Simple Present (S+V1) Simple Past (S+V2) Simple Future (S+ will/shall+V1)

I/You/We/They play cricket I played cricket yesterday He will play cricket tomorrow
I/You/We/They don’t play cricket He/she played cricket yesterday She will not play cricket
He/she plays cricket They did not play cricket
He/she doesn’t play cricket Will he play cricket tomorrow?
Did he/she play cricket yesterday? What will he play tomorrow?
What did he play yesterday
Do I/You/We/They play cricket
What do I/You/We/They play?
Where do I/you/we/they play cricket?

Prsnt Continous (S+ am/is/are+V1+ing) Past Cont (S+ was/were +V1+ing) Future Cont (S+ will/shall +be + V1+ing)
I am playing cricket now I was playing cricket this morning I will be playing cricket tomorrow morning
He/she is playing cricket now He/she was playing cricket yesterday Will he be playing cricket tomorrow?
They/we/you are playing cricket They/we/you were playing cricket What will he be playing tomorrow?
He is not playing cricket I wasn’t watching TV
Am I watching TV now?``
Are they watching TV?
What are they watching?

Present Perfect (S+ have/has+V3) Past Perfect (S+had+V3) Future perfect (S+ will/shall + have+V3)
I have completed the work just now I had completed the work before I went to sleep We will have finished the project by next week
I haven’t completed the work yet I hadn’t completed the work
Have you completed the work? Will you have finished the work by next week
Prsnt perfect cont (s+have/has+been+V1+ing) Past perfect cont (s+had+been+V1+ing) Future perf cont
(s+will/shall+have+been+V1+ing)
 I had been sleeping for 2 hours until you called me We shall have been travelling for 12 days by next
I have been writing a letter since this morning thursday
I have been writing a letter for 3 hours
 Conditional Sentences
Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that
the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if)
is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

Type 1

→ It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Present, will + V1

Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

Type 2

→ It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Past, would + V1

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.

Type 3

→ It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.

Form: if + Past Perfect, would + have + Past participle

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
 Clauses and Types
Clause defined

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. A clause can be usefully
distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb
relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this
harassment."

Clause types

Clauses can be categorized clauses into independent and dependent clauses. This simply means that
some clauses can stand by themselves, as separate sentences, and some can't. Another term for
dependent clause is subordinate clause: this means that the clause is subordinate to another element
(the independent clause) and depends on that other element for its meaning. The subordinate clause is
created by a subordinating conjunction or dependent word.

An independent clause, "She is older than her brother" (which could be its own sentence), can be
turned into a dependent or subordinate clause when the same group of words begins with a dependent
word (or a subordinating conjunction in this case): "Because she is older than her brother, she tells him
what to do."

Independent Clauses

Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete sentences, except that when they do stand
by themselves, separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply as sentences, not
clauses.

Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine independent clauses into larger units of
thought. In the following sentence, for example,

Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.

Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination, subordination, and by means of a
semicolon. Coordination involves joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating
conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and sometimes* so. Clauses thus connected are usually nicely
balanced in length.

Reena thought about joining the church choir, but she never talked to her friends about it.

Dependent Clauses

Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make good sense. They must be combined with an
independent clause so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by itself. Unlike independent
clauses, which simply are what they are, dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within
a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier. There are
three basic kinds of dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence.
Remember that a dependent clause always contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.

Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: where,
when, or why.

When the movie is over, we'll go home.

John wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the subject.

Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives.

My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me.

The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace.

Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do.

What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine.

Do you know what he knows [object]?

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who,
whoever, whom, whose). Relative clauses can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. In a relative clause,
the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses contain a subject-verb
relationship) and refers to something preceding the clause.

Jerry’s wife who lives in Delhi was here last night (restrictive or defining)

Jerry’s wife, who lives in Delhi, was here last night (non-restrictive or non-defining)
 Language Usage
Sentence & Types
A group of word that expresses a complete idea or thought is called a sentence.
E.g. He bought a book.
A sentence begins with capital letter and ends with a period, question mark or exclamation mark.

There are four kinds of sentences.

1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence

A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or declarative sentence.

Assertive sentence ends with a period.

