining the role of communication and information technology in the process of examination

management in Rombo district.

3.4.4 Teachers

Stratified sampling technique will be used to select 9 teachers from each sampled school. The basis

of stratification will be on the teaching subjects. The researcher will first stratify teachers into their

respective teaching subjects (one subject per teacher) and then use simple random sampling

technique to select one teacher from each regroup. In this study, only nine subjects will be

targeted; these subjects include mathematics, biology, physics, history, geography, Kiswahili,

English language, civics and chemistry. These subjects will be used because they are common in

25
each school in Rombo district and therefore ensuring the availability of teachers to respond to the

research instruments. Stratified sampling will be used in the selection of teachers so as to ensure a

representation of each teaching subject. This will also enable the researcher to determine whether

nature of the subject influences the use of communication and information technology in the

management of examinations. The whole process of sampling is summarized in table 3.1

Table 3.1 Sampling Matrix

Category Population Sampl Sampling technique Percentage

e
Schools 51 7 Stratified 14%
Heads of schools 51 7 No sampling 14%
Academic teachers 51 7 No sampling 14%
Teachers 1013 63 Stratified 6.1%
Total number of 77
respondents

3.5 Description of Data Collection Instruments

Data necessary for answering the research questions of this study will be collected using

questionnaires, interview guides and document analysis schedule. Questionnaires will be used to

obtain quantitative data from teachers while interview guides will be used to gather qualitative

information from the heads of schools and academic teachers. Document analysis schedule will be

used to collect information from written document concerning the management of examinations to

determine the role of communication and information technology in the process.

3.5.1 Questionnaire for Teachers

Questionnaire for teachers will be organized into five sections. The first section will ask for

demographic information of respondents. Personal information in this section will include gender,

age and teaching experience of teachers as well as their knowledge on the application of

26
information and communication technology. These variables will be asked so as to determine

whether they affect the use of ICT in examination management.

The second section will have both closed and open ended questions on how information and

communication technology is used in the setting of examinations. The third section on the other

side will have closed and open ended items asking about the application of information and

communication technology in the grading of students. The fourth section will also have closed and

open ended questions on the application of information and communication technology in testing

students and the fifth section will have open and closed ended questions on how information and

communication is used in keeping students records pertaining to examinations in secondary

schools in Rombo district. This instrument will be attached in this document as appendix one.

3.5.2 Interview Guide for Academic Teachers

The interview guide for academic teachers will consist of open ended questions that will be asked

orally to the teachers pertaining on the role of information and communication technology in the

management of examinations. The items in this instrument will have probing questions that will

help the researcher to collect adequate information from teachers concerning the role of

information and communication technology in the setting, testing, grading and keeping

examination records in secondary schools in Rombo district. This instrument will be attached in

this document as appendix two.

3.5.3 Interview Guide for Heads of Schools

This instrument will also have probing question aiming at collecting information from the heads of

schools about the research problem. Though the school heads manage all the school activities,

items in this instrument will be limited only to how information and communication technology is

27
applied in the management of examinations. Specific questions will be asked verbally on how

information and communication technology is used in the setting, grading, testing and keeping

examination records in secondary schools in Rombo district. This instrument will be attached in

this document as appendix three.

3.5.4 Document Analysis Schedule

The document analysis schedule will have items that will help the researcher to examine the role of

information and communication technology in the management of examinations. The schedule will

consist of 40 items (10 for each research question) and each item will be rated from 1 to 5 whereby

1 will stand for least application of ICT and 5 will indicate highest level of ICT application ICT.

Information collected from the document analysis schedule will be significant in triangulating the

information collected from questionnaires and interview guides. This instrument will be attached

in this document as appendix four.

3.6 Pilot Testing of the Research Instruments

In this study, instruments will be pilot tested in two secondary schools in Rombo district. These

schools were sampled using stratified sampling technique to get one private schools and one public

school. The pilot study will involve two heads of schools, two academic teachers and seven

teachers. The process necessary to obtain the sample for pilot study will be similar to what will be

done to obtain the sample for the main study. Data from pilot study will be analyzed to check

whether the research instruments are conceptualized by the respondents in the manner anticipated

by the researcher and to determine whether they give adequate information to address the research

questions. Additionally, data from the pilot study will be used in the determination of reliability of

the research instruments.

28
3.7 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

3.7.1 Validity of Questionnaires

Validity of the questionnaire will be insured by the use of experts. After preparing the instruments,

the researcher will give them to two experts in research from Mwenge catholic university who will

be asked to check the relevance of the items in addressing the research questions. These experts

also will look at language clarity and suggest necessary modifications to improve the instruments.

Their suggestions will be incorporated in improving the validity of instruments.

3.7.2 Validity of Interview Guides

Validity of information collected from interview guides will be ensured through communicative

validation. This process involves having a second meeting with the interviewees after the

transcription process and requesting the interviewees to confirm if what has been written is what

they said and meant. Therefore, soon after the transcription process, the researcher will have a

second visit to the schools and meet the heads of schools and academic teachers to confirm the

information written on the transcripts.

