Name: Jhon Patrick P.

Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Date Performed: September 24, 2019 Score:

EXERCISE 9:
THE BACTERIAL KINGDOM

INTRODUCTION
Bacteria are ubiquitous in the environment. They play a major role in biogeochemical
cycling and are of major economic and medical interest because of the diseases they can cause in
plants, animals and humans. While individual bacterial cells are extremely small and require the
use of a microscope to see, they are sometimes visible to the naked eye as massive microbial
communities composed of millions of cells. Some of the terms used for such groupings visible
without a microscope (macroscopic) are colonies, blooms, biofilms, stromatolites, etc.

Bacterial kingdoms are part of the classification scheme that fits bacteria into

appropriate groupings based on certain criteria. Basically, there are two kingdoms of
prokaryotes. These are the bacteria (or eubacteria) and the archaebacteria (or the Archaea). The
members of these two kingdoms appear similar in shape and appearance, even under the extreme
magnification of the electron microscope. However, they are very different from each other in a
number of molecular and biochemical aspects. It is these differences that have resulted in
the microorganisms being grouped into separate kingdoms.

For example, eubacteria contain the rigid, stress-bearing network known as

the peptidoglycan. The only exceptions are the bacteria from the
genera Mycoplasma and Chlamydia. Archaebacteria do not contain peptidoglycan. Instead, they
contain a different structure that is called pseudomurein.

Another major difference in the prokaryotic kingdoms is in the sequence of a species

of ribonucleic acid (RNA) known as 16S ribosomal (r) RNA. The 16 S rRNA is found in many
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The function it performs is vital to the life of the cell. Hence,
the RNA species has not been altered very much over evolutionary time. The 16s rRNA species
of eubacteria and Archaebacteria are very different. Thus, these microorganisms must have taken
different evolutionary paths long ago.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Within the eubacterial kingdom are other divisions also known as kingdoms. These
divisions are again determined based on the differences in the sequences of the 16S rRNA of the
various bacteria. These sequence differences within the eubacterial kingdom are, however, not as
pronounced as the sequence’s differences between the eubacteria and Archaebacteria kingdoms.

The first eubacterial kingdom is referred to as protobacteria. This designation

encompasses most of the bacteria that are Gram-negative. Because a great many bacteria are
Gram negative, the protobacterial kingdom is extremely diverse in the shape and the biochemical
characteristics of the bacteria. Examples of protobacteria include the photosynthetic purple
bacteria, Pseudomonas, and bacteria that dwell in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals
(e.g., Escherichia coli , Salmonella, and Shigella).

The second eubacterial kingdom is comprised of the Gram-positive bacteria. This group
is also diverse in shape and chemical character. The kingdom is further split into two major
groups, based on the proportion of the nucleic acid that is composed of two particular building
blocks (guanosine and cytosine). One group contains those bacteria whose DNA is relatively low
in G and C (e.g., Clostridium, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, lactic acid bacteria , Mycoplasma). The
other group is made up of bacteria whose DNA is relatively enriched in G and C
(e.g., Actinomyces, Streptomyces, Bifidobacterium). The latter group contains most of the
antibiotic-producing bacteria that are known.

OBJECTIVES

In this exercise, students were able to recognize bacteria as prokaryotes- those that
doesn’t have organized nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. They were also able to
distinguish cyanobacteria (blue green bacteria) from other types of bacteria. They were also
tasked to name and describe a few examples of bacterial diseases as well as listing some of the
“economically important uses” of bacteria. Lastly, students were able to distinguished between
the three basic shapes of bacterial cells alongside the common groupings of cell and described
how bacteria are being cultured which involved the kinds of media and the specific
characteristics used to identify them.
 Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

PROCEDURES

In this particular exercise, students were asked by their instructor to borrow the needed
prepared slides as well as the microscope prior to the activity. The prepared slides that were used
includes the Bacteria Types, wm, Mycobacterium tuberculosis wm, Neisseria gonorrhoeae
smear, Clostridium perfringens, Spirulina wm, Anabaena, Oscillatoria, wm, and Nostoc. The
mentioned prepared slides were all viewed under the microscope under 400x. Photos taken after
finding the desired bacteria will then be used as reference in making the sketch of each bacteria.