E.g. He goes to school

He likes to play chess.
They are singing a song.

2. Interrogative Sentence

A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. Interrogative sentence ends with
question mark.

E.g. Where are you going?

Do you use your laptop?

3. Imperative Sentence

A sentence that expresses a request, command or advice is called an imperative sentence.

E.g. Open the door. (an order)

Please help me. (a request)

4. Exclamatory Sentence

A sentence that expresses strong feelings or emotions is called an exclamatory sentence. These
sentences express surprise, joy, sorrow, appreciation, love excitement, frustration, anger etc. An
exclamatory sentence ends with exclamation mark.

Examples
What a beautiful flower it is!
How nicely she is singing!
That is fantastic!
Hurrah! We won the match!
 Sentence Structure

Simple Sentence
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
What’s an “independent clause”? It’s one subject followed by one verb or verb phrase. It expresses a
single idea.
Examples of simple sentences:
▪ I‘m happy.
▪ Shyam doesn’t eat meat.
▪ My brother and I went to the mall last night.
▪ This new laptop computer has already crashed twice.
Notice that a “simple sentence” isn’t necessarily short. The subject can be a single word like “I” or
“Shyam,” or it can be a double subject like “my brother and I,” or it can be multiple words describing a
single person/object, like “This new laptop computer.”

Compound Sentence
A compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so, yet,
however).
Each independent clause could be a sentence by itself, but we connect them with a linking word:
▪ I‘m happy, but my kids are always complaining.
▪ Shyam doesn’t eat meat, so Geetha made a special vegetarian dish for him.
▪ My brother and I went to the mall last night, but we didn’t buy anything.
▪ This new laptop computer has already crashed twice, and I have no idea why.
Note that each sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verb phrases.

Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
A dependent clause cannot be a complete sentence by itself.

▪ I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money.

▪ Shyam, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat.
▪ My brother and I went to the mall last night, while my sister stayed home and studied.
▪ This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice.
 Verbs
Verbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words talk about the action or the
state of any noun or subject. This means that verbs show what the subject is doing or what is the state
or situation of the subject.

For example:

- He ran to the store. - Here the verb ran describes the action of the subject ‘he’

- She is a creative person. - Here there is no action being done. Instead the auxiliary verb ‘is’ shows the
state of the subject ‘she’ as being ‘creative’.

Action Verbs

These verbs talk about what the subject is doing in the sentence. Action Verbs are one of the most easily
identifiable types of verbs. To recognize them, you simply have to look for the word in the sentence that
answers the question ‘What is the subject doing?’ e.g. -

- Renu is painting the kitchen walls.

The subject here is Renu, and what is Renu doing? Renu is painting. Hence painting is our action verb.

- My dog is sleeping on the sofa.

The subject here is dog, and what is the dog doing? The dog is sleeping. So sleeping is our action verb.

There are two types of Action Verbs which describe the Verb and the Subject doing the action and the
Object on which the action is done, they are -

Transitive Verbs

These Action Verbs have a definite object on which, or for which the action is being performed. That
means that the action has a definite recipient or object. To identify them you can ask the question what
is the/did the subject -verb-?

- Renu is painting the kitchen walls.

Here the verb is painting and the subject is Renu.

If we form the question - what is Renu painting?

The answer is- The kitchen walls.

Thus, we see that there was a specific object on which the action of painting was being done.

- Shilpa gave him a big hug.

Here we see that the action ‘gave’ is being performed by the subject Shilpa. So the question is what did
Shilpa give? And the answer is - A big hug.

Here, we also have a indirect object as ‘him’. This indirect object would be the answer to the question-

Who did the subject (Shilpa) - verb - (give) the object (hug) to?

Intransitive Verbs

These verbs also show an action but here there is no specific object on which the action is being done.
To recognize these verbs, we ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb- ? If there is no answer
present, then the verb in the sentence is an Intransitive Verb.

- Renu is painting right now.

Here, if we ask the question what is Renu painting? There is no answer which means that in this
sentence painting is an Intransitive Verb.

It is telling us about the action of the subject but there is no specific object for the action.

- Ram sneezed repeatedly.

