THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

One of the important considerations in 21st century education is the

understanding and application of individual learning styles. The understanding of

different learning styles of the learners aids the instructor to develop methods that

address the various needs of the learners in a group or class. (Pallapu,n.d.) Keefe

(1979) indicated that learning styles may be defined as the cognitive, affective, and

physiological factors that act as indicators of the learner’s perception and

interaction with the learning environment. Claxton & Murrell (1987) have

similarly discussed learning styles. Their study indicates that presently, a viable

amount of attention is being given to learning styles and this has paved the way to

several learning style theories and instruments. Due to the advent of the

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), online learning, as well as remote and

distant modes of teaching-learning have become the primary education models

being utilized.

Asynchronous environments are not time-bound and students can work on

online activities at their own pace. Synchronous learning environments, on the

other hand provide real-time interaction, which means that it could be collaborative

in naturing incorporating online activities. A hybrid online learning method

incorporates both synchronous and asynchronous methods, using sets of

synchronous and asynchronous online activities (Salmon, 2013). Studies about

asynchronous online learning suggest that students will experience meaningful

learning when they are in participatory learning environments (Pratt & Palloff,

2011). These environments are intentionally designed to help participants develop

a sense of community to provide them with opportunities to engage in

collaborative discussions. These interactions encourage participants to actively

construct new meanings related to the course content (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011;

Lehman & Conceição, 2011). Asynchronous online participatory learning involves

a series of highly complex and ill-defined activities that requires participants to

reflect and question their traditional learning practices while developing a new

identity as a learner (Palloff & Pratt, 2011). Asynchronous learning environments

provide learners with material that are readily available in the form of audio/video

lectures, handouts, articles, and power point presentations (Perveen, 2016). Swan

(2001) studied learners’ satisfaction and perceived learning in asynchronous

methods. She found out that design clarity, interaction with instructors, and active

discussions amoung fellow learners and course participants are important factors in

the student’s satisfaction and perceived learning. Asynchronous modes of

teaching-learning has been the most prevalent form of online teaching so far

because of its flexible mode of operation (Hrastinski, 2008). Asynchronous

methods of online learning is the most adopted method for online education
because learners are not time-bound and can respond at their leisure. The inherent

opportunity of delayed response allows learners to use higher order thinking skills

as they can keep working on a given problem for an extended time period and thus

helping develop divergent thinking. Murphy, Rodriguez-Manzanares & Barbour

(2011) further state that this expression spontaneity is being replaced by a

constructed response. Thus, asynchronous types of learning leads to self-paced,

independent, and a more student-centered learning.

In this paper, the researchers discuss the definition of learning strategies,

general learning styles, recent researches about visual, online group study, and

independent learning strategies, followed by the application of these learning

strategies.

VISUAL LEARNING STRATEGY

Visual learning strategy is defined as the assimilation of information from

visual formats. Several studies indicate that 75 percent of the total amount of

information processed by the brain is derived from visual formats. Furthermore,

information of the visual type is mapped better in the minds of students (Williams,

2009). This type of information is presented in various formats including

flowcharts, diagrams, images, videos, graphs, cartoons, coloring books,

simulations, Powerpoint presentations, posters, movies, and flash cards. (Rodger

et. al, 2019). The aforementioned formats can be used by instructors to display

large amounts of information in easier ways which are more easily understandable

by learners through determining relationships and patterns [ CITATION Jam16 \l 1033 ].

Philominraj et. al. (2016) provide an affirmation to the aforementioned claims,

suggesting that visual learning is an essential part of the overall experience that the

learners gain towards the learning process, further indicating that this process

should include a vital process of ‘Input and Interaction’ for the learner, ensuring

that his needs, necessities, and aspirations are taken into account and by making

him involved, In order to produce holistic learning. Baratta (2010) affirms the

effectiveness of visual learning, indicating that such strategy is one of the most

exciting and simulating method. “Visual learning is the major transmitter of our

cultural heritage second only to the spoken word” (Sless, 2018). Schramm (1977)

presents a supporting idea, stating that learners can effectively glean learning

through media, from any medium, and at times much better than classroom

teaching itself. Visual learning attracts almost the individual’s entire concentration

since it makes the process of learning much more interesting and provides the

learner with anew experience and finally, results that contribute to the effective

communication of information.

Existing literature suggests that visual learning strategies have impacts on

the learner’s academic performance. Mavida et al. (1966) states that the use of
instructional materials such as visual learning tools make students participate

effectively in the process of learning, hence resulting in quality education that

enable them to effectively participate in the current society with regard to

technological changes. Further, Stokes (n.d.) studied literature on visual elements

in teaching and learning, indicating positive results. However, in order for visual

learning strategies to be used most effectively, teachers should possess the right

skill set with regard to the language of imagery, as well as the techniques required

for teaching visually. Nacino et. al. (2007) states that using visual learning

strategies aid in the teaching-learning process and provides good academic

performance to the learners.

