‘Table §.2 Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanies 54 Nondimensionalization of the Basic Equations 317 Parameter Defition Reynolds number pe # ‘Mach number a= e roude number ae x a Weber number Rossby number Row gt Boal c, cy = PB Cavitaion aumber can Po Exler number) ae rand umber Beker number Speciic-heat ratio ot Soul mune sat v Roughness rio ‘ rast ner p= Sates! _ BATEL' pep Rlh mnber na = BAPE te Rapcwserate Pressure coefcint Lift coeticient Drag coeticient Friction factor Skin riction coefficient ‘Qualitative ratio of effete Thana Viscoaiy Flow speed Sound sped ‘Surface tension Dissipation Conduction Kineuc energy Entbalpy Bathaly iiiernal energy Ossilation ‘Mean speed ‘Wall oughsess Boul length Buoyancy Viseosity Buoyancy city Wal temperature Seam temperature Stati pressure Dypamie pressure Lit free Dynamic foe Drag force Dynamic force Frition bead oes Velocity head Wall shear stress Dynamic pressure Importance [Almost always Compressible Bow Free-turace low Frec-rurface dow Geophysical ows Cavitation Hest convection Dissipation Compressible flow Oscitating flow ‘Turbulent, cough walle [Natuel convection [Natural convestion Heat wansfer Acrodynamies, hydrodynamics Aerodynamics hydrodynamics Acrodynamies, hydrodynamics Pipe flow Boundary layer flow‘Table 6.1 Recommended ‘Roughness Values for Commercial Ducts 6.6 Turbulent Pipe Flow 371 Condition © Tacertainty, ‘Steel ‘Sheet metal, aew 0.00016 0.05 60 Stainless, new 0.000007 ‘002 250 ‘Commercial, new 0.00015 0.046 230 Riveted oot 30 210 Rested 007 20 250 Iron Casi new 0.00085 026 250 ‘Wrooght, new 0.00015 0.046 220 Galvanized, new 0.0005 ous =40 Asphalied east 0.0008 02 250 Brass Daawn, new 0.000007 ‘o.o02 250 Phase Dawn tubing 1.000005 ons 260 Gust = Smooth Smooth Conerste ‘Smoothed 0.00013 oot 60 Rough 0.007 20 250 Rbber Smoothed 9.000033 oot 260 Wood. Stave 0016 os ‘The shaded area in the Moody chart indicates the range where transition from lam- inar to turbulent flow occurs. There are no reliable friction factors in this range, 2000 < Rey, < 4000. Notice that the roughness curves are nearly horizontal in the fully rough regime to the right of the dashed line. From tests with commercial pipes, recommended values for average pipe rough- ness are listed in Table 6.1 EXAMPLE 6. Compute the loss of head and pressure drop in 200 ft of horizoatal 6-in-diameter asphalted cast iron pipe carrying water with a mean velocity of 6 fs Solution + System sketch: See Fig. 6.7 for a horizontal pipe, with Az = 0 and h, proportional to Ap. + Assumptions: Turbulent flow, asphalted horizontal cast iron pipe, d = 0.5 f, L = 200 ft + Approach: Find Reg and e/d; enter the Moody chart, Fig. 6.13; find f, then hand Ap. + Property values: From Table A.3 for water, converting to BG units, p = 998/515.38 = 1.94 slug/f, 4 = 0.001/47.88 = 2.098-5 slug/(tt-s). + Solution step 1: Calculate Reg and the roughness ratio. As a crutch, Moody provided water and air values of “Va at the top of Fig. 6.13 to find Rey. No, let's calculate i ourselves: Vd _ (1.94 shug/V6 £50.58 Re 2.09E-5 slugl(fe +3) = 279,000 (tarbulens) This example was given by Moody in his 1944 paper [8).