Here, the verb is sneezed. If we ask the question what did Ram sneeze? There is no answer present for
it making sneezed an intransitive verb.

Auxiliary Verbs

These verbs are also called Helping Verbs, as they ‘help’ the main verb to denote the actions of the
subject. They help in making compound tenses of the main verb and also help in making negative
statements, questions and passive voice statements. There are primarily 3 auxiliary verbs - Be, Have, and
Do.

Be – is, am, are, was, were, be, been, and being

Do – do, does, and did

Have – has, have, had

Modal Verbs

A modal is a type of auxiliary (helping) verb that is used to express: ability, possibility, permission or
obligation. Modal phrases (or semi-modals) are used to express the same things as modals, but are a
combination of auxiliary verbs and the preposition to. The modals and semi-modals in English are:

• Can/could/be able to
• May/might
• Shall/should
• Must/have to
 Gerunds & Infinitives
What are Gerunds?

A gerund is a verb in its ‘ing’ (present participle) form that functions as a noun that names an activity
rather than a person or thing. Any action verb can be made into a gerund.

Gerunds can appear at the beginning of a sentence when used as a subject:

1. Jogging is a hobby of mine.

Gerunds can act as an object following the verb:

1. Shyam quit smoking a year ago.

Gerunds can serve as an object after a preposition:

1. I look forward to helping you paint the house.

Some verbs and verb phrases are directly followed a gerund:

1. Paul avoids using chemicals on the vegetables he grows.

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive without causing a change in meaning:

1. Some people prefer getting up early in the morning.

2. Some people prefer to get up early in the morning

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or infinitive but with a change in meaning:

1. He remembered sending the fax. (He remembered the act of send the fax)

2. He remembered to send the fax. (He remembered the fax and sent it.)

What are Infinitives?

An infinitive is a verb form that acts as other parts of speech in a sentence. It is formed with to + base
form of the verb. Ex: to buy, to work.

Infinitive Examples

Infinitives can be used as:

an object following the verb:

1. Dhruv always forgets to eat

a subject at the beginning of a sentence:

1. To travel around the world requires a lot of time and money.

an adverb modifying a verb:

1. You promised to buy me a diamond ring.

an adjective modifying a noun:

1. Tara has the ability to succeed.

Some verbs are directly followed by an infinitive:

1. Do you want to call your family now?

Some verbs are directly followed by a noun or pronoun and then by an infinitive:

1. I convinced him to become vegetarian.

2. He advised me to sell all my shares of stock.

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund without causing a change in meaning:

1. Will you continue working after you give birth?

2. Will you continue to work after you give birth?

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund but with a change in meaning:

1. He stopped drinking coffee. (He never drank coffee again.)

2. He stopped to drink coffee. (He stopped what he was doing and drank some coffee.)
 Adverbs
An adverb is a word that is used to change or qualify the meaning of an adjective, a verb, a clause,
another adverb, or any other type of word or phrase with the exception of determiners and adjectives
that directly modify nouns.

Traditionally considered to be a single part of speech, adverbs perform a wide variety of functions,
which makes it difficult to treat them as a single, unified category. Adverbs normally carry out these
functions by answering questions such as:

When? - She always arrives early.

How? - He drives carefully.

Where? - They go everywhere together.

In what way? - She eats slowly.

To what extent? - It is terribly hot.

This is called adverbial function and may be accomplished by adverbial clauses and adverbial phrases as
well as by adverbs that stand alone.

There are many rules for using adverbs, and these rules often depend upon which type of adverb you
are using. Remember these basics, and using adverbs to make sentences more meaningful will be easier
for you.

Adverbs mostly modify verbs. Notice that the second of these two sentences is much more interesting
simply because it contains an adverb:

The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running, but you don’t really know much more about the scene.)

The dog ran excitedly. (You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail, panting happily, and looking glad
to see its owner. You can paint a much more interesting picture in your head when you know how or
why the dog is running.)

Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters “-ly” to adjectives. This makes is very easy to identify
adverbs in sentences. There are many exceptions to this rule; everywhere, nowhere, and upstairs are a
few examples.

An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning it conveys. For example:

He plays tennis well. (He knows how to play tennis and sometimes he wins.)

