Approach Level of Purpose Strength Weaknesses Key Concepts
Analysis
Structural- Macro analyzes the The theory has its Too much focus Social structure,
Functionalism functions of strength in on stability and manifest function,
existing social explaining the role
consensus adaptation, integration,
and political of individuals play
-fails to explain social dysfunction, social
institutions in
differences and functions, latent
bringing order in
conflict occurring
society. functions, goal,
in society.
attainment latency
Marxism Macro To explain the strength in its weakness in Class struggle/conflict,
basis cause of explaining the role failing to social conflict, capitalists
of power, control understand
inequalities economism materialism,
and wealth in individuals
making different motivation and infrastracture, classical
social class in behavior that marxism, alienation,
society guides their class consciousness,
action. socialism, proletarians,
determinism,
structuralism,
sperstructure, modern
marxism, false
consciousness,
capitalism, communism
Symbolic Interactionism Micro explain the rules in explaining small weakness in not Meaning, self,
of everyday life scale phenomena able to explain socialization,
that guides such as the rules larger structural
generalized other,
interaction that guides face- changes positivist-humanist
between face interaction. debate, objectivist-
behaviors
subjectivist dichotomy.
Psychoanalysis it seeks to theory is able to Its weakness is Id, ego, superego,
explain explain personality that it generalizes conscience,
individual's by examining the from the role of
consciousness, reality
personality unsettled events subconscious
through the that exists in mind. principle, libido, ego
existence of the individuals ideal, pleasure principle
subconscious subconscious mind
mind
Rational Choice choice theory The theory is able The weakness of Rationality, behavioral
takes into to explain why the theory is that it movement, positivism,
account individuals chooses legitimizes
game theory, strategic
individuals another action over discrimination,
behavior as another and can power, and control interdependence,
guided by the explains why of individuals over bounded rationalism
choice they economic pursuit others.
make- individual remains one of the
makes choices rational choice of
of what would individuals.
best serve the
need
Institutionalism accounts the The theory is able It has its Institutions, descriptive
way different to explain weakness in inductive, formal-legal
activities in the economic activities failing to account
and historical
society carried out by for historical
particularly people and processes that comparative,old
economic ultimately leading shapes economic institutionalism, new
activities give to established action of particular institutionalism,
structure to economic groups. normative
society. Like institutions.
institutionalism, rational
structural
functionalism it choice institutionalism.
sees institutions
as playing the
positive role of
stabilizing and
united economic
process
Feminist Theory sees society as Debunked the The weakness of Feminism
inherently private public the theory is that it Liberal feminism
defined by aims to bring
dichotomy Radical feminisn
unequal power structural change
The theory is able
between men by discrediting Women’s libearation
to highlight many movement
and women. men in society.
socio-economic
Feminist theory
position of women
as caused by male Marxist feminism
dominance. Gendered institution
Hermeneutical The theory is able The theory misses Hermeneutics,
Phenomenology to take into account the larger phenomenology,
how scholars have structural changes
descriptive
used certain texts that brought
in the history to people into using phenomenology,
give legitimacy to such techniques of bracketing, noema,
their actions. interpretation. noesis, isolation
themes,reflexitivity
Human-Environment takes into The theory helps in The theory has its Human system, human
Systems account the explaining key weakness in environment system,
complex concepts that are crediting human coupled human and
relationship and important for activities for
natural system
the feedback understanding whatever is
that exists many of the happening to the (CHANS),
between the environmental environment interdisciplinary
human and problems facing without much approach
natural the world today. It evidence.
environment. takes into account
the complex
relationship in
examining
sustainability and
resillience of the
environment in
view with the
human activities.
Feminist theory is a major branch within sociology that shifts its assumptions, analytic lens, and topical focus away from the male
viewpoint and experience toward that of women.
In doing so, feminist theory shines a light on social problems, trends, and issues that are otherwise overlooked or misidentified by
the historically dominant male perspective within social theory.
Many people incorrectly believe that feminist theory focuses exclusively on girls and women and that it has an inherent goal of
promoting the superiority of women over men.
In reality, feminist theory has always been about viewing the social world in a way that illuminates the forces that create and
support inequality, oppression, and injustice, and in doing so, promotes the pursuit of equality and justice.
That said, since the experiences and perspectives of women and girls were historically excluded for years from social theory and
social science, much feminist theory has focused on their interactions and experiences within society to ensure that half the world's
population is not left out of how we see and understand social forces, relations, and problems.
While most feminist theorists throughout history have been women, people of all genders can be found working in the discipline
today. By shifting the focus of social theory away from the perspectives and experiences of men, feminist theorists have created
social theories that are more inclusive and creative than those that assume the social actor to always be a man.
Part of what makes feminist theory creative and inclusive is that it often considers how systems of power and oppression interact,
which is to say it does not just focus on gendered power and oppression, but on how this might intersect with systemic racism, a
hierarchical class system, sexuality, nationality, and (dis)ability, among other things.
Gender Differences
Some feminist theory provides an analytic framework for understanding how women's location in and experience of social
situations differ from men's.
