- Pece F523 AECL-7523 6 Feu Fz ATOMIC ENERGY LENERGIE ATOMIQUE OF CANADA LIMITED DU CANADA LIMITEE EDDY CURRENT TESTING MANUAL ON EDDY CURRENT METHOD Essais par courant de Foucault Manuel des méthodes d’essai par courant de Foucault Volume 1 V.S. CECCO, G. VAN DRUNEN and F.L. SHARP CERN LIBRARIES, GENEVA (OA Cm-P00067661 Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories Laboratoires nucléaires de Chalk River Chalk River, Ontario November 1981 novembreATOMIC ENERGY OF CANADA LIMITED EDDY CURRENT TESTING VOLUME 1 MANUAL ON EDDY CURRENT METHOD Cecco, G. Van Drunen and F.L. Sharp Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories Chalk River, Ontario KOI 150 1981 NOVEMBER AECL-7523LYENERGIE ATOMIQUE DU CANADA, LIMITEE Essais par courant de Foucault Volume 1 Manuel des méthodes d'essai par courant de Foucault V.S. Cecco, G. Van Drunen et F.L. Sharp Résumé Ce manuel de référence et d'instruction a pour but de fournir & ceux qui font des essais par courant de Foucault les principes fondamentaux de la technique et les connaissances voulues pour interpréter conme il faut les résultats souvent compliqués de ces essais. Une approche non rigoureuse est employée pour simplifier les complexes phénoménes physiques. L'accent est mis sur un choix approprié de fréquences d'essai et sur 1'interprétation des signaux. La détection et le diagnostic des défauts font 1'objet d'une attention particuliére. La conception et la réalisation des sondes sont traitées de facon approfondie car les sondes jouent un réle clé dans les essais Par courant de Foucault. Les avantages et les limitations des divers types de sondes sont indiqués. La théorie électromagnétique, 1'instrumentation, les méthodes d’essai et les analyses de signaux sont décrites. Les réponses des sondes permettent d'avoir une compréhension fondamentale du comportement des courants de Foucault, & condition d'avoir recours aux déductions simplifiges indiquées dans le manuel pour tester les paramétres. Les signaux des courants de Foucault sont présentés sur des diagrammes de plans d'impédance tout au long du manuel, car il s'agit 18 de 1'infor- mation la plus commune affichée sur les instruments universels modernes. L'emploi du "retard de phase" dans 1'analyse des signaux est décrit en détail. Pour compléter 1a théorie, des exemples pratiques sont donnés. Ces exemples ont pour but de rendre les inspections plus performantes et ils montrent comment les principes de base s'appliquent au diagnostic des signaux réels. Laboratoires nucléaires de Chalk River Chalk River, Ontario KOJ 1J0 Novembre 1981 AECL-7523ATOMIC ENERGY OF CANADA LIMITED EDDY CURRENT TESTING VOLUME 1 NANUAL ON EDDY CURRENT METHOD V.S. Ceceo, G- Van Drunen and F.L. Sharp ABSTRACT This training and reference manual was assembled to provide those involved in eddy current testing with both the fundamental principles of the technique as well as the knowledge to deal with often complicated test results. A non-rigorous approach is used to simplify complex physical phenomena. Emphasis is placed on proper choice of test frequency and signal interpretation. Defect detection and diagnosis receive particular attention. Design and construction of probes are covered extensively since probes play a key role in eddy current testing. The advantages and limitations of various probe types are discussed. Electromagnetic theory, instrumentation, test methods and signal analysis are covered. Simplified derivations of probe response to test parameters are presented to develop a basic understanding of eddy current behaviour. Eddy current signals are presented on impedance plane diagrams throughout the manual since this is the most commen display on modern, general purpose instruments. The use of "phase lag” in signal analysis is covered in detail. To supplement theory, practical examples are presented to develop proficiency in performing inspections, and to illustrate how basic principles are applied to diagnose real signals. Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories Chalk River, Ontario KOs 10 1981 NOVEMBER AECL-7523witi- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This manual is an accumulation of knowledge and experience obtained by the NDT Development Branch (formerly Quality Control Branch) of CRNL through its 10 years of existence. The authors are indebted to the other members of the Nondestructive Testing Development Branch especially C.R. Bax, H.W. Ghent, J.R. Carter, G.A. Leakey and W. Pantermoller who assisted in collecting some of the data in the manual and made many constructive criticisms. All rights reserved. No part of this report may be reproduced by any means, nor transmitted, nor translated into a machine language without the written permission of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Research Company.TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION PAGE del EDDY CURRENT TESTING 1 1.2 PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL 1 1.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 2 CHAPTER 2 - EDDY CURRENT FUNDAMENTALS 2el BASIC EQUIPMENT 5 2.2 GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENTS 6 2.2.1 Introduction 6 2.2.2 Magnetic Field Around a Coil 6 2.2.3 Equations Governing Generation cf Eddy Currents 8 2.3 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF EDDY CURRENT FLOW 10 2.4 SKIN EFFECT 11 2.4.1 Standard Depth of Penetration 12 2.4.2 Depth of Penetration in Finite Thickness Samples 13 2.4.3 Standard Phase Lag 14 2.4.4 Phase Lag in Finite Thickness Samples 16 2.5 SUMMARY a7 2.6 WORKED EXAMPLES 18 2.6.1 Standard Depth of Penetration and Phase Lag 18 CHAPTER 3 - ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND PROBE IMPEDANCE 3el INTRODUCTION 19 3.2 IMPEDANCE EQUATIONS AND DEFINITIONS 19 3.3 SINUSOIDS, PHASORS AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 21 3.4 MODEL OF PROBE IN PRESENCE OF TEST MATERIAL 23 3.5 SIMPLIFIED IMPEDANCE DIAGRAMS 25 3.5.1 Derivation of Probe Impedance for Probe/ Sample Combination 25 3.5.2 Correlation Between Coil Impedance and Sample Properties 28 3.6 SUMMARY 30 3.7 WORKED EXAMPLES 31 3.7.1 Probe Impedance in Air 31 3.7.2 Probe Impedance Adjacent to Sample 32 3.7.3 Voltage-Current Relationship 32CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTATION INTRODUCTION BRIDGE CIRCUITS 4.2.1 Simple Bridge Circuit 4.2.2 Typical Bridge Circuit in Eddy Current Instruments 4.2.3 Bridge Circuit in Crack Detectors RESONANCE CIRCUIT AND EQUATIONS EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENTS 4.4.1 General Purpose Instrument (Impedance Method) 4.4.2 Crack Detectors 4.4.3 Material Sorting and Conductivity Instruments SEND-RECEIVE EDDY CURRENT SYSTEMS 4.5.1 Hall-Effect Detector 4.5.2 Send-Receive Coils and Lift-Off Compensation MULTIFREQUENCY EQUIPMENT PULSED EDDY CURRENT EQUIPMENT SPECIAL TECHNIQUES RECORDING EQUIPMENT 4.9.1 Frequency Response SUMMARY WORKED EXAMPLES 4.11.1 Impedance at Resonance PAGE 33 34 34 36 37 38 40 40 42 4h 45 46 47 48 49 51 53 53 54 34eta) CHAPTER 5 - TESTING WITH SURFACE PROBES INTRODUCTION SURFACE PROBES 5.2.1 Probe Types 2. Directional Properties [Link] Sensitivity at Centre of a Coil 5.2.3. Probe Inductance PARAMETERS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY TO DEFECTS 1 Sensitivity with Lift-off and Defect Depth 2 Effect of Defect Length COMPARISON BETWEEN SURFACE AND THROUGH-WALL INSPECTION IMPEDANCE GRAPH DISPLAY Effect of Resistivity Effect of Permeability Effect of Thickness Effect of Frequency Effect of Probe Diameter Comparison of Experimental and Computer Impedance Diagrams BUGuae wun CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETER DEFINITION OF “PHASE” TERMINOLOGY SELECTION OF TEST FREQUENCY 5.8.1 Inspecting for Defects 5.8.2 Measuring Resistivity 5.8.3 Measuring Thickness 5.8.4 Measuring Thickness