RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

CENTER FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

RESEARCH METHODS IN BUSINESS

(MGMT 421)

CREDIT HOUR: 3

Degree Program

December, 2012

Adama, Ethiopia
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Dear student! I would like to say well come to the course Research Methods in Business.
This course is a survey course intended to develop the students’ ability in scientific analysis
and to provide opportunity for application of concepts and tools in the study of economic and
social problems. It also gives students a preliminary knowledge with the art of using different
research methods, techniques in solving research problems. Specifically, it covers scientific
inquiry; experimentation; survey; fact finding, design of questionnaire and interpretation of
data; and formulation of management research project by students. And it also helps you to
conduct your Senior Research Project (Senior Essay). Therefore, I highly advice you to give
great attention while you are reading this module.

The module consists of about eight chapters;

Chapter One: Research Methods: An Introduction

Chapter Two: Defining Research Problem and Hypothesis Formulation

Chapter Three: Research Proposal

Chapter Four: Research Design (planning of research project)

Chapter Five: Sources and Methods of Data Collection

Chapter Six: Sample Design and Procedure

Chapter Seven: Data Processing and Data Analysis

Chapter Eight: Interpretation and Reporting of the Research

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

The main objective of this course is to enable students identify and utilize the basic
techniques and systems of developing and producing information, which is essential to make
effective business decision.

At the end of this course, students should be able to:

 Understand the role of business research

 Differentiate the different types of research
 Identify and define research problem
 Design appropriate research design
 Know sampling design
 Differentiate types of data and instrument of data gathering methods
 Analyze and interpret data
 Prepare standard research project
 CHAPTER ONE
RESEARCH METHODS: AN INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Research is most frequently used terminology in different academic and business institutions.
Research as conscious and creative human activity involves discovering and learning new things.
Where there is a problem there is always a research. It is an essential tool for understanding the
events and structures of the social world. Research can mean different things to different people.
People have defined research differently according to their perception. Research is a means by
which you will be able to acquire knowledge. Here under this chapter we will see different
definitions and perceptions of individuals about research, motivation of doing research, types of
research, and objectives of research, research process, and criteria of good research.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

 Understand how research contributes to business success

 Know how to define business research
 Explain why individuals motivated for doing research
 Understand the difference type of research
 Understand how research activities can be used to address business decisions
 Identify objectives and process of business research
 Identify characteristics of good research

1.1 Meaning of Research and Business Research

Dear learner, would you define research and business research?
______________________________________________________________________________
Different authors in many ways have defined the word research. Research can be defined as “a
careful study to discover correct information” or “a way of collecting information to facilitate
problem solving”. In most simple words, it is “search and search again”.

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! The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
Research = Re + Search
‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something, the following is the
Process:
Observes Collection of data

Persons Phenomena Conclusions

Again and again Analysis of data

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different dimensions.
For example there are many theories of learning due to the observation from different
dimensions. The research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and
again and collects the data and on the basis of data he/she draws some conclusions.
Research is oriented towards the discovery of relationship that exists among phenomena of the
world in which we live. The fundamental assumption is that invariant relationship exists between
certain antecedents and certain consequents so that under a specific set of conditions a certain
consequents can be expected to follow the introduction of a given antecedent.
Research commonly refers to a search for knowledge. Some people consider research as a
movement from known to unknown. It is indeed a voyage of knowledge. For some people on
the other hand research implies an art of scientific investigation to the state of nature or
phenomenon. Authors are increasingly adding new names and definition for different kinds of
research. However, to avoid confusion and unnecessary cumbersomeness let us confine
ourselves to the definitions of research given by selected authors.
 Hertz provided the most simplified definition of research. His definition referred
research to the original and creative activities. According to him, Research is the
application of human intelligence in a systematic manner to a problem whose solution is
not immediately available.
 Wood on the other hand defined research as an activity comprises of defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deduction and reaching at conclusion to
determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
 Research is the manner in which we solve knotty problems in our attempt to push back
the frontiers of human ignorance. Research is ultimately a way of thinking. It is a way of

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 looking at accumulated fact so that a collection of data speaks to the mind of the
researcher.
 Research can be defined as any scholarly investigation in search for truths, or for
certainties.
 Research is the activity of solving problems which leads to new knowledge using
methods of inquiry which are currently accepted as adequate by scholars in the field.

! Research is a wide field and has many branches like agricultural research, medical
research, educational research and physiological research. Likewise, business research is an
important sub-sector of research and encompasses: market research, financial research,
operation research, human resource research, and others business function.
Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems,
generating and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and
organizational performance. Business research is more than conducting surveys. This process
includes idea and theory development, problem definition, searching for and collecting
information, analyzing data, and communicating the findings and their implications.
 Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. The terms
Actually research is simply the process of arriving as dependable solution to a problem through
the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research is the most
important process for advancing knowledge for promoting progress and to enable people to
relate more effectively to his/her environment to accomplish his purpose and to resolve his
conflicts. Although it is not the only way, it is one of the more effective ways of solving
scientific problems.

To be brief, business research is any type of research to identify investment opportunities or start
of a business or subsequent improvement. In start up, we need to know our target customers and
market competition. We need to provide information for attracting potential investors. Research
is a must for analyzing strengths and weaknesses of a company, what customers demand or what
the business is offering. A company can focus to serve customers better or gain over competitors
or merely on its survival.

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A business manager faces problem, big or small, on daily basis which should be solved by
taking a right decision. Business research is systematic or a step-by-step approach. It can help the
manager to identify and solve small problems, discriminate good research from a bad one by
studying its scope, methodology, check and balance to ensure authenticity. Sound knowledge of
research would also enable a manager to assume calculated risks rather than total risk while
deciding about a change in procedure or location. A manager participates in all types of decisions
whether strategic, tactical or technical. Once again research would help make a better decision
and at the same time contain the losses to a minimum level should the decision backfires.
An organization can develop a business research department where skilled administrative and
technical personnel can be appointed for a full time research career. Finally, the research job can
be out-sourced to consultant and researchers.
1.2 Motivation of Doing Research
Would you guess what motivates individuals to a research?
______________________________________________________________________________
Research is not a trouble free duty rather it is time consuming, tiresome and expensive
undertaking. Despite these all difficulties many people especially in academic institute would
like to carry out research at least once in their life.
The possible motives for doing research can be either one or a combination of the following.
1) Desire to get degree with its consequential benefit. The graduate and postgraduate students
are required to carry out research project as a partial fulfillment to obtain their master and Ph D.
degree. Research is therefore, prerequisite to complete their study.
2) Desire to get respect and promotion (to own respect in society) in academic and research
institutions publication is crucial for promotion and academic rank. “Publish or perish” is a
phrase commonly used in experienced and well established academic institutes. This implies and
individual should carry out a research activity and publish his findings in scientific or
international journal in order to get respect and academic rank. If not the individual will “perish”
meaning no proportion or academic rank and hence no respect is possible for that individual in
the academic environment.
3) Desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problem. Concern over a particular
problem initiates a researcher.

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4) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. Research will give the
opportunity to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. Participation in some creative
activity will give some professional personal satisfaction.
5) Directive of government. Government sometimes gives directives to its employees to carry
out a particular study and investigation for better decision making ground. Ideally and policy
before implementation requires detail study and analysis of its impact on different parts of the
society.
6) Employment condition. Some employers set as criteria at least one publication in
international journal.
1.3. Types of Research
 Dear learner, would you know classification of research and variables used for its
classification?
______________________________________________________________________________
Like its definition research has been classified differently. Generally research can be classified
on the basis of the following traits.
1. On the basis of the outcome of the research: Whether the research tries to solve a particular
problem or makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be:
A. Fundamental Research
This form of business research is where the motive is to generate a body of knowledge by
developing an understanding on how certain problems that occur in the organizations could be
solved. There is a definite possibility that organizations might transfer the learning from the
research to the workplace for problem solving. For instance a research carried out at a university
facility on “Motivating Employees in times Recession with Low Pay” could be a useful piece of
work, and could be applied to practical settings when businesses are facing downturn. Thus
research done primarily to enhance understanding on certain problems that commonly occur in
organizations is called basic, fundamental or pure research.
In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science. In other
words it studies the laws of nature, without or regardless of the immediate application of its
findings. Example:
 The relationship between crime and economic status is an example of pure (academic)
research.

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  Darwin Theory of Evolution
 Newton’s law of Motion
 Einstein Theory of Relativity
B. Applied research
A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or
industry (business organization). The results of such research would be used by either individuals
or groups of decision makers or event by policy makers. Applied form of business research
originates from real work problems that require timely solutions. For example a product may not
be selling well and the manager might want to find the reasons for this in order to take action or
Business is facing problems in retaining employees, or there is higher degree of absenteeism in
the business. All these are problems that require the business to find immediate solutions;
otherwise the business would fail to run smoothly. Thus research carried out with the intention of
applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems is applied business research.
While pure research discovers principles and laws, applied research discovers their application in
solving some social, economical or any other problems. Example:
 The improvement of safety in the working place
 The reduction of wastage in the working places is example of applied research.

2. On the basis of the purpose (the reason why a research is conducted) it can be:
A. Exploratory research (pilot Survey)
It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such research is aimed at discovering,
identifying and formulating a research problem and hypothesis. When there are few or no studies
that can be referred such research is needed. The aim of this type of study is to look for patterns,
ideas, or hypothesis, rather than testing or confirming a hypothesis. In exploratory research the
focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the subject area for more rigorous investigation
at a later stage.
B. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a research which describes phenomena as they exist. It is used to
identify and obtain information on the characteristics of a particular problem or issue. The main
purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research we often use the tern ex- post facto research for descriptive

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research. The main characteristic of such research is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he/she can only report what has happened or what is happening. Example:
What is the absentee rate in office or manufacturing department?
What is the qualification of different groups of employment?
Frequency of shopping
Preferences of people
Ex- post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes though they cannot
control the variables.
Goals of Descriptive research
 To provide an accurate profile of a group
 To describe a processes, mechanism or relationship
 To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
 To find information to stimulate new explanations
 To present basic back ground information of a context
 To create a set of categories or classify types
 To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject
C. Analytical or explanatory research
Analytical research on the other hand, goes beyond simple description of the state of nature.
When a researcher encounters an issue that is already known and have a description of it you
may begin to ask “why” things are the way they are. Analytical research uses facts or
information already available, and analyzes them to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Not only describe the characteristics, but also it analyzes and explains why and how it happened
or is happening. The information or facts used here can be either qualitative or quantitative
Goals of analytical research
 To determine the accuracy of a principle or a theory
 To find out which competing explanation is better
 To advance knowledge about an underling process
 To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
 To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more completes
 To extend a theory or principle in to new areas or issues

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  To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction
Example
 How can we reduce the numbers of complaints made by customers?
 How can we expand the range of our services?
C. Predictive research
Such research goes beyond explaining why and how things happened. It predicts (forecast) the
possible (probability) of happening similar situation in other places. It tries to explain about the
probability of happening similar thing in the future. Predictive research aims to generalize from
the analysis by predicting certain phenomena on the basis of hypothesized, general relationships.
Example
 How would an increase in interest rate affect our profit margin?
 In which city would it be most profitable to open a new retail outlet?
3. On the basis of the process of research: That is, on the basis of data used in the research
process research can be:
A. Qualitative research:
Such research is applicable for phenomenon that cannot be expressed in terms of quantity. This
related to quality and kind. Research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is an example of such research.
B. Quantitative research
Quantitative research is on the other hand is concerned with quantitative phenomenon. It is based
on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable for phenomenon that can be expressed
in term of quantity. A quantitative approach involves collecting and analyzing numerical data
and applying statistical tests. Quantitative research is more objective in nature.
4. On the basis of the environment in which the research is carried out research can be
A. Field research: It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in social
science, agricultural science, history and archeology.
B. Laboratory research: It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are commonly
experimental research. Such researchers are common in medical science, agriculture and in
general in natural sciences.
C. Simulation research: Such research uses models to represent the real world. Simulation is
common in physical science, economics and mathematics.

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5. On the basis of the time required to complete the research, research can be
A. One time research: It is a research limited to a single time period
B. Longitudinal research: Such research is also called ongoing research. It is a research carried
out over several time periods.

 Activity 1
1) Define research and business research
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2) What are motivational factors for doing research?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3) Explain types of research
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
1.4. Research and Scientific Method
 Would you distinguish scientific method from research?
______________________________________________________________________________
All research, whether basic or applied, involves the scientific method. The scientific method is
the way researchers go about using knowledge and evidence to reach objective conclusions about
the real world. The scientific method is the same in social sciences, such as business, as in
physical sciences, such as physics. In this case, it is the way we come to understand business
phenomena. Figure 1.1 briefly illustrates the scientific method. In the scientific method, there
are multiple routes to developing ideas. When the ideas can be stated in researchable terms, we
reach the hypothesis stage. The next step involves testing the hypothesis against empirical
evidence (facts from observation or experimentation). The results either support a hypothesis or
do not support a hypothesis. From these results, new knowledge is generated.

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Fig. 1.1. A Summary of the Scientific Method

Prior Observation
knowledge

Hypothesis

Hypothesis
(Observation or
experimentation)
Conclusion (New
knowledge)

In basic research, testing these prior conceptions or hypotheses and then making inferences and
conclusions about the phenomena leads to the establishment of general laws about the
phenomena. Use of the scientific method in applied research ensures objectivity in gathering
facts and testing creative ideas for alternative business strategies. The essence of research,
whether basic or applied, lies in the scientific method. Thus, the techniques of basic and applied
research differ largely in degree rather than in substance.
1.4.1. Objectives of Research
 What are the general objectives of research?
______________________________________________________________________________
Any research activity is designed to discover and answer to questions through the application of
scientific procedure. It is an activity amid at finding out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered yet or to verify or reject that the existing phenomenon (theory, principle or
law) accepted as true.
! Though each research study has its own specific objectives, any research has got the following
common (general) objectives.
 To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law
 To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, to verify the validity of the previous

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 work.
 To investigate some existing situation or problem
 To explain new phenomenon
 To examine the cause of the problem
 To examine the nature of the problem
 To provide solution to a problem
 To construct or create a new procedure and new system
 A combination of any one of the above

1.5. Research Process

Before starting the details of research methods, it is appropriate to have a brief overview of the
research processes. Research processes consists of a series of actions or steps, which are
necessary to successfully carry out research activities. These activities (steps) can overlap
continuously rather than the following strictly prescribed sequence. The first step can determine
the nature of the last step to be under taken. These steps are not separated and distinct. They do
not necessarily follow each other in any specific order.
! However, the following order of steps provides a useful procedural guide line regarding the
research process:
1. Identification and formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Developing working hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of the data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalization and interpretation
11. Reporting the result

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1.6. Characteristics of Good Research
Do you know characteristics of good research?
______________________________________________________________________
Good research is characterized by the following characteristics;
1) Good research is systematic: it means that the research is structured with specific step to be
taken in specified sequence in accordance with the well defined step of rules.
2) Good research is logical: this implies that the research is guided by the rules of logically
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.
3) Good research is empirical: it implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for internal validity
to research results.
4) Good research is replicable: this characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
! Besides, the above characteristics of good research involve the following characteristics:
a) Purpose of research should be clearly defined,
b) The process of the research should be detailed,
c) Research design should be thoroughly planned,
d) In research high ethical standards should be applied by the researcher,
e) The limitations of research should be frankly revealed,
f) The outcome of the research should have adequate analysis for decision makers needs,
g) Findings of the research should be presented unambiguously,

 Activity 2
1) Explain the general objectives of any research
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2) What are the characteristics of good research?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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 Check list
Dear learner, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you have
been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick () mark
under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point is
available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO

1 Define research and business research

2 Identify what motivates individuals to research

3 Explain types of research

4 Distinguish scientific method and research
5 Identify general objectives of research
6 Identify Characteristics of good research
Chapter Summary
Research is the intelligence-gathering function in business. The intelligence includes information
about customers, competitors, economic trends, employees, and other factors that affect business
success. This intelligence assists in decisions ranging from long-range planning to near term
tactical decisions. Research commonly refers to a search for knowledge. Some people consider
research as a movement from known to unknown. It is indeed a voyage of knowledge. Business
research is the application of the scientific method in searching for truth about business
phenomena. The research must be conducted systematically, not haphazardly. The possible
motives for doing research are many for individuals such as desires to get degree, desire to get
promotion, and desire to get intellectual joy, government directives, and others.

Generally research can be classified on the basis of the following traits such as on the basis of the
outcome of the research they are pure and applied research; on the basis of the purpose (the
reason why a research is conducted) it can be exploratory research (pilot Survey), descriptive
research, analytical or explanatory research, predictive research; on the basis of the process of
research, research can be quantitative and qualitative; on the basis of the environment in which
the research is carried out research can be field research, laboratory research, simulation

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research; on the basis of the time required to complete the research, research can be one time
research and longitudinal research.
The scientific method is the way researchers go about using knowledge and evidence to reach
objective conclusions about the real world. The scientific method is the same in social sciences,
such as business, as in physical sciences, such as physics. Though each research study has its
own specific objectives, any research has got common (general) objectives. In carrying out
research activities the logical processes should be followed. Good research has characterized by
systematic, logical, empirical, and replicable.