‘Table 6.5 Resistance Coefficients K = hllVU(2g)] for Open Valves, Elbows, and Tees Fig. 6.18a Recent measured loss coefbients for 90° elbows. These values are less than those reported in Table 6.5. (From Ref. 48, cour- tesy of R. D. Coffld) 6.9 Minor or Local Losses in Pipe Systems 391 ‘Valves (fully ope) ‘Globe wo 82 Gate 030 024 Swing check 5120) Angle 90 47 Elbows: 45° regular 039032 45° long radius 90° regular 20 1s ‘90° long radius 10 om 180" regular 2001S 180° Jong radius ‘Te Line flow 09 090) Branch flow 2s 1s ‘Nominal ‘Screwed 69 016 21 030 095 oat 095 090 14 33 ou 20 029 0.4 028 06 090 1 3 og0 20 21 050 040. oat 40 02s 10 8s 035 20 2a 020 039 030 035 030 019 030 60 ous: 20 20 019 030 ou 030 02 ous ost 58 oor 20 016 026 ous 035 os 10 058 20 55 008 20 oa 021 10 020 010 oor oat is a factor of 2 spread among the various manufacturers. Note that K in Fig. 6.196 4s, as usual, based on the average pipe velocity V = QIA, not on the increased veloc- ity of the flow as it passes through the narrow valve passage. Abend or curve ina pipe, asin Fig. 6.20, always induces a loss larger than the sim- ple straight-pipe Moody friction loss, due to flow separation on the curved walls and a swirling secondary flow arising from the centripetal acceleration. The smooth-wall loss oss 5 Legend oo (9 Phat bow 1 Metal elbow no. 1 aN (OMetaletbow no 2 0x0 = on © Curve-fit comelation - 149 Ret 5 026 = 3 = A10Ry, 0m = o2 = 020 - ° ors = ore tril ee 005 0102 03: «0510-20 3040 Reynolds number lions)6.9 Minor or Local Losses in Pipe Systems 393 Lo Secondary S slow pater os. cS Fig, 6.20 Resistance coefficients for smooth-walled 45°, 90°, and 0 5 10 5 180" bends, at Rey = 200,000, after Ito [49] als © o- 10 so a 207 Fig. 6.21 Entrance and exit loss coefficients: (a) reentrant inlets: 5 (®) rounded and beveled inless. Exit 1 a lostes ate K= 1.0 forall shapes ° 10 04s 020 of exit (eentrant, sharp, beveled, nL ‘or rounded). (From Ref. 37) aa394 Chapter 6 Viscous Flow in Ducts 10 Sudden expansion os = —p Eg. (681) Sudden eoseaton Vena contracta Fig. 6.22 Sudden expansion and contraction losses. Note that the loss is bated on velocity head in the small pipe. well-rounded entrance (r= 0.24) has a nearly negligible loss K = 0.05. At a sub- ‘merged exit, on the other hand, the flow simply passes out of the pipe into the large downstream reservoir and loses all its velocity head due to viscous dissipation. There- fore K = 1.0 for all submerged exits, no matier how well rounded. If the entrance is from a finite reservoir, it is termed a sudden contraction (SC) between two sizes of pipe. If the exit is to finite-siz cd pipe, it is termed a sudden expansion (SB). The losses for both are graphed in Fig. 6.22. For the sudden expan- sion, the shear stress in the comer separated flow, or deadwater region, is negligible, so that @ control volume analysis between the expansion section and the end of the separation zone gives a theoretical loss: Note that K is based on the velocity head in the small pipe. Equation (6.80) is in excellent agreement with experiment. For the sudden contraction, however, flow separation in the downstream pipe causes the main stream (o contract