of a Non-conducting Layer on a Conductor 5.8.5 Measuring Thickness of a Conducting Layer on a Conductor PROBE-CABLE RESONANCE SUMMARY WORKED EXAMPLES 5.11.1 Effective Probe Diameter 5.11.2 Characteristic Parameter PAGE 55 356 59 60 61 65 65 66 67 69 72 72 72 73 73 74 77 78 78 80 83 84 84 85 86 88 88 88vii- CHAPTER 6 - SURFACE PROBE SIGNAL ANALYSIS PAGE 6.1 INTRODUCTION 89 6.2 EDDY CURRENT SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 89 6.2.1 Defect Signal Amplitude 89 6.2.2 Defect Signal Phase 91 6.3 EFFECT OF MATERIAL VARIATIONS AND DEFECTS IN A FINITE THICKNESS 93 6.4 COIL IMPEDANCE CHANGES WITH DEFECTS 97 6.4.1 Surface Defect Measurement 97 6.4.2 Subsurface Defect Measurement 97 6.5 COIL IMPEDANCE CHANGES WITH OTHER VARIABLES 98 6.5.1 Ferromagnetic Indications 98 6.5.2 Electrical Resistivity 100 6.5.3 Signals from Changes in Surface Geometry 100 6.6 CALIBRATION DEFECTS 101 6.7 SUMMARY 104 CHAPTER 7 - TESTING OF TUBES AND CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS Tad INTRODUCTION 105 72 PROBES FOR TUBES AND CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS 105 7.2.1 Probe Types 105 7.2.2 Comparing Differential and Absolute Probes 107 7.2.3 Directional Properties 109 7.2.4 Probe Inductance 110 7.2.5 Probe-Cable Resonance 112 7.3 IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAMS 13 7.3.1 Solid Cylinders as [Link] Sensitivity in Centre of a Cylinder 116 7.3.2 Tubes 118 7.3.3 Characteristic Frequency for Tubes 120 7.3.4 Computer Generated Impedance Diagrans 322 7.4 CHOICE OF TEST FREQUENCY 123 7.4.1 Test Frequency for Solid Cylinders 123 7.4.2 Test Frequency for Tubes 124 765 PROBES FOR DETECTING CIRCUMFERENTIAL CRACKS 125 7.6 SUMMARY 128 17 WORKED EXAMPLES 129 7.7.1 Calculate f/f, to operate at knee location, for a cylinder 129 7.7.2 (a) Calculate optimum test frequency for tube inspection 129 (b) Determine operating point for above frequency 130 (e) Caleulate frequency to discriminate ferro- magnetic indications 130CHAPTER 8.5 CHAPTER CHAPTER 10-1 10.2 10.3 -viti- 8 - TUBE TESTING - SIGNAL ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS Defect Signal Characteristics Effect of Test Frequency Calibration Tubes and Simple Defects Vectorial Addition and Defects at Baffle Plates Tube Inspection at Tubesheets Testing Tubes with Internal Surface Probes aUboRE ANOMALOUS EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS 8.3.1 Ferromagnetic Inclusions and Deposits 3.2 Conducting Deposits MULTIFREQUENCY EDDY CURRENT TESTING 8.4. Background 8.4.2 Multifrequency Testing of Dented Tubes SUMMARY 9 - METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING FERRO- MAGNETIC MATERIALS INTRODUCTION ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 9.2.1 Factors Affecting Resistivity 9.2.2 Material Sorting by Resistivity MAGNETIC PROPERTIES Magnetic Hysteresis Magnetic Permeability Factors Affecting Magnetic Permeability aoe oD oto TESTING MAGNETIC MATERIALS 9.4.1 Simplified Impedance Diagrans 9.4.2 Impedance Diagrams 9.4.3 Material Sorting by Magnetic Permeability 9.4.4 Testing for Defects in Magnetic Materials SUMMARY WORKED EXAMPLES 1 Calculate Conductivity 2 Calculate Magnetic Permeability 3 Calculate Standard Depth of Penetration 10 - DEFINITIONS, REFERENCES AND INDEX DEFINITIONS REFERENCES INDEX PAGE 131 131 131 135 138 142 146 147 149 149 153 155 155 158 162 163 163 163 166 168 169 170 172 176 174 176 178 178 184 185 185 185 186 187 194 195SYMBOL ouverune Bp ggngn ms é ONKMM Same maH or or eewseane nix NOMENCLATURE QUANTITY Cross-Sectional area Radius Length Thickness width Diameter Magnetic flux density Capacitance Test frequency Optimum tube testing frequency Characteristic or Limit frequency : Resonant frequency Magnetic field intensity (Ma gnetizing force) Current Current density Self Inductance Number of turns (Windings) Characteristic Parameter Resistance Resistive load Electric potential Depth below the surface Inductive Reactance Capacitive Reactance Impedance Standard Depth of Penetration Permeability Resistivity Conductivity Magnetic flux Fill Factor Phase Lag Angular frequency Angle between Z & R SI UNIT metre” metre metre metre metre metre A weber/meter farads hertz hertz or tesla hertz hertz amperes/meter or lenze amperes p amperes/meter henry dimensionless dimensionless ohm oho volt metre ohm oho ohm metre henry/meter nicrohm-centimetre stemens/meter weber dimensionless radians radians/second degreesCHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION EDDY CURRENT TESTING Eddy current testing (ET) is a nondestructive test technique based on inducing electrical currents in the material being inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the material. Eddy currents are generated by electromagnetic coils in the test probe, and monitored simultaneously by measuring probe electrical impedance. Since it's an electromagnetic induction process, direct electrical contact with the sample is not required; however, the sample material has to be conductive. Eddy current testing is a versatile technique. It's mainly used for thin materials; in thick materials, penetration constraints limit the inspected volume to thin surface layers. In addition to flaw inspection, ET can be used to indirectly measure mechanical and metallurgical characteristics which correlate with electrical and magnetic properties. Also, geometric effects such as thickness, curvature and probe-to-material spacing influence eddy current flow and can be measured. The large number of potentially significant variables in ET is both a strength and a weakness of the technique since effects of otherwise trivial parameters can mask important information or be misinterpreted. Virtually everything that affects eddy current flow or otherwise influences probe impedance has to be taken into account to obtain reliable results. Thus, credible eddy current testing requires a high level of operator training and awareness. PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL The purpose of this manual is to promote the development and use of eddy current testing by providing a scientifically sound training and reference manual. The selection of material presented is based on the premise that a sound understanding of basic principles is essential to obtaining valid data and interpreting it correctly. A non-rigorous approach has been used to present complex physical phenomena in a document oriented towards application of eddy current techniques, especially for defect detection and diagnosis. The presentation moves from theory (including a review of basic electrical concepts) to test methods and signal analysis. Simplified derivations of probe response to test parameters are presented to develop a basic understanding of eddy current test principles. Thus, eddy current signals areconsistently illustrated on impedance plane diagrams (the display used in modern eddy current test instruments) and to aid explanation, the parameter “eddy current phase lag” is introduced. Since probes play a key role in eddy current testing, technical aspects of probe design are introduced with pertinent electrical impedance calculations. While knowledge of basic electrical circuits is required for a complete understanding of eddy current test principles, a good technical base for inspection can still be obtained if sections of this manual requiring such a background are skipped. From an applications point of view, the material in this manual provides an inspector with the necessary background to decide: 1) what probe(s) to use, 2) what test frequencies are suitable, 3) what calibration defects or standards are required for signal calibration and/or simulation, 4) what tests are required to differentiate between significant signals and false indications. 