 Self Test Questions

Dear learner, for self test questions first try you self and compare your answer with the key
to answer given at the end of the module.
Part-I: Say “TRUE” for the correct statement and “FALSE” for incorrect statement.
1. Research has one universal accepted definition.
2. Directive of the government can be motivational factor for doing research.
3. A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or
industry (business organization) is known as pure research.
4. Simulation research is a research that uses models to represent the real world
5. Research processes/ steps are separated and distinct
Part-II: Choose the best answer among the following alternatives
1. All of the following are motivation for doing research, except?
A. Desire to get degree
B. Desire to get intellectual joy
C. Desire to get demotion
D. Employment condition
E. None
2. The form of business research where the motive is to generate a body of knowledge by
developing an understanding on how certain problems that occur in the organizations could be
solved is called___

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A. Applied research
B. Basic research
C. Fundamental research
D. Exploratory research
E. B and C
3. A type of research that is aimed at discovering, identifying and formulating a research
problem and hypothesis is_____
A. Exploratory research
B. Explanatory research
C. Descriptive research
D. Predictive research
4. On the basis of the process of research, research can be classified as;
A. Fundamental and applied
B. One time and longitudinal
C. Quantitative and qualitative
[Link]
5. Which of the following is/are characteristics of good research?
A. Good research is systematic
B. Good research is logical
C. Good research is empirical
D. Good research is replicable
E. All
Part-III: Short Answer Questions
1. Define Business research
2. List the general objectives of any research

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 CHAPTER TWO
DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS
FORMULATION
Introduction
Dear student, in the preceding chapter you have got an introductory part of research. Here we
will start the actual activities of the research. The first step in research is identification of
research problem and formulation of research hypothesis. A problem in simple words is some
difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or practical situation solving this
difficulty is the task of research. The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms.
Thus, without a problem, research cannot proceed because there is nothing to processed from and
proceed toward. Therefore, in this chapter we will discuss what research problem is and how to
identify research problem; techniques and approaches to problem definition; and problem
formulation, research question and hypothesis.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
 Define research problem
 Identify techniques or approaches used to identify research problem
 Identify sources of research problem and criteria of good research problem
 Formulate research hypothesis and research questions

2.1. Definitions of Research problem

Would you define Research Problem?
______________________________________________________________________________
Research forms a cycle. It starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem. The
problem statement is therefore the axis which the whole research revolves around, because it
explains in short the aim of the research.
! A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused
and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the
WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.

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On the surface, “problem” appears to be very easily defined. Dictionary definitions include “a
Situation, person or thing that needs attention and needs to be dealt with or solved” (Cambridge
online dictionary, 2007) and “a question raised for inquiry, consideration, or solution”
(Merrianwebster online dictionary, 2007).

From a scientific perspective, a research problem is defined as a general issue, concern, or

controversy addressed in research. Moreover, a research problem “must integrate concepts and
theoretical perspective of the literature into the problem to be addressed”.
A research Problem, in general, refers to some difficulty, which a researcher faces (experiences)
in the context of both a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same. A research problem exists if at least two elements are present.
i) The current state differs from the ideal state (Sekaran, 2003).
ii) There is not an “acceptable” solution available.
The absence of an acceptable solution can entail either there being no solution documented in the
literature, or the solutions noted in the literature leading to mixed results or contradictions (i.e.
not properly addressing the problem) (Creswell, 2005).
! There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually
contribute to problem identification.
1) Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem supply.
2) Scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was
not covered. This could lead to a research problem.
3) Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.

Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying

contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or
unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing
practical problems.
2.1.1. Principal Component of Research Problem Formulation
Three principal components to be considered in the formulation of research problem:
i) The originating questions (what one wants to know?)
ii) The rational- theoretical or practical (why one wants to have the questions answered?)

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iii) The specifying questions (possible answers to the originating) questions in term of that
satisfy the rationale.)
i) The originating Questions
 Represent the beginning of certain difficulties or challenges
 Are formulated in such specific indicate where exactly the answers to them can be
searched for.
 Constitute the initial phase in the process of problem formulation.
 May be formulated in terms of broadly delimited categories of social variable but do not
indicate specifically which particular variables in each class might be relevant to the
issues.
 Usually derive from a general theoretical orientation rather than a definite theory.
ii) Rationale of Questions
 Is the statement of reasons why a particular question is worth putting a cross?
 States what will happen to other parts of knowledge or practice if the question posed is
answered, i.e., how the answer to the question will contribute to theory and/ or practice.
 Helps to effect discrimination between scientifically good and scientifically trivial
questions.
ii) Specifying Questions
 Culminate the process of formulating a research problem
 Involve the breaking down of originating question in to several specifying questions
related to particular aspects and their consequences.
2.2. Techniques or Approaches to Problem Definition
Dear leaner, can you guess the techniques used to identify research problem?
______________________________________________________________________________
The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem
identification). The question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to
which answers have not been found up to the present?

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! Research originates from a need that arises. A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and
the PURPOSE should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, thinks
about, and wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, i.e. find answers to
the question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are
meaningless.

Keep the following in mind:

 Outline the general context of the problem area.
 Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.
 What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?
 Why are these issues identified important?
 What needs to be solved?
 Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered
questions or controversies, and/or to identify the most significant issues for further
exploration.
The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on
the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem.
Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.
 The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as
completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use.
Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your
intentions are.
 Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into
sub problems is of the utmost importance.
Sub problem(s): Sub problems are problems related to the main problem identified. Sub
problems flow from the main problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach
the set goal in a manageable way and contribute to solving the problem.
Statement of the problem: The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and
formulation of the problem, i.e. the Who, What, Where, When, and Why. It usually includes
the statement of the hypothesis.

19
CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

YES NO

Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have social,
1
educational or scientific value?

2 Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?

3 Does the research contribute to the science of education?

4 Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research?

5 Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the result?

6 Is there enough scope left within the area of research (field of research)?

Can you find an answer to the problem through research? Will you be able to
7
handle the research problem?

8 Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?

9 Will it be possible for another researcher to repeat the research?

10 Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations?

11 Will it have any value?

Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research? Are you
12
qualified to undertake the research?

13 Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake the research?

Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time and energy to
14
complete the project?

15 Do you have the necessary funds for the research?

16 Will you be able to complete the project within the time available?

Do you have access to the administrative, statistic and computer facilities the
17
research necessitates?

TOTAL:

20
2.2.1. Points to be observed by a Researcher in Selecting a Research Problem
Dear learner, as a researcher you have to observe the following in selecting search title:
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
2. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher
3. Too narrow and too vague problems should be avoided
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of researcher are within one’s reach.
5. The importance of subject, the qualification and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, and the time factor are few other criteria
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study
2.2.2. Sources of Research Problem
What possible sources do you know from where research problem is identified?
______________________________________________________________________________
There are some important sources of problems, which are helpful to a researcher for selecting a
problem. These include the following:
1. Theory of once own interest;

2. Daily problems;
3. Technological changes;
4. Un explored areas; and
5. Discussions with other people

21
1. Theory of once own interest. In such situations the researcher must have thorough
knowledge of that theory and should be sufficiently inquisitive to explore some unexplained
aspects or assumptions of that theory. For example, theory X and theory Y of leadership,
motivational theories, and any other theories can be a possible GAP for doing a research.
2. Daily problems. Research problem can also be selected on the basis of daily experience of
a researcher. Everyday problems constantly present something new and worthy of
investigation and it depends on the worthy of investigation and it depends on the sharpness of
the researcher intellect to join his daily experiences in to a research problem. In our day to
day life we have encountered from so many problem. For example, while we are travelling
by bus, we can observe problem such as how passengers treated by driver and assistant
driver; while you go to Bank you can observe so many problems that can be researchable,
such as dalliance of services, boost of teller.
3. Technological changes. Technological changes in a fast changing society are constantly
brought forth new problems and new opportunities for research. What is the impact of a
changed technology on the existing socio – economic set up, always interests the researcher
and tempts him to undertake such studies as are revealing regarding the impact of new
technology on the existing system. For example, Change in methods of service delivers such
as using cash register machine, using soft ware in banking industry, implementing different
approach to management such BPR, BSC, kaizen, and others in organizations.
4. Unexplored areas. Research problems can be both abstract and of applied interest. These
may also be selected from those areas which have not been explored so far. Such area may be
theoretical or empirical in nature. For example, conducting research to find out a medicine
that cures HIV/AIDS.
5. Discussions with other people. Sometimes the researcher while discussing the interest
with some other people may come across a problem that can be researched by the
investigator. The problem may relate to any source as discussed above. For example,
discussion with officials, discussion with coworkers, and friends can enable to come up with
research problem. In the same way reading assignments in text books, special assignments,
research reports and term papers may also suggest some additional areas of needed research.
Many research articles suggest some additional areas of needed research. Many research
articles suggest problem for further investigation that may prove fruitful
Activity 1
1) Define what research problem mean and points to be observed in identification of research
problem.
22
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______
2) Identify at least five sources from which research problem can obtained
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______
2.3. Components of Research Problem
Dear student, what are the components of research problem?
___________________________________________________________________________
___
The problem is consists of the following components
1. The decision maker (which can be individual, organization, etc..,) who has some
difficulties or problem.
2. There must be some objectives (goals) to be attained at. If one wants nothing then, cannot
have a problem. The objective of the decision maker provides motivation to solve the
problem.
3. There must alternative courses of action for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain.
If individual has no choice of alternative, he cannot have a problem.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regards to the selection of
alternatives.
5. There must be some environment(s) to which they difficulty pertains.
Thus, a researcher problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for
the given problems
2.3.1. Criteria of a Good Research Problem
Factors to be taken in to account in the choice of research problem are both external and
personal. External criteria involve such issues as newness and significance for the area,
availability of data and method and administrative and institutional cooperation personal
criteria include such consideration as interest, training, cost and time.
The following are more detailed list of criteria for the choice of research problem.
1. Novelty: It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable
duplication. Ignorance of prior studies may lead a student to spend time a problem already
investigated. The study should also employ the most recent data. Although originality is an
important consideration, there is also a constant need for verification of the findings of the
23
previous investigations, using newer and better devices and procedures. There is also a need
for the testing of former findings under changed conditions.
2. Interesting: The problem should be interesting for the investigator him/her self. If he/she
is not interested in to, he/she will be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come at
every step in research. His interest should be purely intellectual and should not be there only
for a reward, material benefit, advancement in position, increased authority, etc.
3. Importance: If it is not worth while, it adds to neither knowledge nor lead to any
improvements in the current practices, it would be in vain set up as a discipline and to
previous research findings in any way.
4. Immediate Application: The investigator should ask him/her self question, “will my
research help in solving an urgent problem”
5. Feasibility or Amenability: The suitability of the problem for a particular research worker
is the matter of its feasibility. The investigator should be able to carry it to a successful
conclusion. He should possess the required competence, knowledge and understanding. He
should be skillful enough to develop, administer, and interpret the necessary data – gathering
devices and procedures etc.
! Feasibility issue of research includes the following:
 Availability of data
 Availability of cooperation
 Availability of guidance
 Availability of other facilities
 Experience and creativity,
 Coverage and confidence
2.3.2. Common Errors in Formulating Research Problem.
i) Naming a broad field: To choose the broad area of study instead of specific problem
makes no justification.
ii) Narrowing or localizing a topic: The problem should not be narrowed to such an extent
that it becomes too small and insignificant from research point or view.
iii) Lock of Precisions in the instrument: If the tools, tests, or devices, which are proposed
to be used in data collection and analysis, are no precise enough; they may result in another
constant error.
2.4. Research Hypothesis and Research Questions
Can you guess what research hypothesis and research questions?
___________________________________________________________________________

24
Let us discuss both one by one:
2.4.1. Research Hypothesis
Hypothesis form is employed when the state of the existing knowledge and theory permits
formulation of reasonable prediction about the relationship among variables. Hypothesis is
considered as the principal instrument in research. Its main function is to suggest new
experiments and observations. Decision maker often face a situations wherein they are
interested in testing hypotheses on the basis of available information and then take decisions
on the basis of such testing.
The term hypothesis refers to an idea or a suggestion that is based on known facts and used as a
basis for reasoning or further investigation. It is also referred to as a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved. Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive
statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods.

Examples of hypothesis:
 An increase in sales person’s effort will increase the sales of a product
 Business faculty students purchase more than the education students
 Females are more loyal than males in repayment of loan
Role of hypothesis
In research, a hypothesis serves important functions:
 It guides the direction of the study
 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not
 It suggest which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate
 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result
Characteristics of Hypothesis
A good hypothesis must possess the following characteristics
Hypothesis should/must be:
 Clear and precise
 Capable of being tested
 State relationship between variables
 Limited in scope and must be specific
 Consistent with most known facts
 Stated as far as possible in simple terms
 Amenable to testing within a reasonable time

25
  Explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation
Difficulties in the formulation of Hypothesis

 Lack of knowledge and clarity of the theoretical frame work of the area in which the
investigator chooses to work.
 Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical frame work logically.
 Lack of acquaintance with available research techniques. This result in failure of
phrasing the hypothesis properly.
 Vagueness of the statement
2.4.2. Research Questions
A Research Questions is a fact oriented information gathering question. This is the point at
which the insight and expertise of the researcher come in to play. It should be remembered
that a choice of wrong research for the right problem can be dangerous. A research question
is a single question that best states the objective of the research study. On occasion, it may be
more than one question, but often, it is just one.
This is the question that you are trying to answer when you do research on a topic or write a
research report. It should be as specific as possible. In some cases, you may make two or
more research questions to cover a complex topic. For example, if you are studying the
effects of sleep on reflexes, you might formulate the following research questions:
 What are the effects of sleep on reflexes?
 Is maximum reflex efficiency achieved after eight hours of sleep?
If you are studying on causes and consequences of employees’ turnover, you might formulate
the following research questions
 What are the causes for employees’ turnover?
 What consequences does employees’ turnover bring to organizational performance?
Activity 2
1) What are the characteristics of good research problem?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______
2) Give your own examples of at least two research hypotheses and research questions?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______

26
 Check list
Dear learner, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you
have been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick ()
mark under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point
is available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO

1 Define research problem

2 Identify techniques or approaches used for research problem
identification
3 Explain principal components of research problem
4 Take in to account critical points in research problem
selection
5 Identify sources of research problem and what research
problem consists of
6 Identify criteria of good research problem
7 Discuss common error in formulation of research problem
8 Explain research hypotheses and questions
9 Give examples for both research hypotheses and questions
Chapter Summary
In this chapter we have discussed research problem formulation and hypotheses formulation.
It is the first step in conducting research activities. From this chapter the following summary
has been drawn:
A research Problem refers to some difficulty, which a researcher faces (experiences) in the
context of both a theoretical or practical situations and wants to obtain a solution for the
same. A research problem exists if at least two elements are present. These are the current
state differs from the ideal state and there is not an “acceptable” solution available for the
existing problem.
There are three principal components to be considered in the formulation of research
problem. These are the originating questions, the rational- theoretical or practical, specifying
questions (possible answers to the originating) questions in term of that satisfy the rationale.)
The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem
identification). The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to

27
analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions
to the stated problem. The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and
formulation of the problem.
There are some important sources of problems, which are helpful to a researcher for selecting
a problem. These include; theory of once own interest; daily problems; technological
changes; unexplored areas; and discussions with other people.
Novelty, Interesting, Importance, Immediate application, and Feasibility or Amenability are
criteria of good research problem.
The term hypothesis refers to an idea or a suggestion that is based on known facts and used as
a basis for reasoning or further investigation. A Research Questions is a fact oriented
information gathering question. This is the point at which the insight and expertise of the
researcher come in to play.
 Self Test Questions
Part-I: Say “True” for the correct statement and “False” for incorrect statement.
1. A research problem must integrate concepts and theoretical perspective of the literature
into the problem to be addressed.
2. Rationale of questions constitutes the initial phase in the process of problem formulation.
3. The purpose of research is the aspect the researcher worries about, thinks about, and wants
to find a solution for.
4. The problems that an individual daily encountered can be the possible sources of research
problem.
5. There must be some objectives (goals) to be attained in conducting research.
6. To choose the broad area of study instead of specific problem makes justification.
7. Hypothesis form is employed when the state of the existing knowledge and theory permits
formulation of reasonable prediction about the relationship among variables.
8. Hypothesis guide direction of research.
9. Research question is explained in form of statement.
10. The research questions should be inconsistent with research objectives to be attained.
Part-II: Short Answer Questions
1. What are the three sources usually contribute to problem identification?
2. What are the criteria of good research?
3. In research what are the importance of hypothesis?
4. If you have carried out a research on “Factors affecting service quality and its impact on
customers satisfaction”. What research questions possibly you draw from this ti
28
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Introduction
Dear learner, up to this chapter we have discussed meaning of research and research problem.
Then after identification of research problem, researcher expected to develop research
proposal. Research proposal is a written document of the research topic chosen and why, a
plan of future research and an explanation of how it will be achieved. The document is
prepared for both requesting authorization and funds to undertake a specific research project.
It is an activity that incorporates decision made during early research – project planning
phases of the study including management – research question hierarchy and exploration. It
systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the process that will
be utilized at each stage of the research process. In this chapter we will discuss meaning,
function, purpose of research proposal and reasons why research proposal fail and the general
format of proposal.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Define research proposal
 Identify function of research proposal
 Explain purposes of research proposal
 Indicate the possibly reasons for failurity of research proposal
 Know the format/content that research proposal should include
3.1. Definitions of Research Proposal
Dear student, can you guess what Research proposal is?
___________________________________________________________________________
___
A research proposal is a written document requesting both authorization and funds to
undertake a specific research project. It always includes a statement of explaining the purpose
of the study or a definition of the problem. It systematically outlines the particular research
methodology and details the process that will be utilized at each stage of the research process.
! A written proposal is often required when a study is being suggested. It ensures that the
parties agree on the projects purpose and on the proposal method of investigations.
Depending on the needs and desires of the investigator, substantial background detail and

29
elaboration of proposal techniques may be included.
It is also the road map of the research which reveals about the what, who, when, why, how of
the research project.