He plays tennis extremely well. (He knows how to play tennis so well that he wins often.)
As you read the following adverb examples, you’ll notice how these useful words modify other words
and phrases by providing information about the place, time, manner, certainty, frequency, or other
circumstances of activity denoted by the verbs or verb phrases in the sentences.

Examples of Adverbs

As you read each of the following adverb examples, note that the adverbs have been italicized for easy
identification. Consider how replacing the existing adverbs with different ones would change the
meaning of each sentence.

She was walking rapidly.

The kids love playing together in the sandbox.

Please come inside now.

His jokes are always very funny.

You don’t really care, do you?

Adverbs of place

• Everywhere
• Here
• Inside
• There
• Underground
• Upstairs

Adverbs of time & frequency

• After
• Always
• Before
• Later
• Now
• Today
• Yesterday

Many adverbs tell us the extent of the action.

• Almost
• Enough
• So
• Too
 • Quite
• Rather
• Very

Some adverbs are used as intensifiers.

• Absolutely
• Certain
• Completely
• Heartily
• Really

Certain adverbs called adverbs of manner tell us about the way in which something was done.

• Briskly
• Cheerfully
• Expectantly
• Randomly
• Willingly
 Tenses
1. Talking about the Present

Simple present

1. The present simple is used for established facts and things in general.

"Mysore is the cultural capital of Karnataka."

"India exports rubber."

2. It is also used for habitual activities or routines.

"Mr. Ram gets up at five and starts work at seven."

“We go to the movies every weekend”

3. It is used to express universal truths, maxims and proverbs

“The earth revolves around the sun”

“Rolling stone gathers no mass”

4. It is used to express personal opinions

“Suma is an honest girl”

5. It is used for schedules drawn up by others.

"The ship sails at dawn."

"The next train leaves at half-past six."

6. The present simple is also preferred in newspaper headlines for succinctness.

"Iraq Invades Kuwait"

"Fake Cardiologist Breaks Woman's Heart"

Present continuous

1. The present continuous is used for temporary actions or events going on at or around the time
of speaking.

"The electrician is mending a fuse."

"It's raining."
 2. It is used for self-made schedules, generally for the not too distant future.

"They are going to Bangalore after lunch."

"Raj and Siri are getting married in June."

Present perfect

1. The present perfect is used with already, just and yet to indicate recentness of a past activity

"The guests have already arrived."

“The Chairman has just left the office.”

“We have not finished our work yet.”

2. The present perfect is used to emphasize the results in the present of a recently completed past
activity.

"Someone has eaten my food” (which explains why the plate is empty and I'll have to go hungry)

"I've lost my passport” (hence I can't leave the country)

3. It is used with ever to question a person's entire life experience of something in particular.

"Have you ever seen a straight banana?"

"Has Pushpa ever been on time to office?"

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

1. Used to emphasize activities that were in progress right up to or shortly before the time of
speaking and so have a direct influence on the current situation.

"She has been using the computer all day” (so her eyes are strained now)

"Someone has been stealing my money (some of the money is missing)

2. Used with for or since to say how long an ongoing or continuing activity has been in progress.

"Milan has been driving for three hours."

"I have been saving for my sports bike since last summer."
 2. Talking about the Past

Simple past

1. The past simple is used for activities or events completed at a specific time in the past (which is
either understood or indicated by a time expression).

"The Indian cricket team won by 2 wickets."

"I went to London last summer."

Past Continuous Tense

1. It is used for temporary actions or events that were going on at or around a particular time in
the past.

"While I was waiting for the train I ate my lunch”.

2. It is also used for two activities of similar duration that were going on in parallel.

"I was washing the car while my wife was cleaning the house."

Past perfect

1. This tense is used to talk about the pre-past, i.e. activities or events completed before another
past event

"When we reached the station, the train had already left.”

"Jyothi had studied English for 3 years before she moved to England."

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

1. The past perfect continuous is used to report on an activity of interest or direct relevance that
was still in progress up until or immediately prior to a subsequent event in the past.

"I had been sleeping for 3 hours until you called me."
 3. Talking about the Future

Simple future

1. WILL: used to express pure futurity

(I.e. without any element of willpower).

"They will arrive tomorrow morning."