5) how to estimate depth of real defects To supplement theory, practical examples are presented to develop proficiency in performing inspections, and to illustrate how basic principles are applied to diagnose real signals. A number of laboratory demonstrations, practical test multiple choice questions are included in Volume 2, Current Course Supplement”. They are divided into groups corresponding to the chapters in this manual. The demonstrations are intended for use in eddy current courses to help clarify some of the more difficult concepts. The practical tests are to give students practice in using equipment and performing typical tests. The multiple choice questions are intended to check students’ understanding of the course material and prepare for certification exams. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Electromagnetic testing -- the interaction of magnetic fields with circulating electrical currents -- had its origin in 1831 when M. Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction. He induced current flow in a secondary coil by switching a battery on and off. D.E. Hughes performed the first recorded eddy current test in 1879. He was able to distinguish between different metals by noting a change in excitation frequency resulting from effects of test material resistivity and magnetic permeability.THERE MUST BE DEFECTS IN THESE TUBES SOMEWHERE — I SAW SQUIGGLES ON THE EDoy CURRENT SCREENS Fig. 1.1:Misinterpreted Signals Initially, the extreme sensitivity to many material properties and conditions made ET difficult and unreliable. Figure 1.1 illustrates this point. It took until 1926 before the first eddy current instrument was developed to measure sample thickness. By the end of World War II further research and improved electronics made industrial inspection possible, and many practical instruments were developed. A major breakthrough came in the 1950's when Forster developed instruments with impedance plane signal displays. These made it possible to discriminate between different parameters, though the procedure was still empirical. During the 1960 progress in theoretical and practical uses of eddy current testing advanced the technology from an empirical art to an accepted engineering discipline.During that time, other nondestructive test techniques such as ultrasonics and radiography became well established and eddy current testing played a secondary role, mainly in the aircraft industry. Recent requirements -- particularly for heat exchanger tube inspection in the nuclear industry -~ have contributed significantly to further development of ET as a fast, accurate and reproducible nondestructive test technique. Until recently, eddy current testing vas a technology where he basic principles were known only to researchers, and a black box” approach to inspection was often followed. The authors’ objective in compiling this manual’is to draw upon research, laboratory and industrial inspection experience to bridge that gap and thereby permit the full potential of eddy current testing to be realized.CHAPTER 2 ~ EDDY CURRENT FUNDAMENTALS BASIC EQUIPMENT Basic eddy current test equipment consists of an alternating current source (oscillator), a probe containing a coil connected to the current source, and a voltmeter which measures the voltage change across the coil, as shown in Figure 2.1. OscILLAToR voumerer consent PRORE PROBE ‘MOVEMENT TEST PLATE Fig. 2 Eddy Current Test Equipment The oscillator must be capable of generating a time varying (usually sinusoidal) current at frequencies ranging from about 1 kHz (1000 cycles per second) to about 2 MHz (2,000,000 cycles per second). Oscillators which operate at higher or lower frequencies, or with pulsed currents are used for specialized applications The coil within the probe is an insulated copper wire wound onto a suitable form. The wire diameter, the number of turns and coil dimensions are all variables which must be determined in order to obtain the desired inspection results. Coil variables are discussed in later chapters.2.21 Depending upon the type of inspection, an eddy current probe can consist of a single test coil, an excitation coil with a separate receive (sensing) coil, or an excitation coil with a Hall-effect sensing detector, as shown in Figure 2.2. ‘voLTHeTER vouTereR VOLTAETER ‘osciLLaroR osciciator: oscrutaTor sensine wate, cot DeTEcroR TEST ARTICLE TEST ARTICLE TEST ARTICLE 7 con excitation EXCITATION cont tole (A) SELF-INDUCTANCE (B) SEND-RECEIVE (©) MAGNETIC REACTION Fig. 2.2: Eddy Current Inspection System: The voltmeter measures changes in voltage across the coil which result from changes in the electrical conditions and properties of the conducting material tested and/or changes in relative position between the coil and the material tested. This voltage change consists of an amplitude variation and a phase variation relative to the current passing through the coil. The reason for amplitude and phase changes in this voltage is discussed in Chapter 3. GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENTS Introduction In this section the topic of the magnetic field surrounding a coil carrying current is introduced together with the mechanism by which eddy currents are induced and how they are measured. Magnetic Field Around A Coil Oersted discovered that whenever there is an electric current, a magnetic field exists. Consider electric current directed along a wire, a magnetic field is created in such a direction that if your right-hand thumb points in the direction of current, your curled fingers point in thedirection of the magnetic field. This is the “right-hand rule". Associated with a magnetic field is magnetic flux density. It has the same direction as the magnetic field and its magnitude depends upon position and current. It is therefore a field vector quantity and is given the symbol B. Its unite in the SI system is the tesla (T) or webers per square metre (wb/m2 The B-field distribution around a long straight wire is shown in Figure 2.3(a). In Figure 2.3(b) the B-field in the axial direction of a single turn is shown as a function of radius. As more windings are added, each carrying the same current, the flux density rapidly increases and its associated distribution is altered. B (a) Straight Wire (b) Single Turn Coil Current Flowing into page Fig Magnetic Flux Distribution Flux density varies linearly with electric current in the coil, i-e-, if coil current doubles, flux density doubles everywhere. The total magnetic flux, ¢p, contained within the loop is the product of B and area of the coil. The unit in the SI system for magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).2.2.3 Equations Governing Generation of Eddy Currents In any electrical circuit, current flow is governed by Ohm's Law and is equal to the driving (primary circuit) voltage divided by primary circuit impedance. I= vi/z (2.1) Pp PP The eddy current coil is part of the primary circuit. The current passing through the coil normally varies sinusoidally with time and is given by: = 2.2 1, T, sin(wt) (2.2) where I, is the peak current value in the circuit and w (omega) is the frequency in radians/s (w equals 2nf when £ is frequency in hertz). From Oersted's discovery, a magnetic flux (4) exists around a coil carrying current (see Figure 2.4) proportional to the number of turns in the coil (Np) and the current (Ip). ¢, = NOT (2.3) PROBE (primary efreuie) SAMPLE (secondary elreust) Coil Carrying Alternating Current AdjacentFaraday's Law states a voltage (Vg) 1s created or induced in a region of space when there is a changing magnetic field. When we apply this to our coil, ox te (2.4) ‘8 p de ap where —g@ is the rate of change in @, with time. Since coil current varies sinusoidally with time, total magnetic flux in the coil also varies sinusoidally, = 6, sin(ut