In research proposal:
 What information will be required?
 What research procedures will be implemented?
Will be clearly specified so that others may understand their exact implications
3.2. Function of the Research Proposal
 Would you mention few function of research proposal?
___________________________________________________________________________
___
Research proposal may function at least in three ways, namely, as a means of
communication, as a plan and as a contract
1. Proposal as a means of communication serves to communicate the investigator’s
research plan to those who give consultations and/or disburse fund. Proposal is the primary
source on which the graduate students’ thesis or dissertation committee must base the
function of:
 Review
 Consultation
 And more importantly, approval for implementation of the research project
In general, the quality of assistance and the probability of financial support will all depend
directly on the clarity and justification of the proposal.
2. Research proposal as plan, helps the researcher to organize his ideal in a systematic
manner and to look for strengths and flaws, a successful proposal sets out the plan in step by
step detail. That is, it provides and inventory of what must be done and which materials have
to be collected as a preliminary step.
Generally, the acceptability of results is judged exclusively in terms of the adequacy of the
methods employed in recording, analyzing and interpreting the data in the planned study.
3. Proposal also functions as a contract. A completed proposal approved for execution and
signed by all members of the sponsoring committee, constitute a bond of agreement between
the researcher and that committee

30
An approved grant proposal results in a contract between the investigator (and often the
university) and funding sources.
Proposal for thesis and dissertation should be in final form prior to the collection of data.
Once document is approved in final form, neither the student nor the sponsoring faculty
members should be free to alter the fundamental terms of the contract by unilateral decision.
! The general purpose for writing proposals includes:
1. To present the problem that will be researched and to show its importance
2. To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related problems
3. To identify the data that are necessary for solving the problem and how these data will be
gathered, treated, and interpreted.

3.4. Reasons Why Research Proposal Fail

Do you know research proposal fail?
___________________________________________________________________________
___
The research Proposal may be failed by sponsoring institutions or advisor because of the
following:
1) Aim and objectives of the research proposal are unclear
2) There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and the issues to be addressed
3) The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the time table
4) The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in depth background research
5) Problem is of insufficient importance
6) Information about data collection is insufficiently detailed
7) Information about the data analysis method is insufficiently detailed
8) Time scale is inappropriate or unrealistic
9) Resources and budget have not been carefully thought out
10) If the topic selected has been done too many times before-indicates a lack in background
research
 Activity 2
1) Define research proposal and explain its functions
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______
2) Explain under what circumstance research proposal might failed?
31
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______
3.5. General Format and Elements of Proposal
Can you guess what contents should a given proposal contain?
___________________________________________________________________________
___
There is no a hard and a fast format in scientific research proposal writing. It varies from
one organization to another and from one country to another. Some universities and funding
agencies make very specific demand for the format of proposals. Others provide general
guidelines for form and content. Though the format varies, the essence expressed in different
proposal remains the same.

! The major components (Elements of proposal

1. Cover Page
2. Title
3. Abstract (Optional)
4. Introduction
5. Rationale and Justification
6. Objective of the study
7. Literature review
8. Materials and methods (methodology)
9. Work plan (time budget)
10. Cost budget
11. References
12. Appendix
Each of them can have their own separate section in research proposal. Each main section
should begin on a new page. Some can be merged. Some on the other hand can be split into
separate sections or into further subsections.
1. Cover Page: Cover page contains introductory information for the proposal: the names of
the proposed project or title of the research, the author of the proposal or principal
investigator and the institution which funds the research or academic/research institute in
which the research will be done, and date (month, year). Some funding agencies have
standardized cover page that may contain additional information.

32
2. Title: The title is one of the most important parts of a proposal. The title, which reflects the
research under consideration, must be chosen based on the criteria the relevance it has, the
feasibility of undertaking the study, the applicability of the research result, and the cost
effectiveness.
! The title should be:
 As explicit as possible and transparent
 Clear and short
 Capture and reflect the content of the proposal.
 Enable the readers to understand the concepts of the study
 Try to get the title down to one line or two maximum

3. Abstract (Optional in Proposal)

Is summary, which reflects the whole content of the proposal (most of the time less than 300
words).Abstract should be concise, informative and should provide brief information about
the whole problem to be investigated? An abstract is known by different names like
executive summary, synopsis, and epitome. It gives executives the chance to grasp the
essentials of the proposal without having to read the details.
The abstract of a proposal should contain the following points
 Title or topic of the research
 Statement of the problem and objective/s
 Methodology of investigation
 Expected result (tentative only if a researcher starts with a formulated hypothesis)
4. Introduction
This section in research proposal should give the general background of the study and the
need for undertaking the study. It reviews the previous work to reveal what is known of the
subject.
Some question to be addressed in this part may include:
 What are current and previous studies that have been made on the issues to be
studied?
 What is the present gap in knowledge and current trend?
 What makes worth studying?
 Why has the problem not been solved yet?
 What do we intend to fill the gap or solve the problem?

33
If the researcher finds this section to be very vast he/she can add (split this section) a section
(heading) called “rationale” and or the problem statement.
5. The Rationale/Statement of the Problem or Justification of the study
The rationale provides some of the reasons for doing the study and its importance. Citations
from the past research may be relevant here; likewise recent political and economic events,
previous efforts to solve the problem that did not succeed can be mentioned.
! Clarity in statement of the problem is important for the following three basic reasons
i) It is the foundation for the development of research problems which are necessary
for securing funds.
ii) It enables the researcher to describe the problem practically, to think about its
importance, its priority and to point out all the necessary points
iii) It provides the research with the basis for discussion with people in the community,
the relevant government \agency, and /or the potential funding agency.

6. Objective
In this section, the proposal can indicate what is expected to occur and why, suggest the
variables that determine a relationship, or provide an explanation for a phenomenon to that
has been observed, which strengthens the proposal and research agenda.
Generally this section should focus on the points
 What is to be achieved by the proposed investigation has to be stated clearly and
concisely
 Should be to the point and logically arranged
 Should be stated in a from which shows the relations between variables
 Must clearly state the target of the research activity, i.e. what kind of results are
expected or sought from conducting research.
7. Literature review
Literature review means locating literature in a variety of sources reading it carefully and
thoroughly organizing it in to these along with the line of investigation. Types of reviewed
literature can be
 theoretical works
 methodological review
 original findings and reviews of them
It is not necessary to have a separate heading for the review of literature in a proposal. In
many respects it is more useful to show that such a review has been made by citing useful

34
literature in problem statement (introductory part), objective, methodology and where ever
this information has been helpful in developing the research proposal.
The researcher may decide to have a separate heading for review literature when the wants to
develop theoretical frameworks reviewed from different sources, detailed explanation and
extensive references of the research outcomes related o the proposed study.
8. Material and Methods (Methodology) or Data and Methodology
The methodologies are the core and the largest part of the scientific research proposal. The
methodologies are largely descriptive. This section is an essential prerequisite for validating
the results and hence acceptability of the proposal.
An accurate, clear and valid methodology is required so the peers can:
 Replicate the experiments described in an experimental research
 Modify them with assurance that the modification is different from the original in
particular way
 Apply them under different conditions
Methodology should give full details to show how the research activity is going to be carried
out
Since this section is the largest and the most important part of the research proposal,
researchers are advised to split it in to sub sections. Such effort makes the proposal
transparent and clear to the readers as well as the reviewing committee and therefore,
minimizes the risk of being rejected by a research committee (examiners board).
The suggested sub sections can be:
 Data (materials)
 Methodology (methods)
8.1 Data (some authors prefer Materials)
In this subsection of the methodology, information required to attack the problems is
explained. Each variable or indicator identified by a researcher is explained and justified to
show how it is relevant to the current study. The source of the data, the site (location) of the
study and time that will be included (relevant time period) should also be specified. Detailed
techniques of sampling, data collection and method of analysis would be left to the next sub
section. This is important particularly when a researcher plans to collect primary data to test
the basic hypothesis.
8.2 Methods (Methodology)
In this subsection the details of all technical matters will be explained. These include:

35
  Method of data collection: how the data are obtained from earlier specified sources?
There are different methods to collect primary data. All available methods are
expected to be considered by a researcher and the best one is selected. The researcher
explains and justifies how his/her selection of a particular method is relevant and
appropriate to his study.
 Method of sampling: from which elements are the data collected? The researcher has
to specify the elements from which the desired information is collected and how these
elements are selected. There are different sampling techniques. The researcher is
expected to consider all of them and select the one, which is appropriate for the
current study. Justification of his/her choice of a particular sampling technique is
relevant here. The sample size should also be specified with its method of sample size
determination.
 Method of analysis: once the information is collected how it will be processed and
analyzed will also be explained. Particularly if the researcher uses mathematical
models like simple or multiple regression, time series or liner programming models,
he has to show their mathematical derivations and relations briefly to demonstrate
their relevancy for the current study.
 Method of presenting the outcome: Sometimes it is worth to mention how the
outcome of the research will be presented to consumers (general public). This is
important if the research is not a part of a particular study program (like, master or
doctoral study).
9. Budget of time
A time table explaining how the researcher expects to carry out his project and when each of
the important phases will be completed is helpful to both the researcher and the reviewer. It is
a plan in terms of numbers of weeks or months and expected completion dates. Commonly
researcher presents it in a table form.
The length of time required for postgraduate study (Doctoral study) is determined by the
budget of the time presented by students. Thus researcher should be realist in budgeting his
time.
10. Cost budget
Most proposals put together with the expectation what funding will be necessary and an
itemized list of the items needed to carry out the methodology is listed in some detail.
Personal needs, including the principal researcher’s time are included.
These are items like:
36
  Field expenses for data collection
 Pay for consultants where they are necessary
 Travel and all such items needed to be detailed
 a sum of money for contingencies
A carefully developed budget reflects the seriousness of the proposal and the degree to which
it is a realistic assessment of what is needed.
11. Reference or Bibliography/ Literature cited)
All works cited in the proposal are listed either alphabetically or numerically at the end of the
document usually under the heading of “References or Bibliography”
Some conservative authors would like to make distinction between references and
bibliography as mentioned below:
 References: are lists of literature, which have been cited in the text of a document
 Bibliography: includes also items, which were not cited but are relevant to the
document.
There are several ways of making citation and recording references. The two main systems of
referring are:
A. Harvard system: this system uses author’s name, date and page reference. This
system is used mainly by Anthropology, Social science and in life science research.
Harvard system is recommended to be used in business research.
B. Vancouver system: uses in text number instead of an author, date and page reference.
It is used in the applied science such as chemistry, physics and mathematics.
Harvard system
 The reference list must include all published works referred to in the text.
 Each reference to a periodical publication must include in order, the name (s) of the
author(s) the year of publication, the full title of the article, the publication in which it
appears, and the volume and inclusive page number
 Reference to a book must give the author or authors’ name(s) , the year, the title the
edition, if other than the first; the publisher, the city of publication, and the number of
the volume (if two or more).
Example of some of the common types of literature citation (J. Hussey AND Hussey,
1997)
i. Citation
Citation under the Harvard system:

37
In an investigation conducted in large factories, Gibbs (1993) reported that absenteeism was
higher on the night shift than the day.
Citing more than one authors
A number of research studies have been conducted in to the effect of the recession on small
business (smith, 1984: Anderson, 1990; Jones, 1995)
ii. Referring or listing the cited works
A. Reference for books
Hailay Gebretinsae (2007), Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 2nd ed.,
Mekelle University, Faculty of Business and Economics, Mekelle, Ethiopia

B. Reference for Journal article

Porter, Michael E. (1994), competitive advantage of nations, Harvard Business Review,
68(2), pp. 73 – 83
C. Other reference
It is possible to cite quote or paraphrase unpublished work if they are relevant to the study.
Unpublished works are:
 Personal communication with experts (professionals)
 Unpublished data collected by other researchers
 Unpublished research works
 Public speeches
 Conferences discussion and the like
The researcher should not put such an unpublished work in reference list unless it has been
fully approved and a date set for its publication.
Unpublished references are not usually found or catalogued in libraries. And such
unpublished reference should be placed in the body of the text, not in the reference list.
Use parenthesis to enclose the complete name of the author, the year (if available) and
appropriate title, location, or other information needed to establish the authenticity of the
reference or help the reader locate it.
For Example
“…………………” (David Lee, Cornell University, 1995 personal Communication)
“ ………………” (Yilma Kebede, LAR, 1984 unpublished data)
It is also possible to use numbered footnote and will be referred to by using the number as a
superscript at the proper position.

38
12. Appendix (Annex)
It is not mandatory to have this section. If the researcher thinks that having this section will
increase the quality of the research proposal he/she is free to do so. Information types
provided in this section are those additional details, which are difficult to accommodate
within the standard headings
Stuffs (materials) to be included in appendix:
 Detail Questionnaires and interview schedules
 Detailed experimental design (in experimental research)
 Detailed statistical procedures
 Samples of research materials (chemical and some biological materials if used)
 Survey and other geographic maps

 Activity 2
1) Dear student, please search any Business research proposal prepared by your senior
students and evaluate it depending on the knowledge you have acquired in above chapter?
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
 Check List
Dear Student, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you
have been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick ()
mark under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point
is available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO

1 Define research proposal

2 Explain functions of research proposal

3 Identify why research proposal failed

4 Prepare research proposal based on the format given above

Chapter Summary
A research proposal is a written document requesting both authorization and funds to
undertake a specific research project. It is also the road map of the research which reveals
about the what, who, when, why, how of the research project that will be conducted in future.

39
Research proposal serves as a means of communication, as a plan and as a contract. The
research Proposal may be failed by sponsoring institutions or advisor because of the
following limitation of research proposal such as if aim and objectives of the research
proposal are unclear, if there is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and the
issues to be addressed, if the overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the time
table, if the researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in depth background
research, if the problem is of insufficient importance, and others reasons.
There is no a hard and a fast format in scientific research proposal writing. It varies from one
organization to another and from one country to another. Some universities and funding
agencies make very specific demand for the format of proposals. Others provide general
guidelines for form and content. Though the format varies, the essence expressed in different
proposal remains the same. The major component of research proposal can include cover
page, title, abstract, introduction, rationale and justification, objective of the study, literature
review, materials and methods (methodology), work plan (time budget), cost budget,
references, appendix
 Self Test Questions
Part-I: Short Answer Questions
1) Define research proposal and list its function
2) What are the reasons for the failurity of research proposal?
3) Give any examples of research title
4) What are the possible contents of research proposal?
CHAPTER-FOUR
RESEARCH DESIGN (PLANNING THE RESEARCH PROJECT)
Introduction
Dear learner, as a researcher after you have defined research problem and think to construct
proposal, you selects a research design. A research design is a master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information. It is a
framework of the research plan of action. It is science and art of planning procedures for
conducting studies so as to get the most valid findings. Therefore, in this chapter we will
discuss meaning of research design and its need, concepts related to research design, features
of research design, and forms of research design.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Define research design and its need
40
  Identify concepts related to research design
 Explain features of research design
 Discuss the forms of research design

4.1 Meaning of Research Design

Could you define research design?
___________________________________________________________________________
A researcher after defining and properly formulating a research problem as a next step he/she
has to prepare a research design or plan of the research work.
Research design is a plan of collecting and analyzing data in an economic, efficient and
relevant manner. It is a plan of organizing frame work for doing the study and collecting the
necessary data.
In other words research design is nothing but the conceptual structure with in which research
is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for collection, measuring and analysis of data.
! Whatever be the nature of the research design the following general rules should be
followed in planning and preparing a research design
i) Define the nature and scope of the problem
ii) Specify the related variables (specify the sources and types of information needed)
iii) Exclude the variable not relevant to the study
iv) Start with the logical hypothesis

Generally, the research design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from
formulating the hypothesis and its operational implication to the final analysis of data. The
design decision should be oriented in answering the following question.
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will be the study being carried out? Here a researcher is expected to define
place and the research target population
 What types of data are required?
 Where can the required data be found and what techniques of data collection will be
used?
 What period of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?

41
  How will be the data analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
4.1.1. Need for research Design
Why we need to have a research design? Research design is necessary because:
 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the research operation
 It makes research project as efficient as possible and help to yield maximum
information with minimum expenditure, time and effort.
 It helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas in a form whereby it will be possible
for him to look for flaws and inadequacies
 Design will be given to others for their comment and critical evaluation. In absence of
such course of action, it will be difficult for the critics to provide comprehensive
review of the proposed study.
4.2 Important Concepts Relevant to Research Design
What are the important concepts in research design?
___________________________________________________________________________
The following are important concepts relevant to research design.
1) Dependent variable: if one variable depends up on or a consequence of the other variable
it is called a dependent variable. It is a variable that is to be predicated or explained.
2) Independent variable: is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent variable.
For example, productivity of workers depends on many variables like age, experience,
motivation, experience of workers etc. The productivity varies according to the changes of
age or experience etc. So, productivity is the dependent variable and age, experience etc are
the independent variable.
3) Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of a study,
but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable.
For example: if someone wants to test the relationship between intensity of light on the
level of productivity, other variables like age of workers, heat in the working place or
personal problem of worker may as well affect the level of productivity. Since they are not
related to the purpose of a study, they are called extraneous variable.
4) Control: A good research design has to minimize the influences of extraneous variable. To
do so the researcher uses control as a remedy to minimize the effects of extraneous variable.
In experimental research control refers to restrain to experimental condition.