Generally, it is agreed that visual learning strategies assist in the learning

process and students find it easy to effectively learn when visual elements are used

[ CITATION Jos15 \l 1033 ]. Singh (2005) affirms the effectivity of visual learning, stating

that “Any device which by sight and sound increase the individual’s practice,

outside that attained through read labels as an audio-visual aids.” Visual elements

are instructional devices being used in the classroom in order to facilitate effective

learning and make the learning process much more interesting and motivating

(Rather, 2004). The use of visual elements also encourage the learner to engage in

bodily movement and strengthens control (Jain, 2004). Kishore (2003) and

Mohanty (2001) provide supporting evidence, stating that “visual aids simulated
thinking and cognition,” and that the use of visual aids in the teaching-learning

process has a multitude of values. Ranasinghe & Leisher (2009) argue that

integrating visual technology into the classroom is achieved when the teacher uses

technology in meaningful and relevant ways and that these technological visual

aids should support the learning curriculum rather than dominate it. Technology

should also assist the teacher in building a collaborative learning environment. Koc

(2005) supports this thought indicating that injecting visual technology in the

teaching-learning process means using it as a tool in teaching academic subjects

and promote higher-order thinking skills of students.

ONLINE GROUP STUDY STRATEGY

Learning collaboratively through the use of online study groups have

increasingly become an instructional approach of choice for online learning.

Benefits of this type of collaborative learning have been established by socially-

oriented theories of learning such as Social Constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) and

Connectivism (Siemens, 2005). Further, various studies suggest that learning tends

to be the most effective when learners are in the position of learning

collaboratively, express their opinions, discuss and exchange ideas with others,

challenging established ideas, and working together collaboratively to solve

problems. (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Learning within a group also aids students
in developing critical thinking skills, self-reflection skills, and co-construction of

knowledge and meaning (Brindley, Walti & Blaschke, 2009). Moller (1998)

supports this thought, indicating that groups have been found to academically

outperform individual members of a learning group in thinking activities such as

problem solving which require critical thinking. Small group collaborations have

also been found to be advantageous and appreciated by learners. It has likewise

been shown that small groups allow students to identify and correct

misconceptions in an easier and quicker manner and improve understanding of

studied topics. (Gaytan & McEwen, 2007). Similarly, it has also been found that

small online group discussions are considered more suitable for discussions and

equal contribution of group members (Finegold & Cooke, 2006). Online group

study is an instructional strategy that is defined as students working together as a

small group and execute simultaneous and collaborative processes through

electronic media, without much regard to geographic location (Chinowsky &

Rojas, 2003). Scholars have often stressed the necessity to focus on group

interactions in online learning environments to promote effective interaction

(Driver, 2002.)

However, Finegold & Cooke (2006) found out that the most prominent

concern experienced by students in online group learning environments are group

members who do not equally participate in the task at hand or do not participate in
group discussions and not contributing equally towards group activities. Active

participation is cited as the most important factor that influences the result of

online group environments (Gabriel, 2004). Students found out that one of the

major challenges experienced in online group studies was the time required to

prepare responses to other members of the group and for some students, imposed

working schedules posed a problem too, particularly during small virtual group

activities (Gabriel, 2004). Roberts & Mclnnerney (2007) have identified group

formation as one of the challenges of online group learning and suggested either

random selection of group members or the intentional creation of heterogeneous

groups as approaches that address such a challenge. Another challenge being posed

is that online group study among distance learners lacks the social interaction that

occurs in face-to face settings. (Kreijns & Kirshner, 2004). This may result in the

unfamiliarity among the group members which can translate to a deficiency in

group dynamics (Fung, 2004). Collaborative groups through online forums may

also go through delayed group developmental stages, which take longer to develop

social relationships. (Fung, 2004; Johnson, Suriya, Yoon, Berrett, & Fleur, 2002).

For many students, some important success factors in online group work

includes an atmosphere of trust and respect, objectives being shared, and being

supportive to fellow group members. (Finegold & Crooke, 2006). Additionally, an

important determinant of the success of online group work is the group formation
process. Specifically, group formation is found to have a significant effect in

enhancing the success of collaborative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1990; Slavin,

1983). Jonassen & Kwon (2001) argue that learning could be more effective when

the learners participate in sharing and discussing their experiences. Teaching and

learning subjects such as mathematics have especially stressed the importance of

group-based study for students (NCTM, 2000). During online group studies,

participants overcome given problem situations by sharing, building and

contributing each of their knowledge in the field of study. Collaborative problem

solving refers to problem solving activities that involve group studies that require

active participation of group members in order to build shared understanding

through an exchange of ideas (Dillenbourg & Traum, 2006).