through a minimum diameter dyin, called the vena contracta, as sketched in Fig. 6.22, Because the theory of the vena contracta is not ‘well developed, the loss coefficient in the figure for sudden contraction is experi ‘mental, It fits the empirical formula e001 4) up to the value dD = 0.76, above which it merges into the sudden-expansion prediction, Eq, (680)826 Appendix A Table A.A Viscosity and Density of se a ise Can vm nF 0 100 «1788-3 LTARE-@ | a2 w 100 1307-3 L307 B~6 | 50 20995 1003-3 100s E~6 | os 0 998-7993 osorE-~6 | 36 4 9920657 F-30682 E~6 | 10H 50 98% OSa8E-3 O5S5E-6 | 122 6 «983M E3075 B-6 | 140 7 97% 0405 B-3 ais E~6 | 158 so 972 0355B-30.365E-6 | 175 9 965316 E~3oz7 B~6 | 194 100958 2S E3295 EG | 212 0591 E-5 0318 ES Suggested curve fits for water in the range 0= T= 100°C: ptkg/m') = 1000 — 00178 |T°C — 4c [27 + 0.2% In = ~1,704 5.3062 + 7.0082? bo 23K BK 756 5-sugin- TK He 1,788 B—3 kg/{m « s) Rag ~ 287 (kg + K) #e zy" Power law: (¢ #.(2)(@2) with Tp = 273 K, foo = 1.71 E-S kef(m 5), and 7 in kelvins 104K‘Table A.3 Properties of Common Liguids at 1 atm and 20°C (68°F) Table A.4 Properties of Common Gases at 1 atta and 20°C (68°F) Physical Properties of Fluids 827 Bulk modulus K, _Viseosity Liquid Pckgim’ py kglm-s) _Y,Nim* py, Nim? Nim parameter C! Armonia cos 220R-4 219R-2 910BVS LSDEHO 10s Benzene SBI 6SIE-4 288E-2 LLEVA LAT BIO 334 Carbon tetrchlorde 1590 967E-4 270E-2 120B+4 132 BF 445 have! 769 120E-3 2288-2 57 EV3 LOS EHS 572 Euhylene glycol MT 2ME-2 484E-2 12 E+] 305497 Freon 12 17 202 E-4 — ase 176 (80 292-4 216B-2 SSIES 13819 368 1290149 633B-2 Ld E-2 435E+9 280. Sol 192B-3 28 B+? SI1BI3 LAL Evo 536 13550 1S6B-3 484E-1 11 B-3 285EHI0 107 Tel S98E-4 2258-2 LasB+4 103 B49 465 sm LEI! 36-2 — SLES 157 SAE 10W30 oil 816 = = 140 SAE 30W oil sot 352 Lees SAE SOW oil 902 — = = 202 Water 998 T28B-2 24BN3 219B19 Table AL Seawater (0%) 102s T28B-2 234B43 233 B49 728 “Te cone with a "Te wronty-temperazevaraon of tee gids may be Sted to he empiri expen FReprerentve valet The SAE ol lita allow a viacosty vision of upto 250 percent. expecially t lower, ‘Molecular ‘SpeciaheatFowerlaw weight mili -K) pg, Nim’ pNosim? "ratio. exponent a" 2016 4124 0822 905-6 ua 068 4.005 207 16s 197 ES 58 067 1802 461 735 LOD ES 133 115 39.988 208 163 2288-5 187 on 2896 27 us 1s0B-5 140 067 ‘vor 19 79 aE 130 on 2x01 27 na Laz Es Lao on 2802 27 Ht LT6 EHS ro 067 32.00 260 Isl 2008-5. 140 069) soon m mi 1908-5 140 078 402 ir 119145 BS. 11 039) 091 u7 289 LOSES Las 1.00 16.08 sis 656 LBS ress os7 “Te powerdaw cave By (12, wlasye = (DSH, le hese gues wibin = perenne ange 250= T= 1000 "The aire mst bei elvis828 Appendix A Table A.S Surface Table AG > Tension, Vapor EW Nim pos KPa aml poe og «sm Ri Pa ps Pressure, and Sound 00.0756 Dol 1402 the Standard -500 281.41 107.508 128543422 Speed of Water 10 0782 12271487 Atmosphere © 28816 1013501225540 20 oons. 2337 ee soo 28491 95,480, 338 30 aoTiz 4282 1509 100028165 #9889 3365 40 00696 Tas 1529 1500 2784184585 Lass 3M 5000679 a 1s 2000 275.16 79500 100673326, 60 00662 19921551 2500 27191 74.684 095703306 0 O0esd 511581558 268.66 70,107 09092, $286 SO 00828 47351558 26561 65.159 086333288 90 0050s = TO. 1550 262.15 61633 981913246 10000589 tas 15483 2ss91 57.718 077683226 255.65 54.008 07361 3206 120 00550 98st 25241 5049806970 3185 140005093613 Lass 29.16 47,165 06595. 