2. WILL: used for plain, informal requests, as well as orders given to subordinates.

"Darling, will you post this letter for me?"

"Sally, will you help me arrange these things, please?"

3. SHALL: It is used instead of WILL in the first person singular and plural in more formal style to
express futurity, especially in cases where the element of willpower is involved.

"I shall (will) be late this evening."

"We shall not (will not) go that nightclub anymore; their prices are exorbitant."

"I shall succeed!"

4. SHALL: used when seeking others' approval of offers or suggestions.

"Shall I buy you a watch for your birthday?"

"Shall we all go out to dinner?"

Future continuous

1. Used for actions or events forecast to be in progress at or around a particular time in the future.

"The kids will be sleeping when I reach home."

“Tomorrow at this time, we shall be travelling.”

Future Perfect Tense

1. Used for activities or events forecast to be completed by a particular time in the future.

"We will have finished our exams by Thursday”

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

1. Used for activities forecast still to be in progress at some time in the future.

"By the end of 2020, we will have been flying in planes for 110 years."
 Concord - The Agreement of Noun with Verb

1. The verb must agree with the subject (noun) in number and person

Ex: 1. I am in the room. 2. Padma is beautiful. 3. My sisters are not married.

2. The verb should agree with the real noun (subject)

Ex: The knowledge of Social Science is essential for a Psychologist.

The basics of English Grammar are essential for good Speaker.

3. Two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ require a plural verb

Ex: My father and my brother are worried about our sister’s marriage

Keats and Shelley are romantic poets.

My sister and her friends are watching TV.

4. Two singular nouns suggesting one idea or person must be used with a singular verb.

Ex: My friend and Teacher has praised my book.

The author and reporter is my best friend.

5. Nouns joined by ‘with’ or ‘as well as’ must be used with a singular verb.

Ex: Mr. Rao with his wife Lakshmi is going to Delhi.

Padma as well as her Sister Vijaya is Beautiful.

My brother as well as my father is good at English.

She as well as her mother is in Chennai.

6. Two or more nouns connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ require singular verb.

Ex. Either Sita or Padma is Clever.

Neither my Father nor mother is educated.

Note: A plural verb is required, if one of the subjects is plural .

Ex. Either the Principal or the Teachers are good at Teaching.

Neither Indians nor Americans are taking part in the game.

7. Nouns joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ differing in person, the verb must agree with the nearest noun.

Ex: Either she or I am very serious about it.

Neither he nor his parents are thinking about the matter.

8. ‘Either/neither/each/ everyone/one’+ ‘of’ + Plural noun and the phrase ‘many a’ must be used with
a singular verb.

Ex: Either of the two books is interesting.

Neither of the two sisters is willing to marry him.

Each of the students is given the text book.

Every one of my sisters is married.

One of my friends has returned from Canada.

Many a leader has paid homage to Gandhi.

9. Two nouns qualified ‘each’ or ‘every’ and connected by ‘and’ must be used with a singular verb.

Ex: Each actor and actress is very popular.

Every man and every woman was killed by Terrorists.

Each poem and story was published.

10. The words ‘pains’ and ‘means’ may be used as singular or plural.

Ex: A great deal of Pains has been taken

Car is a means of Transport

Note: But in the sense of income, the nouns ‘means’ is plural.

Ex: His means are plenty.

11. None may be used as singular or plural.

Ex: None of them has agreed with me.

None of the poets have attended the function.

12. A collective noun treated as a single unit is used as singular but a collective noun treated as
separate individuals is used as plural.

Ex: The committee has agreed to the proposal.

 The army has continued fighting bravely.

13. When a proper noun is a plural name, the verb must be singular.

Ex: The ‘Glimpses of the World History’ is written by Jawaharlal Nehru.

The ‘Adventures of Tom Sawyer’ is written by Mark Twain.

The United States of America is a rich Country.

The Arabian Nights is a famous book.

14. Plural nouns denoting quantity / amount / distance / time must be used with a singular verb.

Ex. Ten years is a long period.

Five hundred Rupees is a large amount.

Fifty kilograms of rice is sufficient for us.

 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

General information about the passive

• In the active voice, the subject of the verb is the person or thing that does the action.