42
5) Confounded relationship: when dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable, then the relationship between dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded and extraneous variable.
6) Experimental and control groups: in experimental research when a group is exposed to
usual condition is called control group. But when a group is exposed to special condition is
an experimental group.
7) Treatments: the different condition under which experimental and controlled groups are
put are referred to us treatment. The usual study program and the special study program are
an example of two treatments in studying the effects new or special study program on
performance of students.
8) Experiment: the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
problem, is known us an experiment. Example, examining the usefulness of a newly
developed drug is an example of an experiment. Experiment can be comparative or absolute
experiment. If we want to determine the impact of newly developed drug against the existing
drug is an example of comparative experiment. But the previous example is an example of
absolute experiment.
9) Experimental unit: the pre- determined plots (or blocks or group) where different
treatments are used are known as experimental units.
Activity 1
1) Define research design and explain why it is needed?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2) Elaborate the difference between dependent and independent variable by taking example
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4.3. Features of Research Design
Dear learner, would you mention few features of research design?
___________________________________________________________________________
! Important features of a good research design can be summarized as follow:
 It is a plan that contains a clear statement of the research problem and specifies
the source and types of information relevant to the research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering the data or
the relevant information

43
  Indicate the population to be studied and methods to be used in processing and
analyzing the data
 It also tentatively includes the time and cost budgets, since most studies are done
under these two constrains.

4.4. Forms of Research Design

 How many forms of research design do you know?
___________________________________________________________________________
Research design is unique to a methodology. Two broad methodology groups can be used to
answer any research problems. These are experimental and non experimental. The main
difference between these two methodologies lies in the control of extraneous variables and
manipulation of at least one independent variable by the intervention of the investigator in
experimental research.
Take for instance the previous example “the impact of intensity of light in the working
place on workers’ productivity”.
Here the researcher can manipulate the independent variable, i.e. intensity of light. The
researcher by changing light intensity in the working place can observe the level of
productivity and compare the result recorded.
Put in non-experimental research, there is no intervention beyond that needed for the purpose
of measurement of the variable in question.
4.4.1 Research Design for Non Experimental Research.
A. Design for Exploratory Research Study
Exploratory research is a research aimed at identifying and formulating a research problem or
developing working hypothesis. The main purpose of such study is only formulating a
problem for further, precise investigation or developing the working hypothesis from an
operational point of view.
The major concentration in such study is on the discovery of ideas and insights. An
exploratory study is often used as introductory phase of a large study and results are used in
developing specific technique for the larger study. The design for such study is characterized
by a great deal of flexibility. Since no clear hypothesis has been developed about the
problems, the following forms of research design can be used.
i) The survey of concerning literature: this is the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by

44
earlier works may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further
research.
ii) Experience survey: this implies the survey of people who have practical experience with
the problem to be studied. The objective of such survey is to obtain insight in to the
relationship between variables and new ideas relating to the problem.
For such purpose people who are competent and can contribute new ideas are carefully
selected as respondent and the investigator then interview them the researcher must prepare
an interview schedule, which ensures flexibility in a sense that the respondent should be
allowed to raise issues and questions, which the researcher has not previously considered.
It is advisable to send a copy of interview schedule to be discussed to the respond well in
advance.
iii) Analysis of insight (Examining analogous situation): is also important method for
suggesting hypothesis for research.
It is particularly suitable in areas where there is a little experience to serve as a guide. This
method consists of intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon. For that purpose
the existing records may be examined (if any). The unstructured interview may be conducted.
The question however is that what type of example should be selected and studied?
The instances commonly chosen in social science are like:
 Case that provide sharp contrasts or
 Case having striking features are considered to be relatively more useful to identify
problems
Example
 Reaction of stranger
 The reaction of marginalized people
 The study of individuals who are in transition
 The reaction of people from different social strata
iv. Examination of case histories: is one of the older methods of research in any branch of
science. Case histories that are similar in content are generally available and provide very
important area of investigation for exploratory study. However, the result of the investigation
of case histories is always to be considered as suggestive rather than conclusive.

45
B. Research Design for Descriptive Study
Descriptive researches are those studies, which are concerned with describing the
characteristics or function of a particular individual, or of a group or a phenomenon. Most of
social researches come under this category.
This study involves the description of the extent of the association between two or more
variables. Although association can be used only to infer but not to establish a causal
relationship, they are often useful for predictive purpose.
Descriptive research in contrast to exploratory research is marked by the prior formulation of
specific research problem(question) investigator already knows a substantial amount about
the research problem, may be as a result of exploratory study, what he wants to measure and
setup appropriate and specific means for measuring it.
In descriptive research the researcher needs to define not only what he wanted to measure but
also must find adequate method for measuring it along with a clear out definition of
population he/she wants to study. Since the purpose is to obtain complete and adequate
information, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned.
! Thus the design in such study must be rigid and must focus on the following:
1. Formulating the objective of the study
2. Design the method of data collection
3. Select the sample of the study (sampling)
4. Collect the data relevant for the study
5. Processing and analysis of the data collected
6. Reporting the findings

1. Formulating the objective of the study (what is the study is about?) Why is it being
made?).The first step in descriptive study is to specify the objective with sufficient precision
to ensure that the data collected are relevant.
2. Design the method of data collection: After formulating the objective of the study next
comes planning the method of data collection. First of all the researcher has to determine the
relevant data and type of data needed to the study. After defining the relevant information
needed for the designed study, method of data and technique for collecting them must be
devised. Method of data gathering (like, observation, questionnaires, interview, and etc) with
their merit and limitation are considered and the best one is selected for the particular study.
3. Select the sample of the study (sampling): In most, if not all, studies the researcher takes
out samples(s) and then wishes to make statements about the population on the basis of the

46
sample analysis. In short sampling has to be designed. There are different sample techniques
among which the appropriate sampling technique would be selected. The sample expected to
be representative and yielding accurate information with minimum amount research effort.
4. Collect the data relevant for the study (pan of data collection): To obtain data free from
errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to supervise closely
the staff or field workers as they collect and record information. As data are collected, they
should be examined for completeness, comprehensibility, consistency and reliability.
5. Processing and analysis of the data collected: The data collected must be processed and
analyzed. Data processing design includes steps like coding the interview replies, observation
tabulating the data; and performing several statistical computations. To the extent possible,
the processing and analyzing procedure should be planned in detail before actual work
started.
6. Reporting the findings: Finally, last of all comes the question of reporting findings. This
is the task of communicating the findings to others and the researcher needs to be well
planned so that all things relating the research study may be well presented in simple and
effective style. Such design appropriately referred to as survey design since it takes in to
account all the steps involved in a survey research.
4.4.2 Research Design for Experimental Research
Experimental studies are those in which the researcher can control and manipulate at least
one of the independent variable and test the hypothesis of causal relationship between
variables. Experimental design refers to the frame work or structure of an experiment. The
study of experimental design has its origin in agricultural research. Planning of such design
was made first by Fisher (1960) when he was working at center of Agricultural Research in
England. Today, the experimental design being used in researchers relating to phenomenon of
several disciplines.
Basic principle of experimental design
Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental design.
1) The principle of Replication: the experiment should be repeated more than once. That is,
each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead once. By doing so the statistical
accuracy of the experiment is increased. Replication is introduced in order to increase the
precision of the study.
Suppose the researcher want to examine the effect of new teaching method on students’
performance. The researcher can divide student’ population in to two groups, and one
treatment (old teaching method) will be given to one group and the new teaching method to
47
another group after treatment the result is compared in both groups. Applying this principle
implies the students population is divided in to more than one group and each treatment is
given more than once.
2. The principle of Randomization: This principle of experiment is applied in order to
reduce the effect of extraneous factor by randomizing the application of treatments. In other
words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way
that the variation caused by extraneous factor can all be combined under the general beadings
of “chance” we can apply the principle of randomization to the above example.
To reduce the effect of extraneous variable, which is intelligence, a researcher can randomly
assign students in different groups or we can apply different treatments randomly
3. The principle of Local control: This is also another important principle of experimental
design. This is used to measure and eliminate the variability caused by extraneous variable.
The extraneous factor, the known sources of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as
wide a range as necessary and this need to be done in such a way that the variability it causes
can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. Here the researcher will
try to fix the extraneous variable. The students are divided on the basis of their IQ. Students
in each IQ level are divided in to two groups and each group is given different treatment and
results are compared. By doing so the effect of extraneous variable (intelligence) is
controlled.
4.4.3. Case study design
The case study method is very popular form of quantitative analysis and involves a careful
and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a
cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than
breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions and their interrelations.
Young (1894) describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social unit be is that unit a
person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community”. In short, we can say that case
study method is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete observation of
an individual or a situation or an institution is done. Here efforts are made to study each and
every aspect of the concerning unit in minute detail and then from case data generalization
and inference are down.

48
! Central components of a case study design & their functions:
1) A study’s questions – “how”, “why”
2) Study’s (theoretical) propositions – pointing attention, limiting scope,
suggesting possible links between phenomena
3) Study’s units of analysis – main units must be at the same level as the study
questions & typically comparable to those previously studied
4) Logic linking the data to the propositions – matching pieces of information to
rival patterns that can be derived from the propositions
5) Criteria for interpreting the findings – iteration between propositions and
data, matching sufficiently contrasting rival patterns to data; there is no
precise way of setting the criteria
Activity 2
1) List features of research design
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2) Explain forms of research design
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Check List
Dear Student, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you
have been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick ()
mark under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point
is available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO
1 Define research design
2 Explain why research design is needed

3 Identify features of research design

4 Explain different forms of research design

5 Differentiate experimental and non experimental research

design
6 Indentify basic principle of experimental research

49
Chapter Summary
Research design is a plan of collecting and analyzing data in an economic, efficient and
relevant manner. It is a plan of organizing frame work for doing the study and collecting the
necessary data. In other words research design is nothing but the conceptual structure with in
which research is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for collection, measuring and
analysis of data.
What is the study about, why is the study being made, where will be the study being carried
out, and others are questions answered by research design. Research design makes research
project as efficient as possible and help to yield maximum information with minimum
expenditure, time and effort.
There are many relevant concepts used in research design such as dependent variable,
independent variable, extraneous variable, experiments, controls, and others.
Two broad methodology groups can be used to answer any research problems. These are
experimental and non experimental. The main difference between these two methodologies
lies in the control of extraneous variables and manipulation of at least one independent
variable by the intervention of the investigator in experimental research.
 Self Test Questions
Part-I: Say “True” for the correct statement and “False” for the incorrect statement.
1. Research design is a conceptual frame work within which research is conducted.
2. Research design makes research project as efficient as possible and help to yield maximum
information with maximum expenditure, time and effort.
3. Indicate the population to be studied and methods to be used in processing and analyzing
the data.
4. Explanatory study involves the description of the extent of the association between two or
more variables.
5. The first step in descriptive study is to decided methods of the study.
Part-II: Match Column “B” to Column “A”
“A” “B”
1. Dependent Variable A. A variable that is predicted or explained
2. Extraneous variable B. Independent variables that are not related to the purpose
of a study.
3. Exploratory research C. when a group is exposed to usual condition
4. Control variable D. when a group is exposed to special condition
5. Experimental variable E. Research aimed at defining research problem
50
 CHAPTER FIVE
SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Introduction
Dear student, in the preceding chapter we have discussed the overall issues of research
design. Research design among so many questions it answered what sources of data and
techniques of data collection. Any research is based on various types of information. The
information the researcher has about the phenomenon the better will be his/her investigation,
and explanation about it. Without information no investigation will be made. The task of data
collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/plan worked
out. Before deciding the method of data collection, the researcher should be aware of the
existence of two types of data, i.e. Primary and secondary data. The researcher has to decide
which sort of data he/she will be using for his/her study and accordingly he/she has to select
one or the other method of data collection. In this chapter we will see both primary and
secondary data and techniques used under each method for data gathering.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Define primary data
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Primary data
 Identify the techniques used for primary data gathering
 Define secondary data
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data
 Define types of secondary data analysis conducted by business research managers
 Identify various internal and external sources of secondary data
5.1. Primary Data
Dear leaner, could you define primary data?
___________________________________________________________________________
The primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time and thus happen
to be original in character. Primary data collection is necessary when a researcher cannot find
the data needed in secondary sources.
Primary research consists in research to collect original primary data. It is often undertaken
after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by collecting secondary data. This

51
can be through numerous forms, including questionnaires, direct observation and telephone
interviews amongst others.
The term primary research is widely used in academic research, market research and
competitive intelligence.
! Primary data come from the original sources and are collected especially to answer our
research questions. Primary data are original observations collected by the researcher or
his/her agents for the first time for any investigation and used by them in the statistical
analysis.
5.1.1. Advantages and Disadvantages to Primary Research.
Primary research has both its own advantages and disadvantages. Both are discussed as
follows:
Advantages:
 Addresses specific research issues as the researcher controls the search design to fit their
needs
 Great control; not only does primary research enable the marketer to focus on specific
subjects; it also enables the researcher to have a higher control over how the information
is collected. Taking this into account, the researcher can decide on such requirements as
size of project, timeframe and goal.
Disadvantages:
 Compared to secondary research, primary data may be very expensive in preparing and
carrying out the research. Costs can be incurred in producing the paper for questionnaires
or the equipment for an experiment of some sort.
 In order to be done properly, primary data collection requires the development and
execution of a research plan. It takes longer to undertake primary research than to acquire
secondary data.
 Some research projects, while potentially offering information that could prove quite
valuable, may not be within the reach of a researcher.
 By the time the research is complete it may be out of date.
 Low response rate has to be expected.
An example of primary research: the government wants to know if people are pleased with
how the government is being run, so they hand out questionnaires to the public asking if they
are happy and, if not, how to improve.
When marketers conduct research to collect original data for their own needs it is called
primary research. This process has the marketer or someone working for the marketer
52
designing and then carrying out a research plan. As we noted earlier, primary research is
often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by collecting
secondary data.
While not as frequently used as secondary research, primary research still represents a
significant part of overall marketing research. For many organizations, especially large
consumer products firms, spending on primary research far exceeds spending on secondary
research.
5.1.2. Sources and Methods Primary Data Collection
Would mention sources and methods of primary data collection?
___________________________________________________________________________
The sources of primary data is the researcher him/her self. The researcher collects primary
data during the course of doing experiment in an experimental research. But in case of non-
experimental research a researcher conducts survey to obtain primary data either through:
observation, direct communication with respondent in one form or another and personal
interview. Thus, in other words, means that there are several methods of collecting primary
data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches.
! Commonly used methods of collecting primary data are:
1) Observation method
2) Interview
3) Self administered Questionnaires
4) Schedule (Interview Questionnaires)
5) Focus group discussion (FGD), etc…

Dear learner now let us discusses the above methods of primary data collection in detail.
1) Observation Method
This is a method of primary data collection in which researchers collect data based on their
personal observation. For-example if a researcher wants to collect data about the
employee’s job satisfaction in any organization. For this purpose researcher will interact with
employees to observe their behavior in order to assess their job satisfaction. Take another
example, suppose in case of textile industry, investigator wants to indentify job satisfaction
of machine operators and different workers; he/she would select the respondents through
random sampling. The investigator will carefully observe and interact with the workers to
know whether they are satisfied with their job or not. But to identity of the investigator
should not be revealed. Observation method gives the opportunity to record the customer

53
behavior directly. This method is costly and time consuming as compared to other methods of
data collection. Results of the observation method could be distorted with personal biases
and thinking of the investigator.
2) Interview
In an interview, the researcher meets people and discusses his/her social, economic or some
other problem with them. During the course of discussion, he/she gathers facts. An interview
is different from schedules (interview questionnaires). A schedule includes some
predetermined questions asked by the researcher in a definite order without change. But the
interview has no such definite form or order of question. The researcher may ask any
question on the basis of his/her insight into the problem. Interview can be either personal
interview or interview through telephone.
i) Personal Interview
This is a method of primary data collection in which questionnaire is used as a data collection
tool. Several interviewers are sent to the respondents with interview questionnaire under the
guidance of research in defined interview environment. It is described in terms of time, place
and numerous other factors which have influence over interviewees. Personal interviews are
categorized into self-administered questionnaires; door-to-door interview, mall intercept
surveys, executive interview and purchase intercept technique.
ii) Telephone Interview
This is one of the most significant primary data collection methods. The significant features
of the telephone interview are: selecting telephone numbers, call timing, call outcomes and
call report. Telephone interview is known as dominant and cost-effective method because
of the following reasons:
 Higher chance to reach the respondents at any place (geography).
 Saving travel time and cost.
 Low overall interview conducting time of sample as compared to other methods.
 Higher chances of random selection of units among the population having telephone
connections.
Shortcomings of the Telephone Interview are given below
 Impossible to employee visual aids
 Majority of population do not have telephone connection.
 Higher probability of discontinue conversation; it may result in incomplete interview.

54
iii) Depth Interviews: depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover
underlying motives and desire and are often used in motivational research. Such Interviews
are held to explore needs, desires, and feelings of respondents
3) Questionnaire
The questionnaire may be regarded as a form of interview on paper. Procedure may be
regarded as a form of interview on paper. Procedure for the construction of a questionnaire
follows a pattern similar to that of the interview schedule. However, because the
questionnaire is impersonal it is all the more important to take care over its construction.
Since there is no interviewer to explain ambiguities or to check misunderstandings, the
questionnaire must be especially clear in its working. The variety of possible answers to each
question must be anticipated more fully than for an interview. The questionnaire is probably
the most used and most abused of the data gathering devices.
! Different Definitions Questionnaire:
A questionnaire is a form which is prepared and distributed for the purpose of securing
responses. Generally these questions are factual and designed for securing information about
certain conditions or practices, of which recipient is presumed to have knowledge.
Goode and Hatt have defined questionnaire as a device for securing answers to questions by
using a form which the respondent fills himself.
According to Barr, Davis and Johnson “A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of
questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is desired.”

