Boilers & Fired

Systems

Clean Coal Technology

1
What is a Boiler?

• Vessel that heats water to become hot

water or steam
• At atmospheric pressure water volume
increases 1,600 times
• Hot water or steam used to transfer heat
to a process
• The larger the heating surface a boiler
has, the more efficient it becomes

2
 Boilers

STEAM TO
EXHAUST GAS VENT
PROCESS

STACK DEAERATOR

PUMPS

ECO-
NOMI-
ZER

VENT
BOILER
BURNER
WATER
SOURCE
BLOW DOWN
SEPARATOR FUEL

BRINE

CHEMICAL FEED
SOFTENERS
3
Figure: Schematic overview of a boiler room
Types of Boilers

1. Fire Tube Boiler

2. Water Tube Boiler
3. Packaged Boiler
4. Fluidized Bed (FBC) Boiler
5. Stoker Fired Boiler
6. Pulverized Fuel Boiler
7. Waste Heat Boiler
4
 Fire Tube Boiler

• Lower initial cost

• More fuel efficient
• Relatively small steam
capacities (12,000
kg/hour)
• Low to medium steam
(Light Rail Transit Association) pressures (18 kg/cm2)
• Operates with oil, gas
or solid fuels

5
Water Tube Boiler

• Used for high steam demand

and pressure requirements
• Capacity range of 4,500 –
120,000 kg/hour
• Combustion efficiency
enhanced by induced draft
provisions
• Lower tolerance for water
quality and needs water
treatment plant

6
 Packaged Boiler

To • Comes in complete package

Chimney

• Features
• High heat transfer
• Faster evaporation
• Good convective heat transfer
• Good combustion efficiency
Oil
Burner
• High thermal efficiency
• Classified based on number of
passes

7
Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC)
Boiler

• Particles are suspended in high velocity air

stream: bubbling fluidized bed
• Combustion at 840° – 950° C
• Capacity range 0.5 T/hr to 100 T/hr
• Fuels: coal, washery rejects, rice husk,
bagasse and agricultural wastes
• Benefits: compactness, fuel flexibility, higher
combustion efficiency, reduced SOx & NOx

8
 Atmospheric Fluidized
Bed Combustion (AFBC)
Boiler
• Most common FBC boiler that
uses preheated atmospheric air
as fluidization and combustion
air

Pressurized Fluidized
Bed Combustion (PFBC)
Boiler
• Compressor supplies the forced
draft and combustor is a
pressure vessel
• Used for cogeneration or
combined cycle power
9
generation
Type of FBC Boilers

Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed

Combustion (CFBC) Boiler
• Solids lifted from bed,
rise, return to bed
• Steam generation in
convection section
• Benefits: more
economical, better space
utilization and efficient
combustion

(Thermax Babcock & Wilcox Ltd, 2001) 10

Stoke Fired Boilers

a) Spreader stokers
• Coal is first burnt in
suspension then in coal
bed
• Flexibility to meet load
fluctuations
• Favored in many
industrial applications

11
Stoke Fired Boilers
b) Chain-grate or traveling-grate stoker

• Coal is burnt on moving

steel grate
• Coal gate controls coal
feeding rate
• Uniform coal size for
complete combustion

(University of Missouri, 2004) 12

Pulverized Fuel Boiler

• Pulverized coal powder blown with combustion

air into boiler through burner nozzles
• Combustion
temperature at 1300 -
1700 °C
• Benefits: varying coal
quality coal, quick
response to load
changes and high pre-
heat air temperatures Tangential firing
13
Waste Heat Boiler

• Used when waste heat

available at medium/high
temp
• Auxiliary fuel burners
used if steam demand is
more than the waste heat
can generate
• Used in heat recovery
from exhaust gases from
gas turbines and diesel
Agriculture and Agri-Food engines
14
Canada, 2001
Thermic Fluid Heater

• Wide application for indirect process heating

• Thermic fluid (petroleum-based) is heat transfer
medium
• Benefits:
• Closed cycle = minimal losses
• Non-pressurized system operation at 250 °C
• Automatic controls = operational flexibility
• Good thermal efficiencies
15
 Thermic Fluid Heater
3. Heat transfer
through heat
exchanged

User equipment
2. Circulated
to user 4. Fluid
equipment returned to
heater
Control
panel

Insulated
outer wall
1. Thermic
fluid heated Blower Exhaust
motor
in the heater unit
Fuel oil
filter
16
Assessment of a boiler