1) The government declared the results

2) Vijay constructed this house in 1950.

• In the passive, the subject (or in other words the object in the active) has the focus. The
action is ‘done’ to the subject in the passive.

3) The results were declared by the government

4) This house was constructed in 1950.

• We can only passivise transitive verbs. Intransitive and linking verbs cannot be
passivised.

5) a. He is typing a letter. (type is a transitive verb)

b. A letter is being typed by him.
6) It is raining outside. (rain is an intransitive verb, so it cannot be passivised)
7) My sister is a doctor. (be is a linking verb; and therefore cannot be passivised)

• We form the passive by adding be + past participle.

8) Kannada is spoken all over Karnataka by the people

9) This picture has been drawn by my uncle.

• If the subject in the active voice is important as an agent, it is mentioned as by + agent

in the passive voice.

10) The function was inaugurated by the Chief Minister.

• We may have an ‘unknown’, ‘vague’ or ‘unimportant’ subject in the active voice. In such
a case, we may not repeat the subject of the active in the passive voice.
 11) a. Someone constructed this building in 2005 (the agent is unknown).
12) b. This building was constructed in 2005.

Passive of the simple present, simple past and simple future.

Active Passive
simple present help(s) is/are/am helped
simple past helped was/were helped
will + the main form of the verb will + help will be helped

Examples :
➢ He reads comics
Comics are read by him
➢ He read a comic yesterday
A comic was read by him yesterday
➢ He will read a comic
A comic will be read by him

Passive of the present continuous and the past continuous

We form the passive form of the continuous forms as follows:
• the present continuous: be (is/am/are)+ being + the past participle
• the past continuous: be (was/were) + being + the past participle

Examples :
➢ They are constructing a new Mall in Malleshwaram
A new Mall is being constructed in Malleshwaram
➢ Someone was watching the television yesterday night
The television was being watched yesterday night.
Fill in the blanks with the passive forms of the verbs in the respective continuous tense.

Present continuous

1) The car ___________ (park) in the garage.

2) All trains ___________ (withdraw) due to heavy rains.

Past continuous
1) The food ___________ (cook) when the bell rang.
2) The grass ___________ (cut) when the Manager came.

Passive of the present perfect and past perfect

We form the passive of the present perfect and past perfect as follows:

• the present perfect: have/has + been + the past participle

• the past perfect: had + been + the past participle

Examples :
➢ He has written a letter.
A letter has been written by him.

➢ She had called me before I reached her house.

I had been called by her before I reached her house.

4 Reasons to use the passive

1. Subject is unknown/obvious/not important

a. The car was stolen
b. The flowers were delivered on time
c. The roads were repaired quickly

2. To shift the focus of the object/avoid responsibility

The glass was broken (avoiding who broke)
 3. Sentence variety
He did A. Then he did B. After that he did C.
He did A. C wasn’t done until he did B.

4. Coherence/flow

Coca-cola was invented by a pharmacist named John Pemberton. His original recipe
contained cocaine, which is why the drink was named coca-cola. Today, Coca-cola is the
global brand that is consumed by millions of people.

Examples of passive usage

Passive voice is used both in speech and writing, however it is used more in formal writing
Passive voice is in the following situations

• To write formal notices and announcements

e.g. Electrical appliances must be turned off after use

• To write headlines and advertisements

e.g. “Two injured in road accident”

• Scientific reports and experiment

e.g. A small amount of magnesium is added to the acid

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Identify the difference between the following sentences in terms of meaning and structure

1. Manihar said, ‘I am working hard for the examination.’

2. Manihar said that he was working hard for the examination.

Reporting Assertive sentences

Principle – 1:

If the Reporting Verb is a Past Tense, the tense of the Verb in the Reported Speech must be changed to
the Past Tense. The Present Tense (in the Reported Speech) must be changed to the corresponding Past
form, In other words, we should change:
shall into should; come into came

will into would; is coming into was coming

may into might; has come into had come

can into could; has been coming into had been coming

2. The Simple Past Tense (in the Reported Speech) is changed to the Past Perfect as,

Direct : John said, ‘I drank water after the meals’.