t) 7% stm(we) where $, is the magnetic flux corresponding to Ig. The induced voltage as described by equation 2.4 results in = = N,w6, cos (ue) (2.5) which also varies periodically with time, If we bring the coil close to a test sample, Ohm's Lav states that if there is a driving voltage (V,) and the sample's impedance is finite, current will flow, I, = V,/2, (2.6) where I, is current flowing through the sample, V, is induced voltage and Z, is the sample's impedance or opposition to the flow of current. These induced currents are known as eddy currents because of their circulatory paths. They, in turn, generate their own magnetic field according to Lenz's Law, which opposes the primary field, o, 8-1 (2-7) (2.8) and 27 4 where ¢; is the equilibrium magnetic flux surrounding the coil in the presence of a test sample. The flow of eddy currents results in resistive (Ohmic) losses and a decrease in magnetic flux. This is reflected as a decrease in probe impedance. In equation form, 2 oy (2.9) an v= 21, : a 7 (2.10)-10- Equation 2.9 indicates a coil's impedance is a function of the magnetic field surrounding it and in turn the magnetic field is governed by induced current in the epecimen (equations 2.8 and 2.7). The relations between probe impedance and sample properties will be derived in Chapter 3. To summarize, flux is set up by pasuing alternating current through the test coil. When this coil is brought close to a conductive sample, eddy currents are induced. In addition, the magnetic flux associated with the eddy currents oppo coil's magnetic flux, thereby decreasing net flux. This results in a change in coil impedance and voltage drop. It is the opposition between the primary (coil) and secondary (eddy current) fields that provides the basis for extracting information during eddy current testing. the It should be noted that if a sample is ferromagnetic, equation 2.9 still applies but the magnetic flux is strengthened despite opposing eddy current effects. The high magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials distinguishes them from non-ferromagnetic materials and strongly influences eddy current test parameters. Ferromagnetic specimen inspection is discussed in Chapter 9 and unless specified the rest of the manual is restricted to non-ferromagnetic materials. FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF EDDY CURRENT FLOW Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and parallel to the surface. Eddy current flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Test frequency determines depth of penetration into the specimen; as frequency is increased, penetration decreases and the eddy current distribution becomes denser near the specimen's surface. Test frequency also affects the sensitivity to changes in material properties and defects. Figure 2.5(a) shows the algebraic relationships and Figure 2.5(b) the oscilloscope display of eddy current and magnetic field distribution with depth into the specimen. Both the eddy currents and magnetic flux get weaker with depth because of “skin effect". In addition to this attenuation, the eddy currents lag in phase with depth. Eddy currents’ phase lag ie the key parameter that makes eddy current testing a useful NDT method. The parameters skin depth and phase lag are discussed in the next section.1g on, con $9, sinlat) Tetsinwt) /\ t Te-1y(nsin(atp ) @ @ Fig. 2.5: Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Distribution With Depth Into a Conductor SKIN EFFECT Eddy currents induced by a changing magnetic field concentrate near the surface adjacent to the excitation coil. The depth of penetration decreases with test frequency and is a function of electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the specimen. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect and is analogous to the situation in terrestrial heat conduction where daily surface temperature fluctuations are not appreciable below the earth's surface. Skin effect arises as follows: the eddy currents flowing in the test object et any depth produce magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current flow as depth increases. Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's magnetic field thereby weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and reducing induced currents. The equation for flow of induced currents is 25 2 on BS (2.11) v's OU oe where J 1s current density, o is conductivity, wu is magnetic permeability and y2 is a differential operator of second order.-12- For a semi-infinite (thick) conductor the solution to the above equation is J,/Jg = &® sin(we-B) (2.128) where Jx/Jg is the ratio of eddy current density Jy at depth x to the surface density Jo,and e = 2.718 is the base of natural logarithms. § is given by x/$ where 6 = (mfuc)-1/2, the standard depth of penetration (see next section). Equation 2-12(a) can be separated into two components: « ex/é I,/Iy =e (2,12b) which describes the exponential decrease in eddy current density with depth,and Jg/Jo © sin (wt-x/6) (2.120) denoting the increasing time or phas signal with depth. lag of the sinusoidal 2.4.1 Standard Depth of Penetration Figure 2.6 illustrates the change in eddy current density in a semi-infinite conductor. Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. HTP EEL 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.1 $08 to yy 3 85007, m the Fig. 2.6: Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Distribution qiehapeh-in-a Thick Plate. -13- The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e or 36.8% of the surface density is called the standard depth of penetration. The word ‘standard’ denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample (conditions which are rarely achieved in practice). The standard depth of penetration is given by és 50vp/fu > mm (2.13a) or 8 = 2e7ER, , inches (2.138) where p 46 electrical resistivity in microhn-centimetres £ is test frequency in hertz, and u, is relative magnetic permeability (dimensionless)*. The skin depth equation is strictly true only for infinitely thick material and planar magnetic fields. Using the standard depth, 6, calculated from the above equation makes it a material/test parameter rather than a true measure of penetration. Depth of Penetration in Finite Thickness Samples Sensitivity to defects depends on eddy current density at defect location. Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration they decrease rapidly vith depth. At two standard depths of penetration (25), eddy current density has decreased to (1/e)? or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths (36) the eddy current density is down to only 5% of the surface density. However, one should keep in mind these values only apply to thick samples (thickness, t >56) and planar magnetic excitation fields. Planar field conditions require large diameter probes (diameter >10t) in plate testing or long coils (length >5t) in tube testing. Real test coils will rarely meet these requirements since they would possess low defect sensitivity. For thin plate or tube samples, current density drops off less than calculated from equation 2-12(b) as shown in Figure 2.7. For solid cylinders the overriding factor is a decrease to zero at the centre resulting from geometry effects as shown in Fig. 2.7(c) and discussed in Section 7.3.1. One should also note, that the magnetic flux is attenuated across the sample, but not completely. Although the currents are restricted to flow within specimen boundaries, the magnetic field extends into the air space beyond. This allows the inspection of multi-layer components separated by an air space. ‘See Chapter 9 for a description of electrical and magnetic properties. uU, ™ uy , incremental permeability, at zero biasing magnetization flux.