As the term generally used in educational researches, “the questionnaire consists of a sense of
questions or statements to which individuals are asked to respond the questions frequently
asked for facts or the opinions, attitudes or preferences of the respondents.”
Significance of Questionnaire
Beginners are more commonly tempted to this tool, because they imagine that planning and
using a questionnaire is easier than the use of other tools. It is also considered to be the most
flexible of tools and possesses a unique advantage over others in collecting both qualitative
and quantitative information.
Critics speak of it as the lazy man’s way of gaining information, because it is comparatively
easy to plan and administer a questionnaire. “As a matter of fact, preparation of a good
questionnaire takes a great deal of time, ingenuity and hard work.”
Common Faults
Questionnaire prepared by learners suffer from such errors as:

55
1. Too lengthy: They contain a large number of questions requiring lengthy answers.
2. Vague: Items are imperfectly worded and improperly arranged.
3. The pro-forma itself is poorly conceived and badly organized.
4. The subjects touched by the items of the questionnaire are trivial importance.
Design of the Questionnaire
In order to gain acceptance for his/her questionnaire, the researcher should design an
appealing format.
Many unattractive questionnaires end up in a wastebasket rather in the hands of the sender.
To improve the attractiveness of the instrument, choose a title that is clear, concise, and
descriptive of the research project, and use well typed or printed questions that are properly
spaced and easy to read. It is generally advisable to group questions of a similar nature
together.

Type of Questionnaire Items

The two commonly used types of questionnaire items are the unrestricted, or open form
items, and the restricted, or close form items. Each type has its advantages and
disadvantages, so the researcher must decide which is more likely to yield the data needed in
a particular research project.
The open formed item is also referred to as the “Open end”, “Short-answer”, or “Free-
response” item because it offers the question there is a space provided in which the
respondent is asked to write his/her answer. This type of item permits explanation, but
responses can be difficult to summarize and tabulate.
The responses also may be too brief, or the respondent may have omitted important
information.
The open form item is of most value when unrestricted, in depth responses are needed. An
example of this type of questionnaire item follows: In your opinion, what might your high
school have done to prepare you more adequately for college?
The closed form item sometimes is referred to as the “restricted” or “structured” type. It
consists of a question or a statement to which a person responds by selecting one or more
choices, such as “Yes” or “No”. In one variation of this type the respondent may be asked to
underline award from the two or more alternatives. Another variation requires the ranking of
choices.
The close form item facilities the tabulation and analysis of data. It also improves the
reliability and consistency of the data. One limitation of this kind of item is that the

56
respondent does not have the opportunity to explain why he/she has given certain responses,
and this may be important in some kinds of research studies. The closed form item also limits
the scope and depth of responses, so its use in measuring attitudes, feelings and certain
aspects of behaviour may be limited. It is possible also that the answers from which the
respondents must choose are not the proper ones for all of the individuals who are given the
questionnaire. An example of a closed ended form questionnaire item follows: If group
tests are used in your school, by who are they administered?
(a) Administrators (b) Counsellors, (c) Psychologists, (d) Teachers, and (e) Others
! Elements of Questioning Method
In using the questioning method there are five elements to be considered:
(i) The content of the questioning; which includes both why the researcher is asking the
questions and why the respondent believes they are being asked, since these are not
necessarily the same;
(ii) The question which can be defined as the verbal stimulus to which the respondent will be
exposed;
(iii) The provision for answering which refers to the response the respondent will be.
(iv) The way in which the response will be recorded, which refers to variation like writing or
speaking or recording;
(v) The nature of the researcher respondent interaction, which considers whether researcher
respondent interaction, which considers whether researcher and respondent actually meets
face to face or whether they communicate impersonally.
Choosing the Questions
Stage in a question is to define the problem precisely. It is desirable also to define at an early
stage the population to whom the question is to be directed and to decide the nature of the
sample to be drawn, as this may influence the drafting of the question. The definition of the
problem should set out one by one the aspects of the problem to be explored and follows on
from this with construction of questions or items to deal with each aspect in turn. The
question should be compiled with definite hypotheses or theories in mind. Each question
should contribute clear information on a specific aspect to be explored or else the question
should be discarded ruthlessly.
If the investigation is on a small scale and the investigator him/herself will classify all the
responses, it may not be necessary to put all questions into a multiple choice pattern. Multiple
choices can be tiresome, especially if the alternatives offered for choice do not express
adequately the response a subject wishes to express opinion questions if they are included
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must not be too general or they will be unclassifiable and should be restricted to fairly
straightforward topics where answers can easily be coded subsequently.
It may be necessary to choose questions and to specify possible answers in such a way as to
facilitate coding. The art of drafting a question consists of being able to do this without
forcing your respondents into an uneasy choice a difficulty which they can too easily resolve
by giving up altogether.
The questionnaire should start with simple factual questions, so that the person completing it
gets off to a good start. Complex or awkward topics should come towards the end. An open
ended- general question at the end will allow expression of points which the responder thinks
important, though they are not covered by the questionnaire.
A questionnaire need not to be restricted to questions attitude scales ratings and check lists
may be included, providing they are brief and straight forward and the instructions are kept
simple. Similarity and brevity are cardinal virtues. The distinction between a leading question
and a neutral question is sometimes difficult to decide.
For example, which of following is a neutral wording?
1. Are you in favour of abolishing corporal punishment?
2. Should corporal punishment be abolished?
3. Should corporal punishment be retained etc.?
The questionnaire is not a scientific instrument. It is a cheap, easy and rapid method of
obtaining information and non- information one never knows which he/she points the
weaknesses of both questionnaire and interview-the tested-validity of the responses.
Questionnaires show what people say, not what do or are. Any form of questionnaire implies
a certain frame of reference and thereby influences the answer given.
Improving Questionnaire Items
The questionnaire maker must depend on words alone. It is apparent that he/she cannot be too
careful in phrasing questions to insure their clarity of purpose. While there are no certain
ways of producing full proof questions, there are principles that might be employed to make
items more precise. A few are suggested with the hope that students constructing
questionnaires will become critical of their first efforts and strive to make each question as
clear as possible.
1. Define or qualify terms that could easily be a misinterpreted. “What is the value of your
horse? The meaning of the term value is not clear. These values may differ considerably. It
is essential to frame specific questions such as, “what is the present market value of your
horse?”
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2. Be careful in using descriptive adjectives and adverbs that have no agreed-upon-meaning.
This fault is frequently found in rating scales as well as questionnaire.
3. Be careful of double negatives (1) Federal aid should not granted for those states in which
education is not equal regardless of race, creed, or colour.
4. Be careful of inadequate alternatives (1) Married? Yes /No.
5. Avoid the double barrelled question.
Example: Do you believe that gifted students should be placed in separate groups for
instructional purposes and assigned to special schools?
6. Underline the word if you wish to indicate special emphasis. Example: should all schools
offer modern foreign language?
8. When asking for ratings or comparisons a point of reference is necessary.
Example: How would you rate this student-teacher’s class room teaching? Superior,
Average, Below Average.
9. Phrase questions so that they are appropriate for all respondents. Design questions that will
give a complete response. Such questions which as answer “Yes or No” would not reveal
much information about the reading habits of the respondents
Scope of Questionnaire
In descriptive studies where the sources are varied and widely scattered, the questionnaire is a
major instrument for gathering data. It is very useful in cases, where one cannot conveniently
see personally all the people from whom the responses are required. This technique finds
favour in determination of present status in certain aspects of education-current practice in
schools; financial aspects; service conditions of teachers, etc. It can be used over extensive
range of territory-national and international.
! Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
The following are the characteristics of a good questionnaire. These are:
1. The covering letter of the questionnaire is drafted in a befriending tone and indicates its
importance to the respondents.
2. The questionnaire contains directions which are clear and complete. Important items are
clearly defined and each question deals with a single idea defined in unambiguous terms.
3. It is reasonable short, through comprehensive enough to secure all relevant information.
4. It does not seek information which may be obtainable from other sources such as school
records and University results.
5. It is attractive in appearance; neatly arranged, clearly duplicated and free from

59
typographical errors.
6. It avoids annoying or embracing questions, which arouse hostility in the respondent.
7. Items are arranged in categories which ensure easy and accurate responses.
8. Questions do not contain leading suggestions for the respondents and are objective in
nature.
9. They are arranged in good order. Simple and general questions should precede the
specific and complex ones. Questions that create favourable atmosphere should precede
those that are personal and touch delicate points.
10. They are so worded, that it is easy to tabulate and interpret the responses. It is always
advisable to base them upon a preconceived tabulation sheet.
Dear learner, in order to construct good questionnaire take in to account the following
suggestions: Suggestions for Construction of a Good Questionnaire
1. The first thing to consider is the psychology of the respondents. His willingness,
honesty and ability to answer questions are of utmost importance. He/she is usually a
stranger, who is neither interested neither in the investigator nor in his/her project. He/she
may be a very busy person, and his administrative responsibility may be making heavy
demands on his/her time. The investigator must put him/her in the respondents’ position to
see how his attention, sympathy and cooperation can be secured. He should also try to
minimize the demands on his/her time.
2. One can make the responses simple by providing a variety of possible answer and
requiring the respondents to put a check mark against the correct one.
3. One should not undertake questionnaire study, unless the problem is really important from
the point of view of others. It should appear to be worth investigation to the respondents. It
should always be accompanied by a brief introductory letter which will explain the purpose
of investigation and show how the respondent’s cooperation will benefit him/her or a noble
cause. It should also contain suitable instructions for filling in it.
4. Efforts should be made eliminated irrelevant items, which may not be helpful in
interpretation of results. Weeding out of unnecessary and trivial questions for making the
questionnaire as brief as possible is very important. Experience shows that in this way the
number of questions can in certain cases be reduced to one half.
5. In framing the questionnaire the situation in which the average respondent works should be
taken into consideration. It is frequently noticed that questionnaires are prepared with
reference to institutions of smaller size or with reference to institutions which are financially

60
or otherwise more happily placed and these are institutions of smaller size where those
conditions do not prevail. Thus the responses are irrelevant and useless.
6. The importance of each question i.e. what is actually required must be clear to the maker as
well as the recipient. All the items must be free from technical and ambiguous terms so that
the recipients can give their responses without consulting others. If any technical terms have
to be used they must be explained in the body of the questionnaire.
7. As far as possible the response should be of such a nature as can be easily summarized in
some form. However, they need not necessarily be quantitative or of ‘yes’ or ‘no’ character,
or check mark type. These are preferable; because they are easier to summarize.
8. Questions eliciting opinion should be avoided unless opinion is worth getting. Questions
permitting subjective responses should be minimized.
9. Where the responses are too large to be counted, it is always advisable to resort to coding
symbols, which can be punched and weighed for summarizing purposes.
10. The group to whom a questionnaire is administered must be judiciously selected. One
must carefully avoid asking people questions, they do not know or about which they have
strongly coloured convictions. Sometimes the respondents may possess the information
required, but he/she may not be free or willing to reveal it. Asking people working in
denominational institutions on the eve of vacation whether they would return to work after
vacation may not be getting truthful replies. In such cases asking respondents not to append
their signatures would be helpful in getting frank responses. If there is any doubt that corrects
information about certain items will not be forthcoming from all the respondents questions
about such items should not be asked if the investigator wants to avoid landing himself in
difficulties at the interpretation stage.
11. A good questionnaire will arouse the curiosity as regards results and will stimulate them
to make supplementary inquiries and promise them a copy of the published results.
12. It should be so organized as to avoid overlapping of items in different sections.
13. Evidently respondents will not like to incur expenditure on postage for returning the
questionnaire. The investigator should therefore see that it accompanied by self-addressed
stamped envelope, in case; it is to be returned by post.
Limitations of the Questionnaire Technique
In this technique, a research worker has to depend on several hundred persons from whom
response is expected and it is not an easy job to get active and willing cooperation of all the
respondents. One may be very diligent and sincere about his/her work but one cannot be sure
that the responses would be forthcoming. Some of the respondents may hold back their
61
replies because they are skeptical about the value of research, others may not respond for
want of time, or because they do not feel interested in the problem in hand or because they
have not been sufficiently motivated by the introductory letter.
The research worker may therefore remain in a state of expectancy and his/her work
may be delayed.
1. Even when he/she gets back a sufficiently large number of questionnaires, he may find that
all of them have not been completely filled in omissions in some cases may be such as will
materially vitiate the results and significantly affect the interpretations.
2. If the questionnaire is sent to different areas or to people of different categories and one set
of respondents deliberately with holds its responses, the inquiry would be affected adversely.
Suppose there is a judicial inquiry on discrimination against a minority and section of the
minority concerned refuses to cooperate as a protest, evidently the results of the inquiry will
not present a true picture.
3. Sometimes the respondents fill in their responses very indifferently, without bothering
about their correctness and sometimes they deliberately give wrong information.
Activity 1
1) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of primary data
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2) Discuss the advantages and limitations of open ended and closed ended questions
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3) Discuss characteristics of good questionnaire
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4) How is it possible to improve questionnaire
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5.2. Secondary Data
Dear student, would you explain what does secondary data mean and from where it is
obtained?
___________________________________________________________________________

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Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be
published data or unpublished data.
Secondary data is information gathered for purposes other than the completion of a research
project. A variety of secondary information sources is available to the researcher gathering
data on an industry, potential product applications and the market place. Secondary data is
also used to gain initial insight into the research problem.
The two major advantages of using secondary data in market research are time and cost
savings.
 The secondary research process can be completed rapidly – generally in 2 to 3 week.
Substantial useful secondary data can be collected in a matter of days by a skillful
analyst.
 When secondary data is available, the researcher need only locate the source of the
data and extract the required information.
 Secondary research is generally less expensive than primary research. The bulk of
secondary research data gathering does not require the use of expensive, specialized,
highly trained personnel.
 Secondary research expenses are incurred by the originator of the information.
There are also a number of disadvantages of using secondary data. These include:
 Secondary information pertinent to the research topic is either not available, or is only
available in insufficient quantities.
 Some secondary data may be of questionable accuracy and reliability. Even
government publications and trade magazines statistics can be misleading. For
example, many trade magazines survey their members to derive estimates of market
size, market growth rate and purchasing patterns, then average out these results. Often
these statistics are merely average opinions based on less than 10% of their members.
 Data may be in a different format or units than is required by the researcher.
 Much secondary data is several years old and may not reflect the current market
conditions. Trade journals and other publications often accept articles six months
before appear in print. The research may have been done months or even years earlier.
5.2.1. Sources and Methods of Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data is classified in terms of its source – either internal or external.
Internal, or in-house data, is secondary information acquired within the organization where
research is being carried out. External secondary data is obtained from outside sources.
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Internal Data Sources
Internal secondary data is usually an inexpensive information source for the company
conducting research, and is the place to start for existing operations. Internally generated
sales and pricing data can be used as a research source. The use of this data is to define the
competitive position of the firm, an evaluation of a marketing strategy the firm has used in
the past, or gaining a better understanding of the company’s best customers.
There are three main sources of internal data. These are:
1. Sales and marketing reports. These can include such things as:
 Type of product/service purchased
 Type of end-user/industry segment
 Method of payment
 Product or product line
 Sales territory
 Salesperson
 Date of purchase
 Amount of purchase
 Price
 Application by product
 Location
 of end-user
2. Accounting and financial records. These are often an overlooked source of internal
secondary information and can be invaluable in the identification, clarification and prediction
of certain problems. Accounting records can be used to evaluate the success of various
marketing strategies such as revenues from a direct marketing campaign.

There are several problems in using accounting and financial data. One is the timeliness
factor – it is often several months before accounting statements are available. Another is the
structure of the records themselves. Most firms do not adequately setup their accounts to
provide the types of answers to research questions that they need. For example, the account
systems should capture project/product costs in order to identify the company’s most
profitable (and least profitable) activities.
Companies should also consider establishing performance indicators based on financial data.
These can be industry standards or unique ones designed to measure key performance factors
that will enable the firm to monitor its performance over a period of time and compare it to its

64
competitors. Some example may be sales per employee, sales per square foot, expenses per
employee (salesperson, etc.).
3. Miscellaneous reports. These can include such things as inventory reports, service calls,
number (qualifications and compensation) of staff, production and R&D reports. Also the
company’s business plan and customer calls (complaints) log can be useful sources of
information.
External data sources
There is a wealth of statistical and research data available today. Some sources are:
 Federal government
 Provincial/state governments
 Statistics agencies
 Trade associations
 General business publications
 Magazine and newspaper articles
 Annual reports
 Academic publications
 Library sources
 Computerized bibliographies and Syndicated services
A good place to start your search is the local city, college or university library. Most
reference librarians are very knowledgeable about what data is available, or where to look to
find it. Also contact government libraries and departments for research reports/publications
they may have done.
The four methods of secondary data collection are as follows:
1) Internet search, using online resources to gather data for research purposes. This method is
not usually very reliable and requires appropriate citation and critical analysis for findings.
2) Library search and indexing, this technique requires to go through written texts that have
already done similar work and utilizing their researches for your dissertations.
3) Data collection organizations, for example Gallup and AC Nielsen conduct researches on a
recurrent basis ranging in a wide array of topics
4) News Papers and Magazines, journals and other similar periodicals.
Activity 2
1) Explain secondary data
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
65
2) Explain internal and external sources of data
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
 Check List
Dear Student, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you
have been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick ()
mark under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point
is available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO

1 Define primary data

2 Identify advantages and disadvantages of primary data

3 Identify sources of and techniques of primary data collection

4 Prepare interview guideline

5 Construct good questionnaire

6 Identify limitation of questionnaire technique of primary data

collection
7 Define secondary data

8 Identify advantages and disadvantages of secondary data

9 Differentiate internal and external source of secondary data

Chapter Summary
Any research is based on various types of information. The information the researcher has
about the phenomenon the better will be his/her investigation, and explanation about it. A
research can possibly use primary and secondary data. The primary data are those which are
collected a fresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in character. Primary
data collection is necessary when a researcher cannot find the data needed in secondary
sources. Primary data collection techniques include; personal observation, interview,
questionnaire, and focused group discussion.
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be

66
published data or unpublished data. The two major advantages of using secondary data in
research are time and cost savings.
 Self Test Questions
Part-I: Say “True” for the correct statement “False” for incorrect statement
1. Primary data is a type of data that obtained from documents and manuals of the company.
2. Compared to secondary research, primary data may be very expensive in preparing and
carrying out the research project.
3. When marketers conduct research to collect original data for their own needs it is called
secondary research.
4. Telephone interview save time and transportation cost as compared with personal
interview.
5. The questionnaire is a scientific instrument.
Part-II: Choose the best answer among the following alternatives
1. All of the following are disadvantages of primary data, except?
A. It is expensive and time consuming
B. By the time the research is complete it may be out of date
C. Low response rate has to be expected D. None
2. Which of the following is not included under primary data collection technique?
A. Personal observation
B. Interview
C. Internet
D. Questionnaire
E. None
3. A questionnaire that has “yes” or “no” reply is classified under;
A. Unrestricted questionnaire
B. Closed ended questionnaire
C. Open ended questionnaire
D. A and C
[Link]
4. Which of the following is/are characteristics of good questionnaire?
A. The questionnaire contains directions which are clear and complete
B. It does not seek information which may be obtainable from other sources
C. It is attractive in appearance; neatly arranged, clearly duplicated and free from
typographical errors
D. All
5. Internal sources of data include all of the following, except?
A. Sales and marketing report
B. Accounting and financial report
C. Library source
D. A and B

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 CHAPTER SIX
SAMPLE DESIGN AND PROCEDURE
Introduction
Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every individual in the population they
are studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals – a sample – and use those
observations to make inferences about the entire population. Ideally, the sample corresponds to
the larger population on the characteristic(s) of interest. In that case, the researcher's conclusions
from the sample are probably applicable to the entire population.
This type of correspondence between the sample and the larger population is most important
when a researcher wants to know what proportion of the population has a certain characteristic –
like a particular opinion or a demographic feature. Public opinion polls that try to describe the
percentage of the population that plans to vote for a particular candidate, for example, require a
sample that is highly representative of the population. In sample technique of survey some unit
are taken as representative of the whole population. In this chapter emphasis is given to sampling
and sampling procedure form of investigation as it was commonly used in most research works.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Identify some fundamental definitions used in sampling
 Know steps involved in sampling procedure
 Distinguish probability and non-probability sampling
 Explain central limit theorem and sampling theory
6.1. Some Fundamental Definitions
Would give some fundamental elements used in sampling?
______________________________________________________________________________
Before going to details and uses of sampling it is appropriate to be familiar with some basic
definitions concerning sampling:
1) Population: is the theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements from which the
survey sample is actually selected.
2) Sampling Frame: is the list of elements from which the sample is drawn
3) Sample: A subset or some part of a larger population.