3.7.3 Reliability of the Questionnaires

Split-half method will be used to assess the reliability of the questionnaires whereby the researcher

will use data collected in the pilot study. Data from the scaled items will split into two halves and

then the correlation coefficient will be calculated using the Spearman-Brown formula. The

questionnaire will be considered to be reliable if the calculated coefficient is greater than 0.5 as

suggested by Kerlinger and Lee(2000) who opined that an instrument with a correlation coefficient

of not less than 0.5 is considered to have acceptable reliability.

3.7.4 Reliability of Interview Guides

29
Reliability of the information collected interview guides will be ensured through prolonged

engagement. According to (Bitsch 2005), this technique requires a qualitative researcher not to be

in a hurry to leave the respondents. Instead he or she has to take time and give the respondents

time to think. Prolonged engagement will enable the researcher to collect adequate data and

therefore minimize the distortion of information and hence improve the dependability of the

collected data.

3.8 Description of Data Collection Procedure

After ensuring that the data collection instruments are improved, the researcher will acquire a

permission letter from Mwenge catholic university indicating the purpose of the study. The letter

will be presented to the district education officer who will then introduce the researcher to the

heads of schools. Upon arrival to the schools, the researcher will conduct sample the teachers and

explain them the purpose of the study and ask for their voluntary participation. Then after he will

distribute the questionnaires and wait for teachers to fill before collecting them for analysis.

Interviews with heads of schools and academic teachers will be conducted separately and each

interviewing session will last for at most 30 minutes. The researcher also will analyze different

documents present concerning examinations to examine the role of information and

communication technology in the management of examinations.

3.9 Description of Data Analysis Procedure

The researcher will organize the collected data for easy interpretation. Both descriptive and

inferential statistics will be used to analyze quantitative data whereby the collected data will firstly

be summarized into frequency, percentages and means and then one way analysis of variance

30
(ANOVA) will be used to test the null hypothesis. The researcher edited, coded, classified and

organized both quantitative and qualitative data into a way that made interpretations possible

before drawing conclusions. The test will be conducted at 95% confidence level and significant

level of 0.05 as they are the ones accepted in social sciences. The researcher will use computer

software (SPSS) version 22 to aid the analysis process. Qualitative data on the other side will be

thematically whereby the researcher will generate themes emerging according to the research

questions. Quantitative data will be presented in tables while qualitative data will be presented in

narrations being supported by direct quotations.

3.10 Ethical Considerations

The researcher will ensure that all the rights of respondents are protected. He will achieve this by

informing the participants about the purpose of the study and ask for their voluntary participation.

Additionally, matters related to anonymity and confidentiality will be ensured by not connecting

the collected information to any person. Moreover, the researcher will use the collected data for the

purpose of this research only and not otherwise. Finally all the cited authors in this study will be

dully listed in the reference list.

31
 REFERENCE

Ajzen, I and M. Fishbein (1980) Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior

Bebell, Russell and O’Dwyer, (2004). Measuring teachers’ technology uses: Why multiple-

measures are more rewarding. Boston, MA: Technology and Assessment Study Collaborative,

Boston College.

Bitsch, V. (2005). Qualitative research: A grounded theory example and evaluation criteria.
Journal of Agribusiness, 23(1), 75-91.
British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (Becta, 2002)

Burgstahler, S. (2010). Working Together: People with Disabilities and Computer Technology.

Retrieved from [Link]

Commitments. Adopted by the World education Forum, Dakar Senegal, 26 -28

Dawley, L. (2007). The Tools for Successful Online Teaching. London: Idea Group Inc.

Don P (2002) ICT and School Management, A Review of Selected Literature

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Everard, K.B. (1986) Developing Management in Schools. Oxford: Blackwell

Evgueni Khvilon, Mariana Patru. (2002). Information and Communication Technology in

Education. A Curriculum for Schools and Programme of Teacher Development. UNESCO.

Ferrara, V. M. (2010). Technology for online portfolio assessment programs. The Journal of

Continuing Higher Education, 58(3), 184-185.

Fullan, M.G. (1992) Successful School Improvement: The Implementation Perspective and
Beyond. Buckingham:

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[Link] retrieved on

Kerlinger, F.N.& Lee, H.B. (2000).Foundations of behavioural research. New York: Holt,
Rinehat&Winston.
Meryo D. K., & Boit J.M. (2012). The Challenges of using Information Commuincation

Technology in School Administration in Kenya. Moi University.

MoEVT.(2008, February 21). New Curriculum for [Link] and Procedures for

Assessment [Link] [Link]/437/01A/6. [9].

MoEVT.(2009, December 02). Ammendment of Syllabus for GATCE & DSEE and Procedures for

[Link]/85/483/01/25. [10].

MoEVT.(2011, July 22). Ammendment of Assessment for Subjects for

[Link]/01/09/50.

Mugenda,G.A., &Mugenda.M.O. (2003). Research [Link]:Acts Press.

