Compressible Flow

3. Flow through Nozzles and Ducts

We now consider application of the theory of compressible flows that we have developed so
far. What happens when we have a gas flow through area changes? - is the first question we
ask. Although Nozzles are two or three dimensional, the flow is predominantly in one direction
so we can use the analysis techniques of the previous section to predict how flow properties
vary with area changes.

We have noted already that a subsonic flow responds to area changes in the same manner as
an incompressible flow. A supersonic flow behaves in an opposite manner in that when there is
an area decrease, Mach Number decreases, while for an area increase, Mach Number
increases. We have also stated that a sonic flow can occur only at a throat, a section where
area is the minimum. With this background we can explore the phenomena of gas flow through
nozzles.

Flow through a Converging Nozzle

Consider a converging nozzle connected to a reservoir where stagnation conditions prevail, P =

P0, T = T0 , u = 0. By definition reservoirs are such that no matter how much the fluid flows
out of them, the conditions in them do not change. In other words, pressure, temperature,
density etc. remain the same always.

Pressure level Pb at the exit of the nozzle is referred to as the Back Pressure and it is this
pressure that determines the flow in the nozzle. Let us now study how the flow responds to
changes in Back Pressure.

When the Back Pressure, Pb is equal to the reservoir pressure,P0, there is no flow in the nozzle.
This is condition (1) in Fig. 3.1. Let us reduce Pb slightly to P2 (condition (2) in the Figure). Now
a flow is induced in the nozzle. For relatively high values of Pb , the flow is subsonic
throughout. A further reduction in Back Pressure results in still a subsonic flow ,but of a higher
Mach Number at the exit (condition (3)). Note that the mass flow rate increases. As Pb is
reduced we have an increased Mach Number at the exit along with an increased mass flow
rate. How long can this go on? At a particular Back Pressure value the flow reaches sonic
conditions (4). This value of Back pressure follows from Eqn. 1.47 . For air it is given by

P∗b
=0.5283 (3.1)
P0

What happens when the Back Pressure is further reduced (5,6 etc.) is interesting. Now the
Mach Number at the exit tries to increase. It demands an increased mass flow from the
reservoir. But as the condition at the exit is sonic, signals do not propagate upstream. The
Reservoir is unaware of the conditions downstream and it does not send any more mass flow.
Consequently the flow pattern remains unchanged in the nozzle. Any adjustment to the Back
Pressure takes place outside of the nozzle. The nozzle is now said to be choked. The mass flow
rate through the nozzle has reached its maximum possible value, choked value.

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 From the Fig. 3.1 we see that there is an increase in mass flow rate only till choking condition
(4) is reached. Thereafter mass flow rate remains constant.

Figure 3.1: Flow through a Converging Nozzle

It is to be noted that for a non-choked flow, the Back Pressure and the pressure at the exit
plane are equal. No special adjustment is necessary on the part of the flow. But when the
nozzle is choked the two are different. The flow needs to adjust. Usually this take place by
means of expansion waves which help to reduce the pressure further.

Flow through a Converging-diverging nozzle

A converging-diverging nozzle is an important tool in aerodynamics. Also called a de Laval

nozzle, it is an essential element of a supersonic wind tunnel. In this application the nozzle
draws air from a reservoir which is at atmospheric conditions or contains compressed air. Back
pressure at the end of the diverging section is such that air reaches sonic conditions at throat.
This flow is then led through the diverging section. As we have seen before the flow Mach
Number increases in this section. Area ratio and the back pressure are such that required Mach
Number is obtained at the end of the diverging section, where the test section is located.
Different area ratios give different Mach Numbers.

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We study here the effect of Back Pressure on the flow through a given converging-diverging
nozzle. The flow is somewhat more complicated than that for a converging nozzle. Flow
configurations for various back pressures and the corresponding pressure and Mach Number
distributions are given in Fig. 3.2 . Let us discuss now the events for various back pressures,
a,b,c,....

(a) Back Pressure is equal to the reservoir pressure, Pb= P0. There is no flow through the
nozzle.

(b) Back Pressure slightly reduced, Pb < P0 . A flow is initiated in the nozzle, but the condition
at throat is still subsonic. The flow is subsonic and isentropic through out.

(c) The Back Pressure is reduced sufficiently to make the flow reach sonic conditions at the
throat, Pb = Pc . The flow in the diverging section is still subsonic as the back pressure is still
high. The nozzle has reached choking conditions. As the Back Pressure is further reduced, flow
in the converging section remains unchanged.

We now change the order deliberately to facilitate an easy understanding of the figure 3.2.

(i) We can now think of a back Pressure, Pb = Pi , which is small enough to render the flow in
the diverging section supersonic. For this Back Pressure, the flow is everywhere isentropic and
shock-free.

(d) When the Back Pressure is Pd , the flow follows the supersonic path. But the Back
Pressure is higher than Pi . Consequently, the flow meets the Back Pressure through a shock in
the diverging section. The location and strength of the shock depends upon the Back Pressure.
Decreasing the Back Pressure moves the shock downstream.

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 Figure 3.2: Pressure and Mach Number Distribution for the Flow through a Converging-
Diverging Nozzle.

(e) One can think of a Back Pressure Pf, when the shock formed is found at the exit plane. Pf /
P0 is the smallest pressure ratio required for the operation of this nozzle.

(f) A further reduction in Back Pressure results in the shocks being formed outside of the
nozzle. These are not Normal Shocks. They are Oblique Shocks. Implication is that the flow
has reduced the pressure to low values. Additional shocks are required to compress the flow
further. Such a nozzle is termed Overexpanded.

(g) The other interesting situation is where the Back Pressure is less than Pi . Even now the
flow adjustment takes place outside of the nozzle, not through shocks, but through Expansion
Waves. Here the implication is that the flow could not expand to reach the back Pressure. It
required further expansion to finish the job. Such a nozzle is termed Underexpanded.

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© Auld & Srinivas, 2009.

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