(a) PLATE (LARGE coIL, 9108) Tae EAUATION 2.12 pert (0) TUBE (LONG ENCERCLING COIL, 288) Jy © EDDY CURRENT DENSITY AT SURFACE OR J_ * EDDY CURRENT DENSITY AT LOCATION 1 OR + BELOF THE SURFACE Rane aT PT et LH az TUBE AND ROD GEONETRY 2 (ey #0 FoR oD) (©) ROD CENCIRCLING COIL. £>5 rq) Fig. 2.7: Eddy Current Distribution With Depth in Various Samples The sensitivity to a subsurface defect depends on the eddy current density at that depth, it is therefore important to know the effective depth of penetration. The effective depth of penetration is arbitrarily defined as the depth at which eddy current density decreases to 5% of the surface density. For large probes and thick samples, this depth is about three standard depths of penetration. Unfortunately, for most components and practical probe sizes, this depth will be les than 35, the eddy currents being attenuated more than predicted by the skin depth equation. The effect of probe diameter on the decrease in eddy current density or defect sensitivity with depth is discussed in Section 5.3.1. Standard Phase Lag The signal produced by a flaw depends on both amplitude and phase of the currents being obstructed. A small surface defect and large internal defect can have a similar effect on the magnitude of test coil impedance. However, because of the increasing phase lag with depth, there will be a characteristic difference in the test coil impedance vector. This effect allows location and extent of a defect to be determined.Phase lag is derived from equation 2.12(c) for infinitely thick material. It represents a phase angle lag of x/é radians between the sinusoidal eddy currents at the surface and those below the surface. It is éenoted by the symbol g (beta) and is given by: B= x/6 radians (2.14a) oo B= x/6 x 57 degrees (2.14) where x is distance below the surface in the same units as 6. TT B (OEGREES) x 3 B= 3 x 57, DEGREES Fig. 2.8: Eddy Current Phase Lag Variation With Depth in Thick Samples When x is equal to one standard depth of penetration, phase lag is 57° or one radian. This means that the eddy currents flowing below the surface, at one standard depth of penetration, lag the surface currents by 57°. At two standard depths of penetration they leg the surface currents by 114%. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8.Phase Lag in Finite Thickness Samples For thin samples, eddy current phase decreases slightly less rapidly with depth than stated above. See Figure 2.9(a), (b) and (c) for the plots of phase lag with depth for a plate, tube, and cylinder, respectively. The phase lag illustrated in these plots does not change significantly with cofl diameter or length. For thick samples and practical probe sizes, equation 2.14 is sufficiently accurate. 0 . ~ S ah SS. 0 ON wh NN ONS Pr \ ALE a0 \ tte. a 7 \ t 0 7 oo NL pete 100 100" 2 4 8 80 co) pute . co) Tue goes PLATE GtOVETRY WOE AND ROD ( 0) eowermY By A, = PHASE MITA DEPTH x, OR + RELATIVE ee” To sunrAce CURRENT —— ror cuves = CALGULATED, EQUATION 2.14 (4) Fig. 2.9: Eddy Current Phase Lag in Various Samples ce) roo Phase lag can be visualized as a shift in time of the sinusoidally varying current flowing below the surface. This was illustrated in Figure 2.5. Phase lag plays a key role in the analysis of eddy current test signals. It will be used throughout the manual to link theory and observations. It should not be misinterpreted or confused with the phase angle between voltage and current in AC theory. Both the voltage and current (and magnetic field) have this phase shift or lag with depth.SUMMARY Eddy current testing is based on inducing electrical currents in the material being inspected and observing the interaction between these currents and the material. This process occurs as follows: When a periodically varying magnetic field intersects an electrical conductor, eddy cur~ rents are induced according to Faraday's and Ohm's Laws. The induced currents (known as eddy currents because of their circulatory paths) generate their own magnetic field which opposes the excitation field. The equilibrium field is re- duced resulting in a change of coil impedance. By monitoring coil impedance, the electrical, magnetic and geometric pro- perties of the sample can be measured. Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpen- dicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and parallel to the surface. Eddy cur- rent flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Depth of penetration into a material depends on its electri- cal resistivity, magnetic permeability and on test frequency. The basic equation of ET is the standard depth of penetration given by 6 = sovp/fu, , mm (2.134) where p is electrical resistivity, microhm-centimetres; f is test frequency, hertz; and ul, is relative magnetic permeability, dimensionless. It states that in thick materials eddy current density decreases to 37% of the surface density at a depth of one standard depth of penetration. In most eddy current tests, especially with surface probes, the actual eddy current density (at a depth equal to that calculated by equation 2.13a) is much less than 37%. Eddy currents also lag in phase with depth into the material. Phase lag depends on the same material properties that govern depth of penetration and is given by B= x/6 = __X___, radians (2.14a) 50¥p7Eu, where x is distance below surface, um. Phase lag is the parameter that makes it possible to deter- mine the depth of a defect. It also allows discrimination between defect signals and false indications. It is the key parameter in eddy current testing.2.6 WORKED EXAMPLES 2.6.1 Standard Depth of Penetration and Phase Lag PROBLEM: (a) Calculate the standard depth of penetration in a thick 304 SS sample, at a test frequency of 100 kHz. (b) Determine the eddy current phase lag at a depth of 1.5 mm in 304 SS at 100 kHz. SOLUTION: 304 SS properties: 9 = 72 microhm ~ centimetres and upd (a) from equation 2.13(a), 6 = 50 = 50(7.2 x10 Therefore the standard depth of penetration is 1.3 mm. (b) from equation 2.14(b), 8 = x/S x 57 = 2:3 x 57. 68 degrees Therefore the phase lag is 64 degrees.-19- CHAPTER 3 - ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND PROBE IMPEDANCE INTRODUCTION Eddy current testing consists of monitoring the flow and distribution of eddy currents in test material. This is achieved indirectly by monitoring probe impedance during a test. An understanding of impedance and associated electrical quantities is therefore imperative for a fundamental appreciation of eddy current behaviour. The first two sections review the electrical quantities important in eddy current testing. This is followed by presentation of a model of a test coil coupled to test material and its equivalent electrical circuit. The equivalent circuit approach permits derivation of simplified impedance diagrams to show the effect of test and material parameters on probe impedance in graphical form. Once the simple impedance diagram concepts of this chapter are understood, the more complex diagrans of subsequent chapters should present little difficulty. IMPEDANCE EQUATIONS AND DEFINITIONS All information about a sample is obtained through changes in electrical characteristics of the coil/sample combination. Therefore a basic understanding of electrical quantities is important for eddy current inspection. RESISTANCE: (symbol: R, units: ohm, 2) Opposition to the flow of electrical current is called resistance. It is constant for both direct and alternating current. The electrical component is called a resistor. V=IR Ohm's Law Gel) where, V is voltage drop across resistor (volt), and I is current through resistor (ampere) INDUCTANC : (symbol: L, unite: henry, H) The property of an electric circuit by virtue of which a varying current induces an electromotive force in that circuit (self) or in a neighbouring circuit (mutual) is called inductance. The electrical component is called an inductor.