For example, cultural feminists look at the different values associated with womanhood and femininity as a reason for why men and
women experience the social world differently.1 Other feminist theorists believe that the different roles assigned to women and men
within institutions better explain gender differences, including the sexual division of labor in the household.2
Existential and phenomenological feminists focus on how women have been marginalized and defined as “other” in patriarchal
societies. Some feminist theorists focus specifically on how masculinity is developed through socialization, and how its
development interacts with the process of developing femininity in girls.
Gender Inequality
Feminist theories that focus on gender inequality recognize that women's location in and experience of social situations are not only
different but also unequal to men's.
Liberal feminists argue that women have the same capacity as men for moral reasoning and agency, but that patriarchy, particularly
the sexist division of labor, has historically denied women the opportunity to express and practice this reasoning.3
These dynamics serve to shove women into the private sphere of the household and to exclude them from full participation in public
life. Liberal feminists point out that gender inequality exists for women in a heterosexual marriage and that women do not benefit
from being married.4
Indeed, these feminist theorists claim, married women have higher levels of stress than unmarried women and married men.5
Therefore, the sexual division of labor in both the public and private spheres needs to be altered for women to achieve equality in
marriage.
Gender Oppression
Theories of gender oppression go further than theories of gender difference and gender inequality by arguing that not only are
women different from or unequal to men, but that they are actively oppressed, subordinated, and even abused by men.6
Power is the key variable in the two main theories of gender oppression: psychoanalytic feminism and radical feminism.
Psychoanalytic feminists attempt to explain power relations between men and women by reformulating Sigmund Freud's theories of
human emotions, childhood development, and the workings of the subconscious and unconscious. They believe that conscious
calculation cannot fully explain the production and reproduction of patriarchy.7
Radical feminists argue that being a woman is a positive thing in and of itself, but that this is not acknowledged in patriarchal
societies where women are oppressed. They identify physical violence as being at the base of patriarchy, but they think that
patriarchy can be defeated if women recognize their own value and strength, establish a sisterhood of trust with other women,
confront oppression critically, and form female-based separatist networks in the private and public spheres.8
Structural Oppression
Structural oppression theories posit that women's oppression and inequality are a result of capitalism, patriarchy, and racism.
Socialist feminists agree with Karl Marx and Freidrich Engels that the working class is exploited as a consequence of capitalism,
but they seek to extend this exploitation not just to class but also to gender.9
Intersectionality theorists seek to explain oppression and inequality across a variety of variables, including class, gender, race,
ethnicity, and age. They offer the important insight that not all women experience oppression in the same way, and that the same
forces that work to oppress women and girls also oppress people of color and other marginalized groups.10
One way structural oppression of women, specifically the economic kind, manifests in society is in the gender wage gap, which
shows that men routinely earn more for the same work than women.
An intersectional view of this situation shows that women of color, and men of color, too, are even further penalized relative to the
earnings of white men.11
In the late 20th century, this strain of feminist theory was extended to account for the globalization of capitalism and how its
methods of production and of accumulating wealth center on the exploitation of women workers around the world.
Rational
Economics plays a huge role in human behavior. That is, people are often motivated by money and the possibility of making a profit, calculating the likely costs and benefits of any action
before deciding what to do. This way of thinking is called rational choice theory.
Rational choice theory was pioneered by sociologist George Homans, who in 1961 laid the basic framework for exchange theory, which he grounded in hypotheses drawn from behavioral
psychology. During the 1960s and 1970s, other theorists (Blau, Coleman, and Cook) extended and enlarged his framework and helped to develop a more formal model of rational choice.
Over the years, rational choice theorists have become increasingly mathematical. Even Marxists have come to see rational choice theory as the basis of a Marxist theory of class and
exploitation.
Human Actions Are Calculated and Individualistic
Economic theories look at the ways in which the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services are organized through money. Rational choice theorists have argued
that the same general principles can be used to understand human interactions where time, information, approval, and prestige are the resources being exchanged. According to this
theory, individuals are motivated by their personal wants and goals and are driven by personal desires. Since it is not possible for individuals to attain all of the various things that they
want, they must make choices related to both their goals and the means for attaining those goals. Individuals must anticipate the outcomes of alternative courses of action and calculate
which action will be best for them. In the end, rational individuals choose the course of action that is likely to give them the greatest satisfaction.
One key element in rational choice theory is the belief that all action is fundamentally “rational” in character. This distinguishes it from other forms of theory because it denies the
existence of any kind of action other than purely rational and calculative actions. It argues that all social action can be seen as rationally motivated, however much it may appear to be
irrational.
Also central to all forms of rational choice theory is the assumption that complex social phenomena can be explained in terms of the individual actions that lead to that phenomena. This
is called methodological individualism, which holds that the elementary unit of social life is individual human action. Thus, if we want to explain social change and social institutions, we
simply need to show how they arise as the result of individual action and interactions.
Critiques of Rational Choice Theory
Critics have argued that there are several problems with rational choice theory. The first problem with the theory has to do with explaining collective action. That is if individuals simply
base their actions on calculations of personal profit, why would they ever choose to do something that will benefit others more than themselves? Rational choice theory does address
behaviors that are selfless, altruistic, or philanthropic.