1. Boiler
2. Boiler blow down
3. Boiler feed water treatment

17
Boiler Performance
• Causes of poor boiler performance
-Poor combustion
-Heat transfer surface fouling
-Poor operation and maintenance
-Deteriorating fuel and water quality

• Heat balance: identify heat losses

• Boiler efficiency: determine
deviation from best efficiency

18
Heat Balance
An energy flow diagram describes geographically
how energy is transformed from fuel into useful
energy, heat and losses

Stochiometric
Excess Air
Un burnt

Stack Gas

FUEL INPUT STEAM

OUTPUT

Convection & Blow Ash and Un-burnt parts

Radiation Down of Fuel in Ash 19
Assessment of a Boiler

Heat Balance
Balancing total energy entering a boiler against
the energy that leaves the boiler in different forms
12.7 %
Heat loss due to dry flue gas

8.1 % Heat loss due to steam in fuel gas

1.7 %
100.0 % Heat loss due to moisture in fuel
BOILER 0.3 %
Fuel Heat loss due to moisture in air

2.4 % Heat loss due to unburnts in residue

1.0 %
Heat loss due to radiation & other
unaccounted loss
73.8 %
Heat in Steam

20
Heat Balance
Goal: improve energy efficiency by reducing
avoidable losses

Avoidable losses include:

- Stack gas losses (excess air, stack gas
temperature)
- Losses by unburnt fuel
- Blow down losses
- Condensate losses
- Convection and Radiation

21
Boiler Efficiency
Thermal efficiency: % of (heat) energy input that is
effectively useful in the generated steam

BOILER EFFICENCY
CALCULATION

1) DIRECT METHOD: 2) INDIRECT METHOD:

The energy gain of the The efficiency is the
working fluid (water and steam) difference between losses
is compared with the energy and energy input
content of the boiler fuel.

22
Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

Heat Outputx 100 Q x (hg – hf) x 100

Boiler efficiency () = =
Heat input q x GCV

hg -the enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam

hf -the enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water

Parameters to be monitored:
- Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr
- Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr
- The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat
temperature (ºC), if any
- The temperature of feed water (ºC)
- Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in
kcal/kg of fuel
23
Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

Advantages
• Quick evaluation
• Few parameters for computation
• Few monitoring instruments
• Easy to compare evaporation ratios with
benchmark figures

Disadvantages
• No explanation of low efficiency
• Various losses not calculated

24
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Efficiency of boiler () = 100 – (i+ii+iii+iv+v+vi+vii)

Principle losses:
i) Dry flue gas
ii) Evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
iii) Evaporation of moisture in fuel
iv) Moisture present in combustion air
v) Unburnt fuel in fly ash
vi) Unburnt fuel in bottom ash
vii) Radiation and other unaccounted losses
25
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Required calculation data

• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture
content, ash content)
• % oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
• Fuel gas temperature in ◦C (Tf)

• Ambient temperature in ◦C (Ta) and humidity of air in

kg/kg of dry air
• GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
• % combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
• GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)

26
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Advantages
• Complete mass and energy balance for each
individual stream
• Makes it easier to identify options to improve
boiler efficiency

Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Requires lab facilities for analysis

27
Boiler Blow Down

• Controls ‘total dissolved solids’ (TDS) in the

water that is boiled
• Blows off water and replaces it with feed water
• Conductivity measured as indication of TDS
levels
• Calculation of quantity blow down required:

Feed water TDS x Make up water x 100

Blow down (%) =
Maximum Permissible TDS in Boiler water

28
Boiler Blow Down
Two types of blow down
• Intermittent
• Manually operated valve reduces TDS
• Large short-term increases in feed water
• Substantial heat loss

• Continuous
• Ensures constant TDS and steam purity
• Heat lost can be recovered
• Common in high-pressure boilers

29
Boiler Blow Down
Benefits
• Lower pretreatment costs
• Less make-up water consumption
• Reduced maintenance downtime
• Increased boiler life
• Lower consumption of treatment
chemicals

30
Boiler Feed Water Treatment

• Quality of steam depend on water

treatment;to control
• Steam purity
• Deposits
• Corrosion

• Efficient heat transfer only if ???

boiler water is free from deposit-
forming solids

31
Assessment of a Boiler

Boiler Feed Water Treatment

Deposit control
• To avoid efficiency losses and
reduced heat transfer
• Hardness salts of calcium and
magnesium
• Alkaline hardness: removed by boiling
• Non-alkaline: difficult to remove