68
4) Sample design: is a definite plan for obtaining a sample frame.
5) Sampling: is the process of using a small number or part of a larger population to make
conclusion about the whole population.
6) Element: is unit from which information is collected and which provides the basis of analysis.
7) Statistic: is a characteristic of a sample
8) Parameter: is a characteristic of a population
Example: when we work out certain measurement like, mean from a sample they are called
statistics. But when such measure describes the characteristics of the population, they are called
parameter(s).
6.2. Sampling Procedure
Dear leaner, would you explain the procedure used in sampling?
______________________________________________________________________________
The first thing that the sample plan must include is a definition of the population to be
investigated.
! Sampling involves the following procedure.
1) Defining population
2) Census Vs Sample
3) Sampling Design
4) Sample size
5) Estimate Cost of Planning
6) Execute Sampling Process

1) Defining population
The first thing the sample plan must include is a definition of the population to be investigated.
Defining the target population implies specifying the subject of the study. Specification of a
population involves identifying which elements (items) are included, as well as where and when.
If the researcher problem is not properly defined the defining population will be difficult.
Therefore, the researcher must begin with careful specification of his/her population.

69
2) Census Vs Sample
Once the population has been defined, the researcher must decide whether the survey is to be
conducted among all members of the population or only a subset of the population. That is, a
choice must be made between census and sample.
Advantages of Census
 Reliability: Data derived through census are highly reliable. The only possible errors
can be due to computation.
 Detailed information: Census data yield much more information.
Limitation of Census
 Expensiveness: Investigating each elements of the population is expensive to any
individual researcher
 Excessive time and energy: Beside cost factor, census survey takes too long time and
consumes too much energy.
Need for Sampling
The use of sample in research project has the objective of estimating; testing and make inference
about a population on the basis of information taken from the sample.
In many cases sampling is the only way to determine something about the population. Some of
the major reasons why sampling is necessary are:
a) The destructive nature of certain test
b) The physical impossibility of checking all items in the population
c) The cost of studying all the items in a population is often prohibitive
d) The adequacy of sample results
e) To contact the whole population is often time consuming
Sampling techniques is used under the following conditions:
 Vast data
 When at most accuracy is not required
 Infinite population
 When census is impossible
 Homogeneity

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Limitation of Sampling Technique
 Less accuracy
 Misleading conclusion
 Need for specialized knowledge
Essentials of ideal Sample
An ideal sample should fulfill the following four basic characteristics
a) Representativeness: an ideal sample must represent adequately the whole population. It
should not lack a quality found in the whole population.
b) Independence: each unit should be free to be included in the sample
c) Adequacy: the number of units included in the sample should be sufficient to enable
derivation of conclusion applicable for the whole population.
d) Homogeneity: the element included in the sample must bear likeness with other element.
3) Sampling Design
Operationally, sample design is the heart of sampling planning. Specification of sample design
includes the method of selecting individual sample unit involves both theoretical and practical
considerations. Sample design should answer the following:
 What type of sample to use
 What is the appropriate sample unit?
 What frame (list of sampling) is available for the population?
 How are refusals and non-response to be handled?
4) Sample Size Determination
A researcher is worried about sample size because of the fact that sample size (number of
elements in sample) and precision of the study are directly related. The larger the samples size
the higher the accuracy. The sample size determination is purely statistical activity, which needs
statistical knowledge. There are a number of sample size determination methods:
1) Personal judgments: the personal judgment and subjective decision of the researcher in some
cases can be used as a base to demine the size of the sample.
2) Budgetary approach: is another way to determine the sample size. Under this approach the
sample size is determined by the available fund for the proposed study.

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3) Traditional inferences: this is based on precision rate and confidence level. To estimate
sample size using this approach we need to have information about the estimated variance
population, the magnitude of acceptable error and the confidence interval.
! Factors that determine the size of the sample
a. Nature of the study
Nature of the study affects the size of a sample for intensive and continuous study small sample
will be suitable, because such study in a large sized sample will require more resources. For
general survey, the size of the sample should be large, but for technical studies the size of the
sample should be kept small.
b. Type of sampling
In random sampling, greater accuracy in results will be achieved only in a large sample. In a
properly drawn stratified sampling, a small sample can give more accurate results.
c. Nature of units
Where it is expected that a large number of unit will not respond, and then a large sample should
be taken
d. Size of questionnaire
If the size of the questionnaire is large and it contains difficult questions, the size of the sample
should be kept small.
e. Practical considerations
The availability of finance, time and trained personnel are other practical considerations, which
affect the sample.

5) Estimate Cost of Planning

The sample plan must take in to account the estimated cost of sampling. Such costs are of two
types, overhead costs and, variable costs. In reality however, it may be difficult and even for
some people not reasonable to separate sampling cost from over all study cost.
6) Execute Sampling Process
The last step in sample planning is the execution of the sample process (procedure). In short the
sample is actually chosen. The actual requirement for sampling procedure:
 Sample must be representative
 Sample must be adequate

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Activity 1
1) Elaborate population and sample by taking examples
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2) Explain sampling procedure and the need for sampling
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6.3. Sampling Techniques
Can you guess any sampling techniques used in research?
______________________________________________________________________________
In most surveys, access to the entire population is near on impossible; however, the results from
a survey with a carefully selected sample will reflect extremely closely those that would have
been obtained had the population provided the data.
! Sampling therefore is a very important part of the research process. If you have surveyed using
an appropriate sampling technique, you can be confident that your results will be generalized to
the population in question. If the sample were biased in any way, for example, if the selection
technique gave older people more of a chance of selection than younger people, it would be
inadvisable to make generalizations from the findings.
There are essentiality two types of sampling: probability and non-probability sampling.

6.3.1. Probability Sampling

Probability or random sampling gives all members of the population a known chance of being
selected for inclusion in the sample and this does not depend upon previous events in the
selection process. In other words, the selection of individuals does not affect the chance of
anyone else in the population being selected. Many statistical techniques assume that a sample
was selected on a random basis. There are five basic types of random sampling techniques:
1) Simple Random Sampling
This is the ideal choice as it is a ‘perfect’ random method. Using this method, individuals are
randomly selected from a list of the population and every single individual has an equal chance

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of selection. This method is ideal, but if it cannot be adopted, one of the following alternatives
may be chosen if any shortfall in accuracy.
Two methods are generally used for drawing out a sample on simple random basis.
i. Lottery Method: a simple method to do this is to list numbers and to drew lotteries or to use
dies or charts or systems prepared for this purpose.
ii. Use of Tables of Random Numbers: These numbers are very widely used in all the sampling
techniques and have proved to be quite reliable as regards accuracy and representativeness.
! Precautions in Drawing a simple random Technique:
 Population to be sampled and the unit must be clearly defined.
 Different units should be approximately of equal size.
 The unit must be independent of each other
 Method of selection should be completely independent
 Every member should be accessible units once selected should not be ignored or replaced
by any other unit of the universe
Merits and Demerits of Simple Random Technique
Merits of the Simple Random Technique
 It eliminates bias and is more scientific method of taking samples
 Assessment of the accuracy of the result is possible by sample error estimation
 The sample drawn under this method is true representative of the universe
 It is very simple and easily practicable of selecting samples.
Demerits of the Simple Random Technique
 It requires complete list of the universe that restrict the use of this method
 It is not suitable for respondents (dispersed) over a large geographic area.
 For a given degree of accuracy, this method usually requires large samples as compared
to stratified sampling.
2) Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a frequently used variant of simple random sampling. When performing
systematic sampling, every Kth element from the list is selected (this is referred to as the sample
interval) from a randomly selected starting point. For example, if we have a listed population of
6000 members and wish to draw a sample of 2000, we would select every 30th (6000 divided by

74
200) person from the list. In practice, we would randomly select a number between 1 and 30 to
act as our starting point.
! Steps Involved in systematic random sampling
1. Arrange population in serial numbers from 1 to N and determine the size of the sample,
2. Determine the sample interval by dividing the population by sample size as follows.
N/n=K
Where, K= Sample interval
n= Sample size
N= Population size
3. Select any number at random from the first sampling interval. The subsequent samples are
selected at equal or regular interval.

Merits of systematic random sampling

 It is easy to operate and checking can also be done quickly
 It results in representative sample because of its randomness and probability features.
Demerits of systematic Random sampling
 It works well only if the complete and up- to – date frame is available and if the units are
randomly arranged.
 Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely affect the representativeness of the
sample.
 The one potential problem with this method of sampling concerns the arrangement of
elements in the list. If the list is arranged in any kind of order e.g. if every 30th house is
smaller than the others from which the sample is being recruited, there is a possibility that
the sample produced could be seriously biased.
3) Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a variant on simple random and systematic methods and is used when there
are a number of distinct subgroups, within each of which it is required that there is full
representation. A stratified sample is constructed by classifying the population in sub-
populations (or strata), base on some well-known characteristics of the population, such as age,

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gender or socio-economic status. The selection of elements is then made separately from within
each stratum, usually by random or systematic sampling methods.
Stratified sampling methods also come in two types – proportionate and disproportionate
stratified sampling.
In proportionate sampling, the strata sample sizes are made proportional to the strata
population sizes. For example if the first strata is made up of males, then as there are around
50% of males in the UK population, the male strata will need to represent around 50% of the
total sample.
In disproportionate methods, the strata are not sampled according to the population sizes, but
higher proportions are selected from some groups and not others. This technique is typically used
in a number of distinct situations. The costs of collecting data may differ from subgroup to sub
group. We might require more cases in some groups if estimations of populations’ values are
likely to be harder to make i.e. the larger the sample size (up to certain limits); the more accurate
any estimation is likely to be. We expect different response rates from different groups of people.
Therefore, the less co-operative groups might be ‘over-sampled’ to compensate.
Processes Involved in stratified sampling
1. Divide the universe in to sub-groups. Then the required units are selected at random from each
sub-group.
2. Conduct the stratification in such a way that item in one stratum should be similar to each
other but different significantly from unit of other strata
3. Each and every unit in the population must belong to one and only one stratum, i.e., various
strata must be non-over lapping
4. The size of each stratum in the universe must be large enough to provide selection of item in
random basis.
5. Size of the sample from each stratum can be proportional or disproportional to the size of each
stratum.
Merits of stratified sampling
 If a correct stratification has been made even a small number of units will form a
representative sample.
 Under this method, no group is left unrepresented
 It is more precise and avoids bias to a great extent.

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  It is the only sampling plan, which enables us to achieve different degrees of accuracy for
different segment of the population.
 Replacement of case is early in this method if the original case is not accessible to study
 It enables different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata
 Stratification is usually more efficient statistically than simple random sampling and at
worst is equal to it. With the ideal stratification, each stratum is homogeneous internally
and heterogeneous with other strata.
Demerits of Stratified Sampling
 It is a very difficult task to divide the universe in to homogeneous strata
 If the strata are over-lapping, unsuitable or disproportionate, the selection of samples may
not be representative
 Disproportionate stratification requires weighting which again introduces selective factor
in the sample and under weighting makes the sample unrepresentative.
4) Cluster Sampling
This technique will sample economically while retaining the characteristics of a probability
sampling. In cluster sampling the primary sampling unit is no more the individual elements in the
population rather it is say manufacturing unit, city or block city, etc…
Cluster sampling clearly will reduce costs by concentrating survey in selected cluster. But it is
less precise than random sampling. Cluster sampling is used only because of the economic
advantage it possesses.
An immediate question might how does this differ from stratified sampling? They may be
compared as follows.
1. In stratified sampling, we divide the population in to a few sub- groups, each with many
elements according to some criterion that is related to the variable under study; while in cluster
sampling, we divide the population in too many sub- groups, each with a few elements in it. The
sub groups in the later are selected according to some criterion of ease or availability in data
collection.
2. In the former one, we try to secure homogeneity within sub-groups and heterogeneity between
subgroups; while in the later one, we try to secure heterogeneity with in sub group and
homogeneity between sub- groups, but we usually get the reverse.

77
3. In the former one, we randomly choose elements from within each group; while in the later
one, we randomly choose a number of the sub-groups, which we then typically study in to.
! When properly done, cluster sampling also provides an unbiased estimate of population
parameters. Two conditions foster the use of cluster sampling are:
(1) The need for more economic efficiency than can provided by simple random sampling and
(2) The frequent unavailability of practical sampling from individual elements.

Principles of cluster sampling

 Cluster should be as small as possible with the cost and limitation of the survey
 The number of sampling units in the cluster should be approximately the same
Merits of cluster sampling
 It gives significant cost gain
 It is easier and more practical method, which facilitates the field work
Demerits of cluster method
 Probability and the representativeness of the sample are sometimes affected if the number
of the clusters is very large
 The results obtained under this method are likely to be less accurate if the number of
sampling units in each clusters not approximately the same.
5) Multi-Stage Sampling: Sometimes the population is too large and scattered for it to be
practical to make a list of the entire population from which to draw Simple random samples. For
instance, when the polling organization samples US voters, they do not do simple random
samples. Since voter lists are compiled by countries, they might first do a sample of the countries
and then sample within the selected countries. This illustrates two stages. In some instances,
they might use even more stages. At each stage, they might do a stratified random sample on sex,
race, income level, or any other useful variable on which they could get information before
sampling.
6.3.2. Non-Probability Sampling
The difference between non probability and probability sampling is that non probability
sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Does that mean that
non probability samples aren't representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it does
mean that non probability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At

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least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the
population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With non
probability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard
for us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random
sampling methods over non probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and
rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not
feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider a wide
range of non probabilistic alternatives.
! There are some practical reasons for using these less precise methods. These are:
1. It is appropriate for exploratory types of researches where one may wish to contact only
certain persons or cases that are clearly non-typical. This is the case when there is no desire to
generalize about population.
2. It saves time and money probability sampling clearly calls for more planning and repeated
call backs to assure that each selected member is contacted.
3. While probability sampling may be superior in theory, there are break downs in its
application.
4. Sometimes non-probability sampling may be the only feasible alternative.
We can divide non probability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or
purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the
sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions among these
types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling
approaches.
1) Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling
One of the most common methods of sampling goes under the various titles listed here. I would
include in this category the traditional "man on the street" (of course, now it's probably the
"person on the street") interviews conducted frequently by television news programs to get a
quick (although non representative) reading of public opinion. I would also argue that the typical
use of college students in much psychological research is primarily a matter of convenience.
(You don't really believe that psychologists use college students because they believe they're
representative of the population at large, do you?). In clinical practice, we might use clients who
are available to us as our sample. In many research contexts, we sample simply by asking for

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volunteers. Clearly, the problem with all of these types of samples is that we have no evidence
that they are representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to -- and in many
cases we would clearly suspect that they are not.
! Non probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. They are the
least reliable design but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Researchers or field
workers have the freedom to choose whomever they find, thus the name convenience. Examples
include responding to question of the researcher.
2) Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or more
specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people in a mall
or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and asking if
they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample (and most likely
they are engaged in market research). They might be looking for Caucasian females between 30-
40 years old. They size up the people passing by and anyone who looks to be in that category
they stop to ask if they will participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify that
the respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive sampling can be
very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling
for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the
opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your
population that are more readily accessible.
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive sampling methods.
We might sample for specific groups or types of people as in modal instance, expert, or quota
sampling. We might sample for diversity as in heterogeneity sampling. Or, we might capitalize
on informal social networks to identify specific respondents who are hard to locate otherwise, as
in snowball sampling. In all of these methods we know what we want -- we are sampling with a
purpose.
i. Modal Instance Sampling
In statistics, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution. In sampling, when
we do a modal instance sample, we are sampling the most frequent case, or the "typical" case. In
a lot of informal public opinion polls, for instance, they interview a "typical" voter. There are a
number of problems with this sampling approach. First, how do we know what the "typical" or