Related to the first problem just discussed, the second problem with rational choice theory, according to its critics, has to do with social norms. This theory does not explain why some
people seem to accept and follow social norms of behavior that lead them to act in selfless ways or to feel a sense of obligation that overrides their self-interest.
The third argument against rational choice theory is that it is too individualistic. According to critics of individualistic theories, they fail to explain and take proper account of the
existence of larger social structures. That is, there must be social structures that cannot be reduced to the actions of individuals and therefore have to be explained in different terms.
Id
The earliest part of the personality to emerge is the id. The id is present at birth and runs on pure instinct, desire, and need. It is entirely unconscious and encompasses the most primitive
part of the personality, including basic biological drives and reflexes.
The id is motivated by the pleasure principle, which wants to gratify all impulses immediately. If the id's needs aren’t met, it creates tension. However, because all desires can’t be fulfilled
right away, those needs may be satisfied, at least temporarily, through primary process thinking in which the individual fantasizes about what they desire.
Newborns’ behavior is driven by the id—they are concerned only with meeting their needs. And the id never grows up. Throughout life, it remains infantile because, as an unconscious
entity, it never considers reality. As a result, it remains illogical and selfish. The ego and the superego develop to keep the id in check.
Ego
The second part of the personality, the ego, arises from the id. Its job is to acknowledge and deal with reality, ensuring that the id’s impulses are reigned in and expressed in ways that are
socially acceptable.
The ego operates from the reality principle, which works to satisfy the id’s desires in the most reasonable and realistic ways. The ego may do this by delaying gratification, compromising,
or anything else that will avoid the negative consequences of going against society’s norms and rules.
Such rational thinking is referred to as secondary process thinking. It’s geared towards problem-solving and reality-testing, enabling the person to maintain self-control. However, just
like the id, the ego is interested in seeking pleasure, it just wants to do so in a realistic way. It’s not interested in right and wrong, but in how to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
without getting into trouble.
The ego operates at conscious, preconscious, and unconscious levels. The ego’s consideration of reality is conscious. However, it may also keep forbidden desires hidden by unconsciously
repressing them. Much of the ego’s functioning is also preconscious, meaning it happens below awareness but takes little effort to bring those thoughts into consciousness.
Freud initially used the term ego to reference one’s sense of self. Often, when the term is used in everyday conversation—such as when someone is said to have a “big ego”—it's still used in
this sense. Yet, the term ego in Freud’s theory of personality is no longer referring to the self-concept but to functions like judgment, regulation, and control.
Superego
The superego is the final part of the personality, emerging between the ages of 3 and 5, the phallic stage in Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. The superego is the moral
compass of the personality, upholding a sense of right and wrong. These values are initially learned from one’s parents. However, the superego continues to grow over time, enabling
children to adopt moral standards from other people they admire, like teachers.
The superego consists of two components: the conscious and the ego ideal. The conscious is the part of the superego that forbids unacceptable behaviors and punishes with feelings of
guilt when a person does something they shouldn’t. The ego ideal, or ideal self, includes the rules and standards of good behavior one should adhere to. If one is successful in doing so, it
leads to feelings of pride. However, if the standards of the ego ideal are too high, the person will feel like a failure and experience guilt.
The superego not only controls the id and its impulses towards societal taboos, like sex and aggression, it also attempts to get the ego to go beyond realistic standards and aspire to
moralistic ones. The superego works at both conscious and unconscious levels. People are often aware of their ideas of right and wrong but sometimes these ideals impact us
unconsciously.
The Mediating Ego
The id, ego, and superego interact constantly. Ultimately, though, it’s the ego that serves as the mediator between the id, the superego, and reality. The ego must determine how to meet
the needs of the id, while upholding social reality and the moral standards of the superego.
A healthy personality is the result of a balance between the id, ego, and superego. A lack of balance leads to difficulties. If a person’s id dominates their personality, they may act on their
impulses without considering the rules of society. This can cause them to spin out of control and even lead to legal troubles. If the superego dominates, the person can become rigidly
moralistic, negatively judging anyone who doesn’t meet their standards. Finally if the ego becomes dominant, it can lead to an individual who is so tied to the rules and norms of society
that they become inflexible, unable to deal with change, and incapable of coming to a personal concept of right and wrong.
Critique
Many critiques have been leveled at Freud’s theory of personality. For example, the idea that the id is the dominant component of personality is considered problematic, especially Freud’s
emphasis on unconscious drives and reflexes, like the sexual drive. This perspective minimizes and oversimplifies the intricacies of human nature.
In addition, Freud believed that the superego emerges in childhood because children fear harm and punishment. However, research has shown that children whose greatest fear is
punishment only appear to develop morals—their real motivation is to avoid getting caught and prevent harm. A sense of morality actually develops when a child experiences love and
wants to keep it. To do so, they engage in behavior that exemplifies their parents’ morals and, therefore, will gain their approval.
Despite these criticisms, Freud’s ideas about the id, the ego, and the superego have been, and continue to be, highly influential in the field of psychology.