-20- = total flux linkages current through coil (3.24) No = a2 a (3.20) = ky (NP A/2) (3.3) where, N is number of coil turns bp 18 magnetic flux (weber) I” is current (ampere) k, is a geometric factor AY is coil's planar surface area (mm’) % 46 coil's axial length (mm) The self-inductance of a coil is proportional to coil windings squared (N2)and planar surface area (A), and inversely proportional to coil length (2), INDUCTIVE REACTANCE: (symbol: X,, unit ohm, 2) Opposition to changes in alternating current flow through a coil is called inductive reactance. Lt ob (34a) or x, = 2neL (3-4) where, £ is frequency of alternating current (hertz), and w is angular frequency (radians/second) CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (symbol: Xe, unit. Opposition to changes in alternating voltage across a capacitor is called capacitive reactance. Eddy current coil capacitive reactance is normally negligible. Hovever, capacitance can be important when considering impedance of probe cables (Sections 5.9 and 7.2.5). Xe" 3G (3.5) where, © 4s capacitance (farad) IMPEDANCE: (symbol: Z, units: ohm, 2) The total opposition to alternating current flow is called IMPEDANCE. For a coil, Iz] “Wee (3-6)-21- x, and @ = Arctan + (3.7) where |Z|is magnitude of Z, and 6 is phase of Z (described in next section). SINUSOIDS, PHASORS AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS In a direct current (DC) circuit, such as a battery and light bulb, current and voltage are described completely by their respective magnitudes, Figure 3.1(a). Analysis of alternating current (AC) circuits is more complex. Since voltage and current amplitude vary with time, the phase (or time delay) relationship between them must also be taken into account. A typical AC circuit, an inductor in series with a resistor, is presented in Figure 3.1(b). This is a simplified model of a probe assembly: the inductor is the reactive part of the assembly (coil) while the resistor models both coil wire and cable resistance. Figure 3.1(c) shows voltage across the inductor (Vj) leads the current (1) by 90°, while voltage across the resistor (Vg) is in phase with current. Since the current is common to both inductor and resistor, it is possible to use current as a point of reference. Hence, we deduce the voltage across the inductor leads the voltage across the resistor by 90°. If one measures the voltage drop, Vz, across both the inductor and resistor, we find Vp leads current (or Va) by an angle less than 90°, as shown in Figure 3.1(d). To evaluate the total voltage Vp, we add vectorially the separate voltages Vp and Vz, Ve = VR + Vy (3.8) = I(R + jwL) (3-9a) where j is a mathematical operator (rotates a vector cow by 90°) or Vp = IR sin ( wtt0) + j IWL sin (wetm/2) (3.9b) Representing voltage waveforms as in Figure 3.1(d) or equation 3.9(b) can be both time consuming and confusing. A simpler voltage representation is available by means of phasor diagrams. In phasor diagrams the voltage is represented by its peak value (amplitude) and phase shift (8) relative to the current. The two terms in equation 3.9(b) both contain an amplitude and phase shift so they can be~22- DIRECT cumReNT velk (2 sure eager e1neutr ALTERING cue ‘yc anne Car 90° (©) avremuarine consent crneurr vats) resistance, R (4) voLtAse Gaara SPLAT OF masons (Octane anon nisms Representation of Direct Current and Alternating Current Circuit Parameters- =23- represented by phasors. The first term's amplitude is IR and its phase shift is 0. The amplitude of the second term is IwL and its phase shift is ™/2 or 90°. Each phasor can be represented by an arrow starting at the origin. The phasor's amplitude is indicated by the length of the arrow OP and the phase shift by the direction of the arrow, see Figure 3.1(e). Phasors are displayed graphically with the resistive component (Va), having a phase shift 6 = 0, along the horizontal axis. As @ increases the phasor rotates counter-clockwise. The reactive component (V;), having a phase shift 9 = 90°, will be represented along the vertical axis. Current is common to both voltage components and since V=1Z, the voltage graph of Figure 3.1(e) can be converted to an impedance graph display, as in Figure 3.1(f). If this approach is applied to eddy current testing, it is found that any changes in resistance or inductive reactance will cause a change in the position of the end of the vector (point P) which represents the total impedance vector. To obtain the reactive and resistive components from this graph requires knowledge of trigonometry. Reactive component: X, 7 wh = [2] sin 0 (3-10) Resistive componen R = |2| cos 8 (3.11) Amplitude of impedance: [Z| = yk? + x;? Phase angle: 6 = Arctan X,/R (3-7) Note the x axis component represents pure resistance (phase shift = 0°) while the y axis component represents pure inductive reactance (phase shift = + 90°). In these calculations it is assumed coil capacitance is negligible. MODEL OF PROBE IN PRESENCE OF TEST MATERIAL The test probe contains a cotl which when placed on or close to a test sample can be considered as the primary winding of a transformer. The field created by alternating current in the coil induces eddy currents in the test sample which acts as a single turn secondary winding,Ns = 1, Figure 3.2(b)- Eddy currents align to produce a magnetic field which tends to weaken the surrounding net magnetic flux $p, according to Lenz's Law.(b) ©) Q-\) © 3 seconoary & RECEIVE COIL, 2 (ce) Fig. 3.2: Model of a Coil with Test Object There are two methods of sensing changes in the secondary current, Ig- The “impedance method” of eddy current testing consists of monitoring the voltage drop across the primary coil (V, = TpZp)- The impedance Z, is altered by the Load b£"the secondary of the transformer. Therefore, changes in secondary resistance, Rg, or inductance Lg can be measured as changes in V5. The “send-receive” method of eddy current testing uses two coils. Eddy current flow in the sample is altered by defects and these variations are detected by monitoring the voltage across a secondary receive coil, see Figure 3.2(c).~25- SIMPLIFIED IMPEDANCE DIAGRAMS Derivation of Probe Impedance for Probe/Sample Combination We now consider how changes in the test sample affect coil impedance on the impedance graph display. From the previous section the probe and test sample can be modelled as a transformer with a multi-turn primary (coil) and single turn secondary (sample), Figure 3.3(a). This circuit can be simplified to an equivalent circuit where the secondary circuit load is reflected as a resistive load in parallel with the coil's inductive reactance, Figure 3.3(b). This circuit is an approximate model of a real coil adjacent to a conductor. It is assumed that all of the magnetic flux from the primary coil links the test sample; the coupling is perfect (100%). It is also assumed that there is no skin depth attenuation or phase lag across the sample thicknes OE Ome (©) cavivacenr pana exneutt (> coutvanr senies etacat? Fig. 3.3 Equivalent Circuit The equivalent circuit concept can be used to obtain simplified impedance diagrams applicable to eddy current testing. These diagrams serve as an introduction to the more detailed diagrams which include variations caused by the skin effect. The coil/sample circuit model can be transformed into the simpler series circuit by the following mathematical manipulations. The load resistance R, can be transferred from the secondary back to the primary winding by multiplying it by the turns ratio squared, (ap /¥g)?, Figure 3.3(b).The total impedance of this parallel circuit can be evaluated and transformed into an equivalent series circuit as follows: 2 = P 2 where 