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"modal" case is? We could say that the modal voter is a person who is of average age,
educational level, and income in the population. But, it's not clear that using the averages of
these is the fairest (consider the skewed distribution of income, for instance). And, how do you
know that those three variables -- age, education, income -- are the only or even the most
relevant for classifying the typical voter? What if religion or ethnicity is an important
discriminator? Clearly, modal instance sampling is only sensible for informal sampling contexts.
ii. Expert Sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or demonstrable
experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a sample under the auspices of a
"panel of experts." There are actually two reasons you might do expert sampling.
First, because it would be the best way to elicit the views of persons who have specific expertise.
In this case, expert sampling is essentially just a specific sub case of purposive sampling. But the
other reason you might use expert sampling is to provide evidence for the validity of another
sampling approach you've chosen. For instance, let's say you do modal instance sampling and are
concerned that the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to criticism. You
might convene an expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged experience and insight
into that field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions and comment on their
appropriateness and validity. The advantage of doing this is that you aren't out on your own
trying to defend your decisions - you have some acknowledged experts to back you. The
disadvantage is that even the experts can be, and often are, wrong.
iii. Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, you select people non- randomly according to some fixed quota. There are
two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional.
In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the
population by sampling a proportional amount of each. For instance, if you know the population
has 40% women and 60% men, and that you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue
sampling until you get those percentages and then you will stop. So, if you've already got the 40
women for your sample, but not the sixty men, you will continue to sample men but even if
legitimate women respondents come along, you will not sample them because you have already
"met your quota." The problem here (as in much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide

81
the specific characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education
race, religion, etc.?
Non proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you specify the
minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. here, you're not concerned with
having numbers that match the proportions in the population. Instead, you simply want to have
enough to assure that you will be able to talk about even small groups in the population. This
method is the non probabilistic analogue of stratified random sampling in that it is typically used
to assure that smaller groups are adequately represented in your sample.
iv. Heterogeneity Sampling
We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views, and we aren't
concerned about representing these views proportionately. Another term for this is sampling for
diversity. In many brainstorming or nominal group processes (including concept mapping), we
would use some form of heterogeneity sampling because our primary interest is in getting broad
spectrum of ideas, not identifying the "average" or "modal instance" ones. In effect, what we
would like to be sampling is not people, but ideas. We imagine that there is a universe of all
possible ideas relevant to some topic and that we want to sample this population, not the
population of people who have the ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of the ideas, and especially
the "outlier" or unusual ones, we have to include a broad and diverse range of participants.
Heterogeneity sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal instance sampling.
v. Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in
your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the
criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative samples, there are times when
it may be the best method available. Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying
to reach populations that are inaccessible or hard to find. For instance, if you are studying the
homeless, you are not likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people within a specific
geographical area. However, if you go to that area and identify one or two, you may find that
they know very well who the other homeless people in their vicinity are and how you can find
them.

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6.4. Central limit Theorem and Sampling Theory
Have remember from your statistics course what central theorem means?
______________________________________________________________________________
6.4.1. Central Limit Theorem
If sample is from a normal population, the means of samples drawn from such a population are
themselves normally distributed. When sample is not from a normal population, the size of the
sample plays critical role. When “n” is small, the shape of the distribution will depend largely on
the shape of the parent population. But when as “n” gets larger (n> 30), the shape of the sample
distribution will become more and more like a normal distribution. The theorem that explains
this sort of relationship between the shape of the population distribution and the sample
distribution of the mean is known as the central limit theorem.
! The theory that, as sample size increases, the distribution of sample means of size n, randomly
selected approaches a normal distribution.

6.4.2. Sampling Theory

Sampling theory is the study of the relationship existing between a population and sample drawn
from the population. Sample theory is applicable only to random samples. The theory of
sampling is concerned with estimating the property of the population from those of the samples
and also with gauging the precision of the estimate.
This sort of movement from particular (sample) towards general (population) is what is known as
statistical induction or statistical inference. In simple word from the sample drawn from this
population applying the law of probability; the methodology dealing with all this is known as
sampling theory.
Activity 2
1) Explain probability sampling and techniques used under this method
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2) A four star hotel located in Adama has been experiencing a decline in its occupancy during
the past one year. The management has recently reviewed the problem and is seriously
considering attracting business executives as also to provide adequate facilities for holding

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business conferences, workshops, etc. Since this would involve some renovation of the existing
building in addition to new furniture and equipment, the management wants to be cautions in
undertaking such expenditures. Since its inception several years ago, the hotel has been
maintaining a complete record of its guests. The guest file is tremendously expanded containing
around 1000 cards. The management wants to make use of these readily available cards along
with any additional information in this regard. To address the objective of the research the
management decided to use 25% as a representative sample size. Based on the given information
above what is the skip interval if systematic sampling was used to select the respondents?
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

 Check List
Dear Student, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you have
been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick () mark
under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point is
available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO

1 Identify and define fundamental elements used in sampling

2 List sampling procedure/steps

3 Reason out why sampling

4 Identify factors determining the size of the sample

5 Distinguish probability and non probability sampling techniques

6 Explain types of probability sampling techniques and their merits

and demerits
7 Distinguish stratified sampling from cluster sampling

8 Explain types of non-probability sampling techniques and their

merits and demerits
9 Explain central limit theorem and sampling theory

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Chapter Summary
Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every individual in the population they
are studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals – a sample – and use those
observations to make inferences about the entire population. A sample design is a definite plan
for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Population, sampling frame, sample, sample design, sampling, elements, static, and parameter
are all important concepts that you should have to know.
Sampling involves the following procedure. This include; defining population, census Vs
sample, sampling design, sample size, estimate cost of planning, and execute sampling process.
Personal judgments, budgetary approach, and traditional inferences are sample size
determination methods. Factors that determine the size of the sample include: Nature of the
study, Type of sampling, Nature of units, size of questionnaire, and practical consideration.
There are essentiality two types of sampling: probability and non-probability sampling.
Probability or random sampling gives all members of the population a known chance of being
selected for inclusion in the sample and this does not depend upon previous events in the
selection process. There are five basic types of random sampling techniques; simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling.
Non probability sampling is arbitrary and subjective, rely heavily on personal judgment. The
difference between non probability and probability sampling is that non probability sampling
does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. We can divide non probability
sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive.

 Self Test Questions

Part-I: Say “True” for the correct statement and “False” for incorrect statement.
1. Sampling Frame is the list of elements from which the sample is drawn.
2. Data derived through sample are highly reliable than data obtained from census.
3. Quota sampling is a type of Probability sampling.
4. In proportionate sampling, the strata sample sizes are made proportional to the strata
population sizes.
5. Probability sampling has less precision than non probability techniques of sampling.

85
Part-II: Choose the best answer among the following alternatives.
1. Sampling is necessary when:
A. The destructive nature of certain test exist
B. The physical impossibility of checking all items in the population
C. The cost of studying all the items in a population is often prohibitive
D. To contact the whole population is often time consuming
E. All
2. Which one is odd?
A) Simple Random Sampling
B) Systematic Sampling
C) Stratified Sampling
D) Cluster Sampling E) Quota Sampling
3. A grocery store is interested in determining whether its customers are satisfied with the quality
of service provided. To collect the necessary data, interviewers have been hired to stand near
the store’s exits and to survey customers who have the time and interest to be surveyed. This
type of sampling is called:
A) Systematic sampling
B) Quota sampling
C) Convenience sampling
D) Stratified sampling
E) None of the above
4. Sampling method in which you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for
inclusion in your study, and then you ask them to recommend others who they may know who
also meet the criteria is _____
A) Heterogeneity sampling
B) Snowball sampling
C) Quota sampling
D)Systematic sampling
5. Purpose sampling include all of the following, except?
A. Quota sampling
B. snowball sampling
C. Modal instance
D. None
Part-III: Short Answer Questions
1) What are the factors that determine sample size determination?
2) List merits of cluster sampling
3) Under what situation is purposive sampling is important?
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 CHAPTER SEVEN
DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
The goal of any research is to provide information out of raw data. The raw data after
collection has to be processed and analyzed in line with the outline laid down for the purpose
at the time of developing the research plan. Response on measurement instruments (words,
check mark etc) conveys little information as such. The complied data must be classified
processed, analyzed and interpreted carefully before their complete meanings and
implications can be understood. There are two stages of data analysis, data processing and
analysis. Processing of data requires editing, coding, classification and tabulation. And these
are crucial stages in a scientific research. Data collected during the research is processed with
a view to reducing them to manageable proportions. A careful and systematic processing will
highlight the important characteristics of the data, facilitates comparisons and render it
suitable for further statistical analysis and interpretation. Hence, in this chapter will see data
processing and analysis separately in detail.
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Process data gathered by research
 Analysis data by both descriptive and inferential methods
7.1. Data Processing
Dear student, would you define what data process means?
___________________________________________________________________________
Data possessing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so
that they are amendable to analysis.
7.1.1. Data Editing
Editing is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omission
(extreme values) and to correct those when possible. It involves a careful scrutiny of
completed questionnaires or schedules
! Editing is done to assure that the data are:
 Accurate
 Consistent with other data gathered
 Uniformly entered
 As complete as possible
 And has been well organized to facilitate coding and tabulation

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Editing can be either field editing or central editing
i. Field editing: Consist of reviewing of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing what has been written in abbreviation and/or in illegible form at a time of
recording the respondents’ response. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible
after the interview or observation.
ii. Central editing: It will take place at the research office. Its objective is to correct errors
such as entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in month.

The editors are required to check the filled schedules in the following respects:
1. Editing for consistency
The schedules are to be edited for consistency. They should see whether answers to questions
supplied by informants are consistent or not. If the answers are of contradictory nature then
the editors are required to send such schedules to respective supervisors for recording the
correct answers from concerned informants. For illustration, an informant might enter as
‘unmarried’ in one column, while the second column he/she may enter ‘two children’. Such
contradictory replies are to be corrected. Some is the case with age and date of birth
information, which may not agree.
2. Editing for completeness
It is the duty of the editor to examine whether all questions in the schedule or questionnaire
are answered or not. In many cases, important questions are not answered and the analysis of
the problem is not possible due to such unanswered questions. The editor should send such
schedules to concerned investigators for recording the answers from informants.
3. Editing for accuracy
The Job of the editor is highly specialized; therefore, he/she must know the nature of
information which is to be supplied by the informants. The accuracy and the reliability of the
findings depend up on accurate information, therefore, the editor has to examine whether all
questions are answered correctly or not. In case, any doubt develops about any question in the
mind of the editor, he/she must seek clarification from the supervisor or from the informants.
4. Editing for uniformity
The problem under study can be rationally analyzed when there is uniformity in the answers
of the questions supplied by different informants. Uniformity of answers means whether all
questions are interpreted in the same sense by all informants or not. If the questions are
interpreted in different ways by different informants then the data supplied becomes
heterogeneous such data should not be employed for analysis.

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5. Editors for competitions
It is advised not to ask the investigators or the respondents supplying information to make
any computation. This additional work may give risk to errors computations, if necessary,
should always be made by editors.
7.1.2. Data Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration. According to M. Parton, “coding
consists in assigning a number of symbols to each answer which falls in a predetermined
class.”
! The need of coding arises more in the case of quantitative data which is a pre- requisite for
any meaningful interpretation of social data. Coding in the modern age of computers is done
after translating the information collected in the usual manner in to language of machine. In
most surveys, certainly whenever results are to be put in quantitative form, the immediate
stage is the coding of the answers. Sometimes, this and the initial editing are joined in a
single operation.
There must be a class of every data items. They must be mutually exclusive (a specific
answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set) coding is necessary for
efficient analysis and through it several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes,
which contain the critical information required for analysis Example: Closed end question
1 yes 2 No or
Less than 200 001 700-1500 ( ) 003
Note: Coding is used when the researcher uses computer to analyze the data otherwise it can
be avoided.
7.1.3. Classification of Data
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data, which must be reduced in to
homogeneous group. It means to classify the raw data or arranging data in groups or classes
on the basis of common characteristics. Data Classification implies the processes of arranging
data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having common
characteristics placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of
groups or classes.
Classification according to attributes: Data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics, which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc) or
numerical (such as, weight, age, height, income, expenditure, etc). Descriptive characteristics
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refer to qualitative phenomenon, which cannot be measured quantitatively: only their
presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis
of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be
classification according to attributes.
Classification according to class interval: Unlike descriptive characteristics the numerical
characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon, which can be measured through some
statistical unit. Data relating to income, production, age weighted, come under category.
Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class interval.
For example, individuals whose incomes, say, are within 1001-1500 Birr can form one
group, those whose incomes within 500-1000 Birr form another group and so on. In this way
the entire data may be divided in to a number of groups or classes or what are usually called,
class interval. Each class interval, thus, has an upper as well as lower limit, which is known
as class limit. The difference between the two class limits is known as class magnitude. The
number of items that fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given class. All
the classes with their respective frequency are taken together and put in the form of table are
describing as group frequency distribution or simply frequency distribution.
! Objects of Classification: The chief objects of classification are:
 To present the facts in a simple form
 To bring out clearly points of similarity and dissimilarity.
 To facilitate comparison
 To bring out relationship
 To present a mental picture
 To prepare the basis for tabulation
Activity 1
1) Data editing is conducted by the researcher to check what?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2) Explain classification of data
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7.2. Data Analysis
Dear learner, do you know what data analysis means?
___________________________________________________________________________

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Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data to look for patterns and relations
among data groups.
By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns or relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis particularly in case of
survey or experimental data involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. Analysis can be categorized as
 Descriptive Analysis
 Inferential (Statistical) Analysis
7.2.1 Descriptive analysis:
Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. Analysis begins for
most projects with some form of descriptive analysis to reduce the data in to a summary
format. Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw data in to a form that will
make them easy to understand and interpret.
Descriptive response or observation is typically the first form of analysis. The calculation of
averages, frequency distribution, and percentage distribution is the most common form of
summarizing data.
! The most common forms of describing the processed data are:
1. Tabulation
2. Percentage
3. Measurements of central tendency
4. Measurements of dispersion
5. Measurement of asymmetry
6. Data transformation and index number
1. Tabulation: Refers to the orderly arrangement of data in a table or other summary format.
It presents responses or the observations on a question by question or item by item basis and
provides the most basic form of information. It tells the researcher how frequently each
response occurs. This starting pint of analysis requires the counting of responses or
observations for each of the categories. Example: Frequency tables,
Need for tabulation
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum
 It facilitate the process of comparison
 It facilitate the summation of items and the detection of errors and omission
 It provide basis for various statistical computation,

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2. Percentage: Whether the data are tabulated by computer or by hand, it is useful to have
percentages and cumulative percentage. Table containing percentage and frequency
distribution is easier to interpret. Percentages are useful for comparing the trend over time or
among categories.
3. Measure of central tendency: Describing the central tendency of the distribution with the
mean, median or mode is another basic form of descriptive analysis. These measures are
most useful when the purpose is to identify typical values of a variable or the most common
characteristics of a group. Measure of central tendency is also known as statistical average.
Mean, median and mode are the most popular averages.
a. Mean (arithmetic mean) is the common measure of central tendency.
b. Mode is not commonly used but in such study like estimating the popular size of shoes it
can be used
c. Median is commonly used in estimating the average of qualitative phenomenon like
estimating intelligence.
4. Measurement of dispersion: Is a measurement how he value of an item scattered around
the true value of the average. Average value fails to give any idea about the dispersion of the
values of an item or a variable around the true value of the average.
After identifying the typical value of a variable the researcher can measure how the value of
an item is scattered around the true value of the mean. It is a measurement of how far is the
value of the variable from the average value. It measures the variation of the value of an item.
Important measures of dispersion are:
a. Range: Measures the difference between the maximum and the minimum value of the
observed variable. Mean deviation: It is the average dispersion of an observation around the
mean value.
∑ (Xi – X)/n
b. Variance: It is mean square deviation. It measures the sample variability.
5. Data transformation: it is the process of changing original form of data to a form that is
more suitable to perform a data analysis that will achieve the research objective. The
researcher often modifies the value of scalar data or even create new variable
6. Index numbers: Most of the time, financial information (price, value of output, interest
rate, and exchange rate) will be adjusted for possible price changes by using index numbers
(like CPI, PPI).
An index number is a number, which is used to measure the level of a given phenomenon at
some standard date.
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  Index numbers measures only the relative changes.
 Different indices serve different purpose
 Commodity index serves as measure of changes in the phenomenon on that
commodity only
 Some index numbers are used to measure cost of living (CPI)
 In economic sphere they are often termed as economic barometer
Scores of observation are recalibrated so they may be related to certain base period or base
number. Most commonly used index number to reduce the influence of price change on our
observation is CPI
Researcher also uses index numbers to make comparison between observations. When series
(data) are expressed in same units, we can use, averages for the purpose of comparison. But
two or more series are expressed in different units; statistical average cannot be used to
compare them. By converting numbers in to index number we can make comparison between
two or more series.
7.2.2 Inferential Analysis
Most researcher wishes to go beyond the simple tabulation of frequency distribution and
calculation of averages and / or dispersion. They frequently conduct and seek to determine
the relationship between variables and test statistical significance. When the population is
consisting of more than one variable it is possible to measure the relationship between them.
If we have data on two variables we said to have a bivariate variable, if the data is more
than two variables then the population is known as multivariate population. If for every
measure of a variable, X we have corresponding value of variable, Y, the resulting pairs of
value are called a bivariate population
In case of bivariate or multivariate population, we often wish to know the relationship
between the two or more variables from the data obtained.
Example we may like to know, “whether the numbers of hour’s students devote for study is
somehow related to their family income, to age, to sex, or to similar other factors.
There are several methods of determining the relationship between variables. Two questions
should be answered to determine the relationship between variables.
1. Is there exists association or correlation between the two or more variables? If yes, then up
to what degree?
This will be answered by the use of correlation technique. Correlation technique can be
different
In case of bivariate population correlation can be found using
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  Cross tabulation
 Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation: It is simple correlation and commonly used
 Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation
In case of multivariate population correlation can be studied through.
 Coefficient of multiple correlation
 coefficient of partial correlation
2. Is there any cause and effect (causal relationship) between two variables or between one
variable on one side and two or more variables in the other side? This question can be
answered by the use of regression analysis. In regression analysis the researcher tries to
estimate or predict the average value of one variable on the basis of the value of other
variable. For instance a researcher estimates the average value score on statistics knowing a
student’s score on a mathematics examination.
There are different techniques of regression.
 In case of bivariate population cause and effect relationship can be studied through
simple regression.
 In case of multivariate population: Causal relationship can be studied through
multiple regression analysis.
Time series Analysis; Successive observations of the given phenomenon over a period of
time are analyzed through time series analysis. It measures the relationship between variables
and time (trend). Time series will measure seasonal (seasonal fluctuation), cyclical,
irregular fluctuation, and trend. The analysis of time series is done to understand the
dynamic condition of achieving the short term and long term goal of business firm for
forecasting purpose.