Indirect : John said that he had drunk water after the meals (Past)

3. The Past continuous Tense (in the Reported Speech) must be changed to the Past Perfect
Continuous; as,

Direct : He said, ‘Annie was dancing’.

Indirect : He said that Annie had been dancing.

NOTE: If the Reported Speech relates to some universal or habitual fact, the Tense in the Reported
Speech either remains unchanged.

Direct : He said, ‘Man is mortal.’

Indirect : He said that man is mortal.

Principle – 2:

If the Reporting Verb is a Present tense the tense of the Verb in the Reported Speech is not changed at
all.

Direct : The servant says, ‘Tea is ready’.

Indirect : The servant says that tea is ready.

Principle – 3:

Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives of the First and Second Persons in Direct Speech, are changed into
the Third Person in Indirect Speech.

Direct : Chetan said, ‘I am ill’.

Indirect : Chetan said that he was ill.

Direct : He said, ‘My pen is lost’.

Indirect : He said
Principle – 4:

In the Reported Speech, the words expressing nearness are changed into words expressing distance.
Thus

Now becomes then; Come becomes Go

This becomes that; Today becomes that day

These becomes those; Tomorrow becomes the next day

Hither becomes thither; Yesterday becomes the previous day

Here becomes there; Last night becomes the previous night

Direct : The teacher said, ‘I am busy now’.

Indirect : The teacher said that he was busy then.

Reporting Questions

In reporting a Question in the Indirect Speech :

1. The Introductory Verb is changed to asked, inquired and demanded etc...in the case of Wh-questions

2. “Whether or if” is used after such Introductory Verb whenever the direct question admits of one of
two answers in the case of Yes or No questions.

Direct : He said to me, ‘do you know the way?’

Indirect : He asked me if I knew the way.

Direct : Amubi said to me, ‘When will you return?’

Indirect : Amubi asked me when I would return

Reporting Imperative sentences

In reporting a Command or Request in the Indirect Speech:

1. The Introductory Verb is changed into request, beg, order, command, advise, threaten etc.

2. The Verb in the Reported Speech is put in the Infinitive.

Direct : He said to me, ‘Give me your pencil’.

Indirect : He asked me to give him my pencil.

Direct : I said to the teacher, ‘Please explain this question to me’.

Indirect : I

Reporting Exclamations and Wishes

In reporting a Wish or an Exclamation in the Indirect Speech:

1. The Introductory Verb is changed into wish, bless, pray, cry, exclaim, declare, etc.

2. The Interjections and Exclamations such as oh, well, hurrah, alas, bravo, curse it, are omitted and
their sense is expressed by means of phrases.

Direct : ‘What a terrible storm it is!’ he said.

Indirect : He exclaimed that it was a terrible storm.

Direct : She said, ‘Alas! how foolish I have been!’

Indirect : She confessed with regret that she had been very foolish.
Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For example, He
is laughing at the joker.

A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a
phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and constructions,
phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase,
appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase.

Noun Phrase

A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners) which
modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence.

A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners)
which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence.
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)

Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object)
The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)

A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.

For example. The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.

Prepositional phrase.

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and may

also consist of other modifiers.
e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever
prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an
adjective or adverb in a sentence.

Examples.
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
 She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)

Adjective Phrase.

An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of
adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.
An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a
sentence.

Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)
The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass)
A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy)

Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them
adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence “The girlwith brown hair is
singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective.

Adverb Phrase

An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or
other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with works like an adverb in a
sentence.
An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Examples
He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care. (modifies verb drive)
He sat in a corner of the room. (modifies verb sit)
He returned in a short while. (modifies verb return)

A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence “He always
behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositional phrase but it acts as
adverb phrase here.

Verb Phrase
 A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.

Examples.
He is eating an apple.
She has finished her work.
You should study for the exam.
She has been sleeping for two hours.

According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its
complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence.
Example. You should study for the exam.

Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words
associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a
sentence.

Examples.
He likes to read books. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan)

Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the
gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence.

Examples
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Weeping of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)

Participle Phrase

A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in -
ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is
separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.