2, = NoRy and 227 io» Where Xo™ WL, coll inductive reactance in air, ine x Therefore 2p “zh wR, +4X, pes * 3X, which transforms to wep x? cv?r_)?x (3.128) "ar Tt P ompR) +)? aR)? + Ox) This can be viewed as a series combination, in the primary circuit, of resistance Ry and inductive reactance X, or z= R, + 45x 3.12b pT Rt IX, (3.129) The series circuit in Figure 3.3(c) is therefore fully equivalent to the parallel one of Figure 3.3(b). Rp can be considered as coil wire and cable resistance while Zp=Ry+jXp is the total impedance of the probe/sample combination. When the probe is far from the sample (probe in air), Ry is very large and by substituting R, = © into equation 3.124 results in Ry=0, Xp"Xq and 2p"Xo: -27- The above results can be obtained by removing component NR, from Figure 3.3(b), since Rg= * implies an open cbreuit. One last transformation in the equation is required before impedance graphs can be obtained. Equation 3.12(a) can be simplified by setting Cy = XG where G = 1/NoR, 48 equivalent circuit conductance. Substitution in 3.12(a) yields KC x oro 5 y 2 P 2 2 1+co 1+¢5 Normalizing with respect to Xo, the coil's inductive reactance when far removed from the sample (coil in air) results in z cy 1 a z+3 z (3413) 0 «1tce +02 By varying Cy, in equation 3.13, from 0 to infinity the impedance curve of Figure 3.4 is obtained. The impedance locus is that of a semi-circle with center at Xp/Xo™k and Ri/Xo = 0; its radius is b. With the help of equation 3.13 and Figure 3.4, impedance changes can be related to changes in the sample characteristics. ' Ea onsearine rou vom 260 MDCT mcrae RG NORMALIZED RESISTANCE Impedance Graph Displa-28- 3.5.2 Correlation Between Coil Impedance and Sample Properties The effect of test parameter variations on probe impedance can be derived from equation 3.13. Each parameter is substituted in turn into Co=Xo/N3R,; if an increase in the parameter results in an increase in C,, the operating point (position on impedance diagram) moves DOWN the impedance curve, if Cg decreases, the operating point moves UP the impedance curve. These correlations are useful in obtaining a qualitative appreciation of the effect of the various test parameter: It is also useful to know that probe/sample effects can be derived from the sinple equivalent parallel circuit where the sample is treated as a resistor in parallel with an inductor (coil). The complete effect can then be obtained by adding the effect of 'phase lag’, which will be treated in later chapters. Study of equation 3.13 reveals the following: An increase in R, results in a decrease in Cy. Therefore an increase in resistance to eddy current flow moves the operating point, P, UP the impedance curve (along the semi-circle), see Figure 3.5(a). 2. Re = o8/A where, p is electrical resistivity, 2 1s eddy current flow distance and A is cross-sectional area to current flow. Therefore, = constant x Rg An increase in electrical resistivity will move the operating point UP the impedance curve. The opposite is true for an increase in electrical conductivity. See Figure 3.5(a). 3. For thin wall tubes or plates of thickness ¢, Rg = p2/A = pnD/tw and for constant probe or tube diameter, D, and coil width, w, Rg = constant/t An increase in tube wall (or plate thickness) will move the operating point DOWN the impedance curve, see Figure 3.5(b).-29- Co = Who/NpRy = constant x & for constant sample properties. An increase in test frequency will move the operating point DOWN the impedance curve, see Figure 3.5(c)- Lo = constant x D?; probe inductance increases proportional to probe or tube diameter squared. Also Rg = p™D/tw = constant x D, for constant thickness, t, and cpil width, v. Substituting L, and R, into Cj = WLo/N5R, results in Co=constant x D. An increase in probe diameter or tube diameter will move the operating point DOWN the impedance curve, see Figure 3.5(4). In the equivalent circuit derivation perfect coupling wa: assumed for sake of simplification. However, it can be shown that when mutual coupling between coil and sample is decreased, the impedance point traces smaller semi-circles as Cg increases from 0 to infinity, see Figure 3.5(e). Prune Wise = DEGREASING FILL FACTOR Om INCREASING LIFT-OFF Tn Fig 5: Simplified Impedance Diagrams- -30- SUMMARY The impedance method of eddy current testing consists of monitoring the voltage drop across a test coil. The impedance has resistive and inductive components; the impedance magnitude is calculated from the equation Iz] mye t (wL)“ , ohms (3.6) and the impedance phase is calculated from @ = Arctan 4 » degrees (3.7) The voltage across the test coil is V = IZ where I is the current through the coil and Z is the impedance. A sample's resistance to the flow of eddy currents is reflected as a resistive load and is equivalent to a resistance in parallel to the coil inductive reactance. This load results in a resistive and inductive impedance change in the test coil. Coil impedance can be displayed on normalized impedance diagrams. These are two-dimensional plots with the inductive reactance displayed on the vertical axis and resistance on the horizontal axis as in Figure 3.6. wl oly \ for NORMALIZED OPERATING POINT INDUCT ANCE REACTANCE NORMALIZED RESISTANCE, a whe Fig. 3 Impedance Graph Display-31- With this display we can analyze the effect of sample and test parameters on coil impedance. The equivalent circuit derivation of coil impedance is useful for a qualitative understanding of the effect of various test parameters. It is valid only for non-ferromagnetic material and for the condition of no skin depth attenuation or phase lag across the sample. (Ferromagnetic materials will be covered in Section 9.4). Note that all test parameters result in a semicircle display as they increase or decrease. A resistance increase to the eddy current flow or increase of sample's electrical resistivity moves the operating point UP the impedance diagram, i-e., increase in coil inductance and a change in coil resistance. An increase in a sample's electrical conductivity, thickness or tube diameter, moves the operating point DOWN the impedance curve. An increase in test frequency or probe diameter also moves the operating point DOWN the impedance curve. Although not shown in the above figure, a decrease in £1ll-factor or increase in lift-off results in a decrease in semicircle radius and a smaller change in coil impedance. In some test requirements it is advantageous to operate at specific locations on the impedance diagram. By choosing the appropriate test parameters this is usually possible. WORKED EXAMPLES Probe Impedance in Air PROBLEM: An eddy current test is carried out at a test frequency of 50 kHz. Coil resistance is 15 ohms while its inductance is 60 microhenries. a) What is the inductive reactance of the test coil? b) What is the impedance of the test coil? c) What is the angle, 0, between the total impedance vector and the resistance vector? SOLUTION: a) Xp = 2 TEL = (27) (50 x 103) (60 x 107 Xz = 18.8 ohms r?+ (2 TEL)? = Vis? + (18.8)? 24.1 ohms b) c) 9 = Aretan 2th . Arctan 1.253 51.4 degrees=32- 3.7.2 Probe Impedance Adjacent to Sample PROBLE SOLUTION: An eddy current test is carried out on brass using a surface probe at 50 kHz. Coil resistance in air is 15 ohms and its inductance in air is 60 microhenries. Probe impedance with the probe on the brass sample is measured as Z, = 24.5 ohms and 6 = 35 degrees. Calculate: a) Xp, inductive reactance and b) RE, resistive load a) X= Z, sind ep “Pp 24.5 sin 35° = 14.1 ohms b) RL = 2, cos - Rye = 24.5 cos 35° - 15.0 = 5.1 ohms 3.7.3 Voltage - Current Relationship PROBLEM: SOLUTION: therefore, For the above probe impedance problem calculate voltage drop across the probe if test current is 100 milliamperes. Probe impedance [Z| = 24.5 ohms Ohm's Law states that = v= 1 |2| V = (0.10) (24.5) = 2.45 volts. Voltage across the probe is 2.45 volts.