Nitko, A. J., & Brookhart, S. M. (2011). Educational Assessment of Students. Boston: Pearson.

Oyadure (2014). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. Oyo state: Josey-Bass.

Review. Incheon: UNESCO.

service professions. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Strydom, H. (2007). Ethical aspects of research in the social sciences and human

Tucker, B. (2009). Beyond The Bubble: Technology and the Future of Student Assessment.

Washington: Education Sector.

UNESCO, (2000). The Dakar Framework for Action Education for All: Meeting Our

UNESCO, (2000). The right to education, towards education for all throughout life.

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UNESCO, (2009). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO, (2015). Europe and North America. Education for All 2015 Regional

UNESCO, (2016). Global Education Monitoring Report 2016 Education for People

Venkatesh, V. and F. D. Davis (2000) “A Theoretical Extension of the Technology Acceptance

Model: Four Longitudinal Field Studies”, Management Science (46)2, pp. 186–204.

34
APPENDICES

Appendix one

QUESTIONAIRE FOR TEACHERS AND HEAD OF SCHOOL

The questionnaire is intended to investigate on the Role of ICT in Management of Examinations

in Secondary Schools in Rombo district as a requirement for award of a Master of Education in

Information and Communication Technology of Mwenge Catholic University. I therefore request

you to fill this questionnaire and assure you that all information provided will be handled with

confidentiality. I shall be very grateful.

Instructions

Please fill in as instructed

A. Background Information
1. Name(Optional)
2. Sex…………………….………………………………..
3. School …………………………….……………………
4. Position of responsibility...……………………………..
5. District………………………………………………….

B. The role of ICT examinations setting and testing in secondary schools

6. We use ICT facilities (e.g. computers, internet, and databases) in examinations setting and
testing a. Yes b. No
7. If yes, which ICT structures do you specifically use in your school for examinations setting
and testing? (Tick all that apply)
a. Computers
b. Internet
c. Emails
d. Databases
8. Specifically which role (s) does that structure play in examinations setting and testing?
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………..
9. In which areas of examinations setting and testing do you apply ICT? (Tick all that apply)

35
 a. Setting
b. Grading
c. Testing
d. Record keeping

10. How does the use of ICT affect your work?

……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………..

11. Do you use internet in your school to support examinations management of the school? (i.e. for
communication purposes)

a. Yes b. No
12. What role does internet play in examinations management of your school?
………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….

13. Emails enhance effective communication between the school and the parents

a) Yes b) No
14. ICTs (information systems/databases) are used to manage records in my school
a. Yes b. No

15. Does your school have any electronic records/database that supports examinations
management in the school?

a. Yes b. No

16. Has that database improved on examinations management of the school?

a. Yes b. No
17. Would you recommend introduction of ICT in the examinations management of secondary
schools?
a. Yes b. No

18. In which areas of examinations management would you recommend for the application of
ICT?

a. Setting
b. testing
c. grading system
d. record keeping

36
C. The role of ICT in examination management; record management and grading

system of exams in secondary schools. (Please tick all that apply)

19. Which kinds of records are managed by your electronic databases in the school? (Tick all that
apply)
1. ................................................................
2. ................................................................
3. ................................................................
4. ................................................................
5. ................................................................

True False

20. I use electronic database for record keeping

21. I use an electronic database to analyze students' results

22. Examination MIS is efficient in analyzing students’ results

23. ICT enhances efficiency in tracking students' academic progress

24. Databases make it easier to verify students' fees payment status in our
school
25. Databases allows accuracy in recording information i.e. error free

26. ICT reduces loss of students records

27. With ICT (database) I safely keep and control all students' results

28. Access to electronic assessment system ensures proper calculations of

results
29. There is proper grading of students’ performance with access to
electronic systems of assessment e.g. the use f excel
30. Computer applications like excel ensure accuracy when am computing
students' grades
31. Databases are used to track students’ payment records in the school

37
 a. Yes b. No

32. ICT communication facilities at our school are efficient for our school communication needs

a. Yes b. No

38
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR ACADEMIC TEACHERS AND HEAD OF SCHOOLS

A. Background Information
33. Name(Optional)
34. Sex…………………….………………………………..
35. School …………………………….……………………
36. Position of responsibility...……………………………..
37. District………………………………………………….

B. The role of ICT in enhancing effective examinations setting and testing secondary
schools
1. Do you use ICT tools such as computers, internet, databases or Management Information
Systems (MIS) in management of the school?.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2. Can you specifically tell me which ICT tools you use in your school?.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….

3. Specifically do you ICT in the examinations management of the school?

4. Which ICT tools have you been using in your school?

5. Which ICT tool has benefited you more and how?

6. What are the roles of ICT in examinations management of your school?

C. The role of ICT on students’ records and grading systems secondary school

7. Do you use the computer for students’ record keeping?

8. How have you benefited from using the computer for record keeping?

39
9. Do you use electronic databases to analyze students’ results?

10. How has ICT helped in keeping and maintaining students’ records?

11. What have been the challenges of using ICT in management of the school in your school?

40