3165 160 006s 781440 28591 4401806287514 180 0082 100213809 26 043058935128 2000087 sss 338 2391 38.253 05564 3102 m0 00331281268, 236.15 35581 05250 508.1 240 omnes 3a 92 2291 33080 0.4989 3060 260 0027 = aess 10 22966 3072346613038 280 00190 tl2 soz 2641 2850404887 3017 300 004s 8581 920 ras 0.4125 2995 320 00099 tin 800 2445503875 2993, 340 000056458530 22612 036372951 350 0001918651 370 20897 033612954 amt 00" 22.080 o 19312 03105 2951 isa7 028702951 ‘cee! pin 1694 02652 285.1 15243 024812951 14057 02265 295.1 13018 020942951 10019352951 1s 01788 2951 W275 016522951 9196 01527 2951 s75 O41 2951 S110 013042951 1495 0120529511 6926 OL 295.1 si01 040292951. 5915009512951 5467 008792951 4008 00545 295.4 297.0469 2978 218900432091 isis 00251 3004 97 ooss 301.7 287 ooo 3172 40 oo010 3299 22 0.0003. 3206 70,000 © oc 2972836 7 Appendix C——— Conversion Factors During this period of transition there is a constant need for conversions between BG and SI units (see Table 1.2). Some additional conversions are given here. Conversion factors are given inside the front cover. Length 318 m 1609.344m (76 = 1852 m Jans t= 0914h m angstrom (A= 10 B10 m ‘Volume TA = 0028317 me 1 US. gal = 281 in = 0.0037854 mt 1L= 0001 m = 0035315 #° 1 US. fluid ounce = 2.9574 ES mi 1US. quate (@) = 9.4635 4 m* Area slug = 32.178 ton 1H = 0.092908 ms? 1 Thm ~ 0.8536 ke 1 anit = 2.78784 7 £8 = 2.59 86 mt 1 short ton = 2000 thm = 907.185 ke 1 ere = 43.560 1 = 4046.9 ox! 1 tonne = 1000 ke 1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 ms? Velod Acceleration Tis = 03088 aie Tie = 0.3088 mle 1 mufh = 1.465666 fVs = 0.44704 mle Vika = 1 amifh = 16878 fs = 0.5144 mis Mass Ow ‘Yolume @v 14.594 kyle 1 galfmin = 0.002228 17s = 0.06309 Lis 0.4536 kel 1 10" galday = 15472 Ws = 0.08381 ms Pressure Force 1a 1 1b = 4448222 N= 16 0 1 iin? 6495 Pa 1 kgf = 22046 Ibf = 9.80665 1 atm = 21162 Ib = 14.695 Ton? = USS. (shor) on = 2000 Tor 101,325 Pa 1 ing (a 20°0) = 3375 Pa bar = LOS Pa 1 dyne = LOE-S NV 1 ounee (avoirdupois) (oz) = 0.27801 NConversion Factors 837 135582 7 Ti 1 Btu = 252 eal = 1055086 1 = 778.17 Abt 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) = 3.6 E6 3 Speci weight Tibi? = 157.09 Nia 51538 kin? 1600185 keh 1000 kgf? Viscosity Kinematic viscosity Tstugitt-5) = 47.88 kgm) 1 poise (P) = 1 gllems) = 0.1 kgf) 1 Ri = 00000254806 ms I stokes (St) = 1 em = 0.0001 ms ‘Temperature scale readings TyeaHe+ RM Te=HTp— 3) Te ‘where subscripts FC, K, and R refer to readings on respectively. T+ 45908 Te = Te + 273.16 ‘he Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin, and Rankine scales, Speci heat or gas constant® TA Tbsug -"R) = 016728 N= mig“) ‘Thermal conduetivity* 1 Bealh f=) = 1.7307 Wis KD) “AWtoogh te abvlee (Kevin) and Callas emperare seats have vent staring ponte, the Ital ae the ae size den =I Celsius degte. The same beds ue for the boanetie absolve Raskie) aad Fabel sles "Rankine degre ~ I Talent pres is estomary to expres emperatre illest asaite temperate