Examples
The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car)
 Sentence Structure
Simple Sentence
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
What’s an “independent clause”? It’s one subject followed by one verb or verb phrase. It expresses a
single idea.
Examples of simple sentences:
▪ I‘m happy.
▪ Shyam doesn’t eat meat.
▪ My brother and I went to the mall last night.
▪ This new gaming computer has already crashed twice.
▪ With the advent of new technologies, it is much easy now than ever before to examine the
functioning of useful bacteria
Notice that a “simple sentence” isn’t necessarily short. The subject can be a single word like “I” or
“Shyam,” or it can be a double subject like “my brother and I,” or it can be multiple words describing a
single person/object, like “This new gaming computer.”

Compound Sentence
A compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so, yet,
however).
Each independent clause could be a sentence by itself, but we connect them with a linking word:
▪ I‘m happy, but my kids are always complaining.
▪ Shyam doesn’t eat meat, so Geetha made a special vegetarian dish for him.
▪ My brother and I went to the mall last night, but we didn’t buy anything.
▪ This new gaming computer has already crashed twice, and I have no idea why.
Note that each sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verb phrases.

Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
A dependent clause cannot be a complete sentence by itself.

▪ I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money.

▪ Shyam, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat.
▪ My brother and I went to the mall last night, while my sister stayed home and studied.
▪ This new gaming computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice.

Identify the type of following sentences

1. We have to go to bed when the clock strikes ten o’clock.

2. Rama liked Mohan’s friend, and she also liked his cousin.

3. The big brown dog ran after the blue and red ball.

4. Shyam and Naren rode their bicycles after they ate lunch.

5. The teacher and the principal met in the hall near the library.

6. Many brave soldiers fought in the war, and they received medals.

7. The drummers played a long time, but the piano players stopped early.

8. Before the event began, the contestants had arrived.

9. After midnight the ghosts will come out of that haunted house.

10. She left her husband but not his memories

TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES

1) Conversion of Simple Sentences to compound Sentences:

Simple sentences may be changed into Compound Sentences by taking a word or a

phrase, and expanding it into a Co-ordinate Clause.

1. Using the Conjunctions and, both...and, not only...but also; as,

Simple : Seeing a bear coming, he lay on the ground

Compound :
Simple : She received praise and rewards
Compound :
Simple : Besides being industrious he is intelligent.
 Compound :

2. Using the Conjunctions but, yet, nevertheless; as,

Simple : In spite of his riches, he is unhappy.

Compound :
Simple : Notwithstanding his sorrow, he is hopeful.
Compound :
Simple : In the face of many obstacles he persevered.
Compound :

3. Using the Conjunctions or, either...or, otherwise; as,

Simple : You must confess your fault to escape being fined.

Compound :
Simple : To avoid punishment you must apologize.
Compound :
Simple : You must run away at once, to escape being caught.
Compound :

2) Conversion of Compound Sentences to Simple Sentences.

1. By substituting a Participle for Finite Verb; as,

Compound : He took his hat and set off.

Simple :

2. By substituting a Preposition et., for a Clause; as,

Compound : He not only made a promise, but kept it too.

Simple :

3. By substituting an Infinitive for a Clause; as,

 Compound : You must work hard or you will not win the first prize.
Simple :

3) Conversion of Simple Sentences to Complex Sentences.

1. A Simple Sentence can be changed into a Complex Sentence by expanding a word or a phrase
into a Subordinate Clause (Noun, Adjective or Adverb).

a) Noun Clause
Simple : We heard of her failure.
Complex :
Simple : I do not know the day of his death.
Complex :
b) Adjective Clause
Simple : He is a man of his word.
Complex :
Simple : A man of prudence is respected by all.
Complex :
c) Adverb Clause
Simple : You may go anywhere.
Compound :
Simple : At sunset he returned home.
Compound :

3) Conversion of Compound Sentences to Complex Sentences.

1. It is possible to change a Compound Sentence into a Complex Sentence by turning one of the
Co-ordinate Clauses into a Subordinate Clause.

Compound : Spare the rod and spoil the child.

Complex :
Compound : Work hard or you will fail.
Complex. :
Compound : He did not work hard; therefore he failed.
Complex :
Compound : He is poor, but honest.
Complex :