7.3. Data Analysis Software

Dear student, do you know any soft ware used in data analysis?
___________________________________________________________________________
Collecting data via surveys, administrative records or other methods is just the first step in
any statistical evaluation of a program or project. Once you have the data you have to do
something with it. The data need to be analyzed to produce statistics that will help you
demonstrate efficacy and effectiveness. There are a number of different computer tools for
effective analysis and the following brief reviews some of the more common programs
available to you.

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The major players in data analytic software are SPSS and SAS. These two computer
programs have existed for many years, and have tens of thousands of prominent users in
government, corporate America and academe. SPSS uses a base spreadsheet format and has
easy to use Windows based drop down menus for commands. The advanced user can do
programming with the syntax command function if they wish. SPSS can read data files from
common formats such as Excel, Access, SAS and dBase. The base package allows you to
perform basic descriptive (e.g. frequencies, sums, mean, etc.) and univariate (e.g. Pearson
correlation, one-way ANOVA, t-test, etc.) statistics. Add-on packages are available for
advanced statistics such as multivariate regression modelling. Special prices are available for
both state and federal government employees.
! If you have computing software available for you to use should find this the easiest quickly
way to analyze your data.

Dear student, training is available via SPSS directly, and most colleges and universities have
courses or training programs available. Therefore, you are highly recommended to take
training on SPSS and know different soft ware that enables your research analysis simple and
easiest
Activity 2
1) Explain data analysis and distinguish both descriptive and inferential data analysis
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2) The processed data are usually described by
___________________________________________________________________________
 Check List
Dear Student, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you
have been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick ()
mark under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point
is available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO

1 Process data collected

2 Edit, classify data
3 Perform Analysis of data by using both descriptive and inferential

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Chapter Summary
The goal of any research is to provide information out of raw data. The raw data after
collection has to be processed and analyzed. Data possessing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amendable to analysis.
Editing is done to assure that the data are: accurate, consistent with other data gathered,
uniformly entered, as complete as possible, and has been well organized to facilitate coding
and tabulation. And it is further classified as field editing and central editing. Editing is
conducted to check consistency, completeness, accuracy, uniformity, and competitiveness of
the data.
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes. Most research studies
result in a large volume of raw data, which must be reduced in to homogeneous group. It
means to classify the raw data or arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Classification can be taken place based on attributes and class intervals.

Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data to look for patterns and relations
among data groups. Analysis can be categorized as Descriptive Analysis and Inferential
(Statistical) Analysis. Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable,
and inferential analyses are frequently conducted and seek to determine the relationship
between variables and test statistical significance.
 Self Test Questions
Part-I: Say “True” for the correct statement and “False” for the incorrect statement.
1. Editing is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omission
(extreme values) and to correct those when possible.
2. Field editing is taken place at office.
3. Coding is used when the researcher uses computer to analyze the data otherwise it can be
avoided.
4. Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative and quantitative phenomenon.
5. Measure of central tendency is a measurement how he value of an item scattered around
the true value of the average.
Part-II: Short answer Questions
1. Why editing is conducted?
2. What are the major objectives of classification?
3. Why inferential analysis is conducted?

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
INTERPRETATION AND REPORTING THE RESEARCH
RESULT
Introduction
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by the report writing. Interpretation has to be done carefully so that
misleading conclusion will not be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research will not be
leaded to false conclusions. It is through interpretation that the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underline his/her findings.
All the analytical information and consequential inferences may well be communicated,
preferably through research report, to the consumers of research results who may be either an
individuals or groups of some public or private organization. In this final chapter of this
module we will discuss meaning and technique of interpretation and how to report the
research output.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:
 Interpret data analysis
 Identify techniques of data interpretation
 Know the content of final research project
 Report the research out put the concerned stakeholders
8.1 Meanings and Technique of Interpretation
Dear learner, do you know techniques of data interpretation?
___________________________________________________________________________
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after analytical
or experimental study.
The task of interpretation has two parts or has two major aspects
1. The efforts to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given
study with those of others.
2. The establishment of explanatory concept
In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the
results of other research, theory hypothesis.

97
8.1.1. Why Interpretation?
Interpretation is considered as a basic component of research process because of the
following reasons: it is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the
abstract principle that works beneath (beyond) his/her findings.
It will lead to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for further
research study. It opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for
more knowledge.
Researcher can only be better appreciated only through interpretation why his findings are
what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research
findings. The interpretation of exploratory research often results in to hypothesis for
experimental research.
8.1.2. Technique of Interpretation
The task of interpretation is not an easy job. Rather it requires a good skill on the part of
researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The
researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of
interpretation.
There are no existing rules to guide the researcher about how to interpret the data. However,
the following suggested steps could be helpful.
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanation of the relation, which he/she has found
and he/she must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lays under the surface layer of
his/her diversified research findings.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final result of research study for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
3. It is advisable before embarking up on final interpretation, to consult someone having
insight in to the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out
omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in
correct interpretation and thus, enhance the utility of research result.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must not be in
hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusion, which appear to be all
right at the beginning, my not at all be accurate

98
8.1.3. Precaution in interpretation
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation.
 At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy him/herself that the data are
appropriate, trust worthy and adequate for drawing inferences. The data reflect good
homogeneity (no extreme) and proper analysis has been done through statistical or
any other methods.
 The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Error can arise due to.
o False generalization and /or due to wrong interpretation of statistical
measures, such as:
o The application of findings beyond the range of observation
o Identification of correlation with causation and the like
He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for
drawing inferences concerning his/her study.
 Broad generalization must be avoided, because the coverage restricted to a particular
time; a particular area and particular condition. Such restriction if any must invariably
be specified and the result must be framed with their limit.
 The researcher must remember that there should be constant interaction between
initial hypothesis and, empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly
in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation
that opportunity for originality and creativity lies. ( V. Young, 1849)
8.2. Reporting the Research Result
 Would you report the research result to any stakeholders?
___________________________________________________________________________
Writing report is the last step in a research study and requires set of skills somewhat different
from those called for in research of the earlier stages of research. This task should be
accomplished by the researcher with a most care. He/she may also seek the assistance and
guidance of experts for the purpose. The research task remains incomplete till the report has
been presented and /or written.
Even the most brilliant hypothesis, well designed and conducted research study, and the most
striking generalization and findings are of little importance unless they are effectively
communicated to others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are
made known to others.

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8.2.1. Layout of research report
Layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain and look like. A
comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise
 Preliminary pages
 The main text
 The end matter
1. Preliminary pages
In this part the report should carry
 Title
 Acknowledgment (this can be in the form of preface and forward, in larger study)
 Table of content
 List of tables (figures)
 Acronym(Abbreviations) (If any)
 Abstract
2. Main text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title
of the research is repeated at the top followed by abstract and then follows the other details
on pages numbered consecutively beginning with second page. Each main section of the
report should begin on a new page.
Main text can have the following sections
 Introduction
o Background of the study
o Rationale
 Objectives
 Literature Review
 Material and Methodology
o Data (or material)
o Methodology used
o Limitation of the study
 Results and discussion (in some cases, Empirical Analysis)
 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
o Concluding comment or

100
Since, some of the main sections of the report have been explained in some detail in chapter
four section two, here attempts were made to explain only selected parts of the report, which
need special attentions.
Introduction: the major subdivisions of this part are generally the ones shown in the
proposal: statement of the problem, significance of the study, and the organization of the
study. This part of the study should be clear complete and concise. It has to be written in a
lively and stimulating manner in order to arouse the interest of the reader to go through the
report.
Literature Review: this is a section for documentation with insight theoretical and empirical
investigation that had been carried out as related to the study at hand.
Material and Methodology or Data and Methodology: this part includes detailed
description of the manner in which decision have been made about the type of data needed
for the study, the tools and approaches used for their collection and the method by which they
have been collected, justification of the selection of the particular method of data collection.
Definition of the population, the sampling techniques used to select sample elements with its
full justification, the size of the sample and the rational for the size, statistical tools used to
analyze the data, the rational for using them will be dealt in detail in this section.
Limitations: No report is perfect, so it is important to indicate its implications. If there were
problems with non response errors, or sampling procedures, they should be discussed.
The discussion of limitation should avoid overemphasizing the weakness; though its aim
should be of provide a realistic basis for assessing the results.
Result and Discussion: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study (the results of the
data analysis) with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation
of results. In other words in this section the data is presented in tables and figures followed by
narrative discussion and justifications. Two things may require special attention while writing
this part of the report.
 Tables that are too lengthy may better be placed in the appendix
 Tables and figures should be explained. As tales and figures are expected to be self
explanatory, the textual discussion should not be a duplicate of the table. Only
important facts that lead to generalization will be discussed.
This section generally comprises the body of the report, extending over several sub sections.

101
It should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than the rw data. All
results should be presented in logical sequences and divided in to readily identifiable
sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report.
Summary and Conclusion: Toward the end of this section, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. This part begins with a brief
restatement of the problem, the hypothesis, description of the problem and discussion of
findings and conclusion of the study. Most readers skip other details of the report and may
prefer to read only this part in order to get an overview of the study and judge its relevance.
Thus, it should be written with maximum diligence, clarity and brevity. Moreover, this
section must focus attention to
 Announce the acceptance or the rejection of the stated hypothesis
 Simply answered question that were raised in due course of the study and which
required further investigation in there are relevant to this part.
A researcher should also state the implication that flows from the results the study for the
general reader is interested in the implication that for understanding the human behavior.
Such implication may have three aspects as stated below:
 A statement the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances
 The condition of the present study which may limit the extent of the legitimate
generalization of the inferences drawn from the study.
 The relevant questions that still remain un answered or new questions rose by the
study along with suggestion for the kind of research that would provide answer for
them.
Generally, it is considered as a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion,
which summarize and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from
the study should be clearly related to the hypothesis or the problem that are stated in the
introductory section.
At the same times, a forecast of the problem future of the subject and indication of the kind of
research, which needs to be done in those particular fields, is useful and desirable.
Conclusions are opinion based on the results, where as recommendations are suggestions for
action.

102
Recommendation: in accordance with the result of the outcome of the research work a
researcher may forward (suggest) possible solution that may alleviate the problem in
question. The recommendation to be acceptable it should meet the following requirements;
 Should be clear and unambiguous
 Need to be realistic, plausible and operational
 Should point out the responsible body to translate the suggested solution in to practice
 Should be modest than assertive
3. End matter: Here belong sections like: References (bibliography): it should be based on
alphabetical listing of names and Appendix
Activity 1
1) Define interpretation and explain why interpretation is needed?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2) Identify each components of research report and compare with Business research
conducted by any one (Who can fine it from library of Higher education institutions find
around your area).
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
 Check List
Dear Student, below are the most important points which are drawn from the chapter you
have been studying up to now. Put a tick () mark under “YES” column if you feel you have
understood the point. But if you feel you did not master the point still now put a tick ()
mark under “NO” column. And, then please go back and read the topic under which the point
is available and try to master it. I can:
S/No CRITICAL POINTS YES NO

1 Explain what mean by data interpretation

2 Identify techniques of data interpretation
3 Identify the layout of research report and its contents

4 Write a report of research project

Chapter Summary
The last chapter of this module deals with data interpretation and report writing of the
research project.

103
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after analytical
or experimental study. The task of interpretation has two parts or has two major aspects.
These are the efforts to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given
study with those of others and the establishment of explanatory concept.
Writing report is the last step in a research study and requires set of skills somewhat different
from those called for in research of the earlier stages of research.
Layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain and look like. A
comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise; preliminary pages, the main
text, and the end matter each have its own sub section. The main text of the research report
can include; Introduction, Objectives, Literature Review, Material and Methodology, Results
and discussion (in some cases, Empirical Analysis), Summary, Conclusion and
Recommendation.
 Self Test Questions
Part-I: Short Answer Questions
1) What are the causes of error in interpretation of research findings?
2) What are the points to be included under the Preliminary page of research report?
3) Sketch the content of research report
References
 Zikmund, William G., (1997 or 2000), Business Research Methods, 5th or 6th ed.,
Toronto: The Dryden press Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
 Emory, C. William and Donald R. Copper (1991), Business Research Methods, 4th
ed., Boston; Irwin-Burr Ridge, Illinois
 Hussey Jill & Roger Hussey (1997), Business research, Mac Milan publishers
 Gupta,S. (1982). Research Methodology and Statistical Techniques. New Delhi:
Indian Commerce Association.
 Kaufinan, Felix. (1988). Methodology of the Social Sciences. Humanities Press-
1988
 Lundberg, G.A. Socials Research: Study in Methods of Gathering Data. New York
 Teaching Material Prepared by Dr. Solomon Alemu, Adama University, Ethiopia
 Any other books related with research and Business research

104
 Key Answer to Self Test Questions
Chapter One
Part-I
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
Part-II
1. C
2. E
3. A
4. C
5.E
Part-III
1. Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for truth about
business phenomena. (Refer the detail from your module)
2. Any research has got the following common (general) objectives.
 To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law
 To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, to verify the validity of the
previous work.
 To investigate some existing situation or problem
 To provide solution to a problem
 To construct or create a new procedure and new system
 A combination of any one of the above
Chapter Two
Part-I
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. False
7. True
8. True
9. False
[Link]

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Part-II
1. Own experience or experience of others, scientific literature, and theories.
2. The criteria of good research include: Novelty, Interesting, Importance, Immediate
application, and Feasibility or Amenability.
3. In research, a hypothesis serves important functions such as:
 It guides the direction of the study
 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not
 It suggest which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate
 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result
4. What are factors that affect service quality?
What is the impact of service quality on customer satisfaction?
Chapter Three
Part-I
1) A research proposal is a written document requesting both authorization and funds to
undertake a specific research project. It always includes a statement of explaining the purpose of
the study or a definition of the problem. Research proposal serves as a means of communication,
as a plan and as a contract.
2) The research Proposal may be failed by sponsoring institutions or advisor because of the
following:
1) Aim and objectives of the research proposal are unclear
2) There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and the issues to be addressed
3) The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the time table
(Look more reasons from your module).
3) Example of research titles:
 The impact of Training and Development on employees performance
 Quality of services and its impact on customers’ retention
 Challenges and Opportunities of Micro and small Enterprises
4) The major component of research proposal can include cover page, title, abstract,
introduction, rationale and justification, objective of the study, literature review, materials and
methods (methodology), work plan (time budget), cost budget, references, appendix.

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Chapter Four
Part-I
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. False
Part-II:
1. A
2. B
3. E
4. C
5. D
Chapter Five
Part-I
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
Part-II
1. D
2. C
3. B
4. D
5.C
Chapter Six
Part-I Part-II
1. True 1. E
2. False 2. E
3. False 3. C
4. True 4. B
5. False 5. D
Part-III
1. Factors that determine the size of the sample include: Nature of the study, Type of sampling,
Nature of units, size of questionnaire, and practical consideration.
2. Merits of cluster sampling
 It gives significant cost gain
 It is easier and more practical method, which facilitates the field work
3. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted
sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern.

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Chapter Seven
Part-I
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. False
Part-II
1. Editing is taken place to ensure consistency, completeness, accuracy, uniformity, and
competitiveness.
2. The chief objects of classification are:
 To present the facts in a simple form
 To bring out clearly points of similarity and dissimilarity.
 To facilitate comparison
 To bring out relationship
 To present a mental picture
 To prepare the basis for tabulation
3. Inferential analysis is frequently conducted and seeks to determine the relationship between
variables and test statistical significance.
Chapter Eight
Part-I
1. Error can arise due to.
 False generalization and /or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as:
 The application of findings beyond the range of observation
 Identification of correlation with causation and the like
2. In the preliminary part of the research report should include
 Title
 Acknowledgment (this can be in the form of preface and forward, in larger study)
 Table of content
 List of tables (figures)
 Acronym(Abbreviations) (If any)
 Abstract
3. Main text can have the following sections
 Introduction
 Objectives
 Literature Review
 Material and Methodology
 Results and discussion (in some cases, Empirical Analysis)
 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

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