• Silica forms hard silica scales

32
Boiler Feed Water Treatment

Internal water treatment

• Chemicals added to boiler to prevent scale
• Different chemicals for different water types
• Limitation:
• Feed water is low in hardness salts
• Low pressure, high TDS content is tolerated
• Small water quantities treated
• Internal treatment alone not recommended

33
 Boiler Feed Water Treatment

External water treatment:

• Removal of suspended/dissolved solids and
dissolved gases
• Pre-treatment: sedimentation and settling
• First treatment stage: removal of salts
• Processes
a) Ion exchange
b) Demineralization
c) De-aeration
d) Reverse osmoses
34
External Water Treatment

a) Ion-exchange process (softener plant)

• Water passes through bed of natural zeolite of
synthetic resin to remove hardness
• Base exchange: calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)
replaced with sodium (Na) ions
• Does not reduce TDS, blow down quantity and
alkalinity

b) Demineralization
• Complete removal of salts
• Cations in raw water replaced with hydrogen ions

35
Assessment of a Boiler

External Water Treatment

c) De-aeration
• Dissolved corrosive gases (O2, CO2)
expelled by preheating the feed water
• Two types:
• Mechanical de-aeration
• Chemical de-aeration

36
 External Water Treatment

Mechanical
de-aeration
Vent

Boiler Feed
Spray
Nozzles
• O2 and CO2 removed by
Water
heating feed water
Steam
Scrubber • Economical treatment
Section
(Trays) process
• Vacuum type can reduce
Storage
Section O2 to 0.02 mg/l

De-aerated
• Pressure type can
Boiler Feed reduce O2 to 0.005 mg/l
Water

( National Productivity Council) 37

External Water Treatment

Chemical de-aeration
• Removal of trace oxygen with scavenger
• Sodium sulphite:
• Reacts with oxygen: sodium sulphate
• Increases TDS: increased blow down
• Hydrazine
• Reacts with oxygen: nitrogen + water
• Does not increase TDS: used in high pressure
boilers 38
Assessment of a Boiler

External Water Treatment

d) Reverse osmosis
• Separated by a semi-permeable membrane
• Higher concentrated liquid pressurized
• Water moves in reversed direction

39
Assessment of a Boiler

External water treatment

d) Reverse osmosis
Pressure

Feed Fresh Water

Water
More
Concentrated
Solution
Concentrate Water Flow
Flow

Semi Permeable 40
Membrane
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Stack Temperature Control

• Keep as low as possible
• If >200°C then recover waste heat

2. Feed Water Preheating

Economizers
• Potential to recover heat from 200 – 300 oC flue
gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler

3. Combustion Air Preheating

• If combustion air raised by 20°C = 1% improve
thermal efficiency 41
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

4. Minimize Incomplete Combustion

• Symptoms:
• Smoke, high CO levels in exit flue gas
• Causes:
• Air shortage, fuel surplus, poor fuel distribution
• Poor mixing of fuel and air

42
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

5. Excess Air Control

• Excess air required for complete combustion
• Optimum excess air levels varies
• 1% excess air reduction = 0.6% efficiency rise
• Portable or continuous oxygen analyzers
Fuel Kg air req./kg fuel %CO2 in flue gas in practice
Solid Fuels
Bagasse 3.3 10-12
Coal (bituminous) 10.7 10-13
Lignite 8.5 9 -13
Paddy Husk 4.5 14-15
Wood 5.7 11.13
Liquid Fuels
Furnace Oil 13.8 9-14
LSHS 14.1 9-14 43
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

6. Radiation and Convection Heat

Loss Minimization
• Fixed heat loss from boiler shell, regardless of
boiler output
• Repairing insulation can reduce loss

7. Automatic Blow Down Control

• Sense and respond to boiler water conductivity
and pH
44
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

8. Scaling and Soot Loss Reduction

• Every 22oC increase in stack temperature = 1%
efficiency loss
• 3 mm of soot = 2.5% fuel increase

9. Reduced Boiler Steam Pressure

• Lower steam pressure
= lower saturated steam temperature
= lower flue gas temperature
• Steam generation pressure dictated by process
45
 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

10. Control Boiler Loading

• Maximum boiler efficiency: 65-85% of rated load
• Significant efficiency loss: < 25% of rated load

11. Proper Boiler Scheduling

• Optimum efficiency: 65-85% of full load
• Few boilers at high loads is more efficient than
large number at low loads

46
 Energy Efficiency Opportunities

12. Boiler Replacement

Financially attractive if existing boiler is

• Old and inefficient
• Not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
• Over or under-sized for present requirements
• Not designed for ideal loading conditions

47