INDEPENDENT LEARNING STRATEGY

Independent learning is an essential strategy of learning that is used not only

in higher education, but also for the continuous development of important skills

such as writing for school entrants (Girling-Butcher et al., 1991). The term

‘independent learning’ can be defined as “working with increasingly less

structured teaching materials and with less reliance on traditional kinds of tutor’s

supports” (Moore, 1984). One way to facilitate learner motivation is through

encouraging them to work independently and flexibly, for example, in a blended

learning environment (Gregory & Jenkins, 2004). Despite the flexibility and

convenience of when and where to learn, learners should still be able to have the

ability to acquire their own independent learning skills (Baldwin-Evans, 2006).

Cappel & Hayen (2004), however, states that a significant amount of self-

motivation and discipline might be needed in order to make it a successful

independent learning, especially in the online forum. When online platforms are

used in the blended learning environment to substitute traditional lectures, students

can potentially develop skills necessary in independent learning, through

organizing their own learning methods. Independent learners need to take greater

responsibility through learning independently and be familiar with the technology

required (Vaughan, 2007).

There are various ways to define the nature of independent learning

strategies. It is sometimes referred to as “self-regulated learning,” “self-directed

learning” or “learning how to learn” (Meyer, Haywood, Sachdev, & Faraday,

2008). Zimmerman (1986) further states that learners using this self-regulated type

of strategy have the following three essential characteristics: “understanding of

their own approach to learning and how best to efficiently maximize their learning’

motivation to take responsibility for their learning, and most importantly the ability

to be able to work with others in a group in order to enhance the extent and depth

of their learning.” Meyer et al. (2008) studied the international literature on

independent learning styles and found out a common agreement that independent

learners “develop the values, attitudes, knowledge and skills needed to make

responsible decisions and take the appropriate actions in regard to their own

learning”; and are naturally more curious, self-confident, and self-reliant. The

study also found out that independent learners understand their own learning needs

and interests; and value learning “for its own sake.” Boekaerts (1997) further states

that an independent learner actively, rather than passively receives the knowledge

required for the course, holding learning to a certain level of “ownership.” Such

learners effectively manage their studies, their time, and themselves (University of

New South Wales, 2013.)

According to Sasar (2008), the philosophy of independent learning has

proven to be one of the prevalent features in higher education teaching-learning

process since the late 20th century as a notable point of discourse in higher

education. The same study also claimed that all higher education students are held

to the expectation to function with a considerable level of independence, self-

reliance, and autonomy. The autonomy required in independent learning is seen as

the level of student control of the planning, execution, and evaluation of his or her

own coursework (Wallace, 2010). Independent learning in higher education refers

to the ability to take charge of one’s independent learning. It makes taking

responsibility for all the decisions concerning the entirety of learning (Chan, 2010).
Usuki (2001) identified inappropriate learning styles among Japanese students in

learning the English language. The study found out that spoon-feed teaching

methods such as teacher-centered approaches were ineffective. The study suggests

that training would be more effective if teachers made students aware of their own

style of learning. Although some students would still prefer teacher-centered

classroom methods, teachers should continually encourage students to be

autonomous and independent.

However, according to Sasar (2008), it is always easier to put the blame on

students for their failure, to blame the educational textbooks or even the

educational system itself, but it is not as easy to “blame ourselves who have

contributed to this failure.” The study further stated that the teachers desist from

performing in professional isolation and form a professional learning community,

with reflective practice at the core. Thus, independent learning should be

implemented with consideration of the student’s background, expectations, and the

role of the institution and their exposures in the existing academic environment

(Saber, Crosling and Rahman, n.d.). According to Hubbard (1994), in his study on

the effectiveness of independent and self-directed learning, he concluded that

learners who demonstrated independent learning behaviors perform better than

those who did not. Furthermore, the same study emphasizes that independent

learners are those who finish all their homework, actively participate in class
activities, and continuously seek advice from instructors and frequently visit self-

access centers or libraries. Usuki (2001) similarly agrees that students need to be

trained in order to be independent learners. In addition to that, she points out the

role played by teachers as facilitators who assist learners in acquiring the skills

required for independent learning and form a real bond with them. Balcikanli

(2010) agrees, stating that teacher trainees support the concept of independent

learning. However, it must be pointed out that the educational system could be a

constraint in achieving effectiveness in independent learning.

The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) specification for the

Bachelor Degree (2013) states that Independent learning skills are one of the

“secrets to success” for tertiary level learning, further stating that such skills are

widely acknowledged in Australian universities. The study refers to graduates at

that level having “a broad and coherent body of knowledge as a basis for

independent lifelong learning,” and “communication skills to present a clear

coherent and independent exposition of knowledge and ideas.”

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