=33- CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTATION INTRODUCTION All the information about a test pert is transmitted to the test coil through the magnetic field surrounding it. The impedance eddy current method monitors voltage drop across the primary coil, V, = IpZp} as coil impedance changes 80 will the voltage across the coil if current remains rea- sonably constant. The send-receive eddy current method moni- tors voltage developed across a sensing coil (or Hall effect detector) placed close to the excitation coil, see Figure 2.2. In most inspections, probe impedance (or voltage) changes only slightly as the probe passes « defect, typically less than 1%. This small change is difficult to detect by measur- ing absolute impedance or voltage. Special instruments have been developed incorporating various methods of detecting and amplifying small impedance changes. The main functions of an eddy current instrument are illus~ trated in the block diagram of Figure 4.1. A sine wave foto FASE [Link] METER sensitive | > ac TO pe AMPLIFIER CONVERTOR PHASE (rus x ROTATION FiLtering)—>—] 12, 27) y a BALANCE XY MONITOR LU OSCILLATOR ‘TRANSFORMER Block Diagram of Eddy Current Instrument=34- oscillator generates sinusoidal current, at a specified fre- quency, that passes through the test coils. Since the impe- dance of two coils is never exactly equal, balancing is required to eliminate the voltage difference between them. Most eddy current instruments achieve this through an AC bridge or by subtracting a voltage equal to the unbalance voltage. In general they can tolerate an impedance mismatch of 5%. Once balanced, the presence of a defect in the vici- nity of one coil creates a small unbalance signal which is then amplified. Since the sinusoidal unbalance voltage signal is too diffi- cult and inefficient to analyze, it is converted to a direct current (DC) signal retaining the amplitude and phase charac- teristics of the AC signal. This is normally achieved by resolving the AC signal into quadrature components and then rectifying them while retaining the approximate polarity. In general purpose instruments, these signals are normally dis~ played on X-Y monitors. Simpler instruments, such as crack detectors, however, have a meter to display only the change in voltage amplitude. To decrease electrical instrument noise, filtering is used at the signal output; however, this decreases the frequency response and thereby restricts the inspection speed. The most troublesome parameter in eddy current testing is lift-off (probe-to-specimen spacing). A small change in lift-off creates a large output signal. The various methods used to decrease this effect are discussed in the individual sections on specific eddy current instruments. BRIDGE CIRCUITS Most eddy current instruments use an AC bridge to sense the slight impedance changes between the coils or between a single coil and reference impedance. In this section the important characteristics of bridge balance are discussed. Simple Bridge Circuit A common bridge circuit is shown in general form in Figure 4.2, the arms being indicated as impedance of unspecified sorts. The detector is represented by a voltmeter. Balance is secured by adjustments of one or more of the bridge arms. Balance is indicated by zero response of the detector, which means that points A and C are at the sane potential (have the same instantaneous voltage). Current will flow through the detector (voltmeter) if points A and C on the bridge arms are at different voltage levels (there is a difference in voltage drop from B to A and B to C). Current nay flow in either direction, depending on whether A or C is at higher potential.=35- Fi Common Bridge Circuit If the bridge is made up of four impedance arms, having inductive reactance and resistive components, the voltage from B to A must equal the voltage from B to C in both amplitude and phase for the bridge to be balanced. At balance, 42 = 1222 and 1423 = 1224 from which the following relationship is obtained: 2, «2 (4.1) sy 2 74 Equation 4.1 states that the ratio of impedances of one pair of adjacent arms must equal the ratio of impedances of the other pair of adjacent arms for bridge balance. If the bridge was made up of four resistance arms, bridge balance would occur if the magnitude of the resistors satisfies equation 4.1 (with Z1 replaced with Rj, etc). However, if the impedance components are eddy current probes consisting of both inductive reactance and resistance, the magnitude and phase of the impedance vectors must satisfy equation 4.1.- -36- In practice, this implies the ratio of inductive reactance of one pair of adjacent arms must equal the ratio of inductive reactance of the other pair of adjacent arms; the same being true for the resistive component of impedance. Figure 4.2 and equation 4.1 can be used to illustrate the characteristic 'figure 8’ signal of a differential probe. If Z > zB, point c ts at a higher potential than point a. This implies that when Z, increases (i.e., coil moving across a defect) with Zz, 23 & Z, constant, the bridge voltage unbalance increases,and the opposite happens when 23 increases. It is this bridge unbalance characteristic that results in @ plus-minus or ‘figure 8' signal as the differential probe moves across a localized defect. This signal occurs independent of whether the two coils are wound in opposition or in addition. Typical Bridge Circuit in Eddy Current Instruments Figure 4.3 illustrates a typical AC bridge used in eddy current instruments. It is similar to the bridge in Figure 4.2 except for two additional arms. In this bridge the probe coils are placed in parallel with variable resistors. The balancing, or matching of voltage vector phase and amplitude, is achieved by varying these resistors until a null is achieved. Potentiometer R2 balances the reactive component of the coils to make the phase angle of each coil circuit equal. Potentiometer Ry balances the resultant voltage with an equal voltage amplitude to null the instantaneous voltage between Rj and R2- TEST COIL REFERENCE Corl. Fig. 4.3: Typical Bridge Circuit Used in Eddy Current Instruments-37- The inductive voltage drop across each coil is equalized by controlling the current passing through the coils. This is done by varying potentiometer Ry. However, when the test coil inductance differs significantly from reference coil inductance, potentiometer Ry will have to be rotated to one extremity. This means less current passes through one coil making it less sensitive than the other coil. When this occurs, a distorted (unsymmetrical) signal results if a differential probe is used. In addition, the common cable lead carries the unbalanced current, resulting in cable noise, especially if the cable is not properly shielded and grounded. In the Figure 4.3 circuit, the output voltage for large (210%) off-null (off-balance) conditions is a nonlinear func- tion of the change in coil impedance. However, for defect detection, close to balance, this discrepancy is small. Bridge Circuit in Crack Detectors Portable eddy current instruments are often used to inspect for surface defects. A typical crack detector circuit is shown in Figure 4.4. An oscillator supplies an alternating current to an AC Bridge, containing a single eddy current probe coil as one arm of the bridge. A capacitor is connec- ted in parallel with the coil so the L-C (inductance- capacitance) circuit is near resonance. When the coil is placed on a test sample, the bridge is unbalanced and the pointer on the meter swings off-scale. The bridge can be balanced by adjusting potentiometer Ry- VARIABLE RESISTOR Vo(7Ny ‘OscILLaToR FL Simplified Circuit of Crack Detector