Since some types of bacteria were not available, students were then asked to find for
good illustrations on the internet that will help them to also visualize and see for themselves how
these bacteria look like as well to make a sketch out of these illustrations. Under some types of
bacteria, there were also questions given especially on the function of some significant parts
obvious in a certain bacterium wherein it must be answered by the students.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Basic Bacterial Shapes & Cellular Structures

In this part, students were tasked to view certain bacteria types and to identify their shapes as
well as their cellular structures. Bactria, as we know it, are different from each other not only on
what can they cause to human or other organism but also on the way they are structured. Some
bacteria are spiral-shaped, some are round and others are rod-like shaped. These shapes make
them different from others and help scientists to easily classify and identify them. Below are
some bacteria showing different shapes alongside their cellular stuctures:

1. Bacteria Types, wm

Fig. 1 Bacteria Bacillus Fig. 2 Bacteria Coccus Fig. 3 Bacteria Spirillum

under HPO under HPO under HPO
 Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Fig. 4 Sketch of Bacteria Fig. 5 Sketch of Bacteria Fig. 6 Sketch of Bacteria

Bacillus Coccus Spirillum

From the above illustrations, it can be inferred that bacteria indeed are of different
shapes. Specifically, we have the rod-shaped Bacillus, the spherical-shaped Coccus, and the
spiral-shaped Spirillum. These are actually the three major shapes of bacterial cells produced by
the presence of a rigid cell wall. Upon looking at them, you cannot really see the internal
structures inside of these cells but only their outer structure.

2. Bacterial Capsules wm

Fig. 7 Bacterial Capsule Fig. 8 Sketch of the

under a microscope Bacterial Capsule
(400x magnification)

In this illustration, we can be able to see clearly the bacterial capsule. These cells
have been stained so that the capsule appears as a ‘clear’ area around each cell. The
bacterial capsule lies outside the cell wall and generally consists of polysaccharide or
polypeptide layers. These capsules prevent the bacteria cells from triggering immune
system responses and desiccating, heightening the ability of the bacteria to cause disease.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

3. Proteus vulgaris flagella stain

Fig. 9 Proteus vulgaris Fig. 10 Sketch of

under the microscope Proteus vulgaris
(2000x flagellar)

Bacteria also have flagella- these are long, whip-like structures which aids in their
locomotion. In this particular example, we have the Proteus vulgaris, a certain bacterium
showing its flagella. Looking at the illustration, each cell seems like to have more than 10-15
flagella. They appear to be thread-like structures coiling and binding with one another.
Structurally speaking, they are located outside of the cell.

4. Bacillus subtilis spore stain, smear

Fig. 11 Bacillus subtilis Fig. 12 Sketch of

under the microscope Bacillus subtilis
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Clostridium botulinum subterminal spore, smear

Fig. 13 Clostridium Fig. 14 Sketch of

botulinum viewed under Clostridium botulinum
the microscope

In these two illustrations, there is one structure that makes them the same in one way or
another. Both of these bacteria contain spores within some of the cells. An endospore is a
dormant, tough, non-reproductive structure produced by a small number of bacteria from the
Firmicute family. The primary function of most endospores is to ensure the survival of a
bacterium through periods of environmental stress. They are therefore resistant to ultraviolet and
gamma radiation, desiccation, lysozyme, temperature, starvation, and chemical disinfectants.

B. Bacterial Pathogens

The reason why many people are afraid of bacteria is mainly on what they will cause to
human. They are one reason of the many serious diseases or infections one has to avoid. Most of
our knowledge of and experience with bacteria are in the form of human pathogens. Seen below
are the different types of bacteria that brings certain diseases to the infected host.

1. Bacillus anthracis wm

Fig. 15 Bacillus Fig. 16 Sketch of

anthracis under the Bacillus anthracis
microscope
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Seen above is the illustration on Bacillus anthracis, the bacterial agent responsible for
anthrax. Structurally speaking, one can visualize beads-like structures forming like a long thread.

2. Mycobacterium tuberculosis wm

Fig. 17 Mycobacterium Fig. 18 Sketch of

tuberculosis wm under Mycobacterium
the microscope (400x tuberculosis wm
magnification)

This illustration shows Mycobacterium tuberculosis- the bacterium responsible for

causing tuberculosis. Looking at the image, we could see clusters of rounded structures
appearing in purple color.

3. Treponema wm

Fig. 19 Treponema wm Fig. 20 Sketch of

viewed under the Treponema wm
microscope which
appears brighter against
a dark background
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

The bacterium Treponema is the agent responsible for syphilis- a bacterial infection
usually spread by sexual contact. As we can see it, it appears to be like worms showing an
elongated structure.

4. Neisseria gonorrhoeae smear

Fig. 21 Neisseria Fig. 22 Sketch of

gonorrhoeae smear Neisseria gonorrhoeae
under 100x magnifiction smear

From the name itself Neisseria gonorrhoeae, this bacterium is the one that causes
gonorrhoeae. Like that of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis, it is purple-colored but it is quite
irregular in shape and a bit not tightly packed to each other compared to the aforementioned
bacterium.

5. Clostridium perfringens

Fig. 23 Clostridium Fig. 24 Sketch of

perfringens under the Clostridium perfringens
microscope (400x
magnification)
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Clostridium perfringens is a bacterial agent that causes food poisoning. Structurally

speaking, it is quite irregular in shape. It appears to be transparent also under the microscope.

C. Economically Important (nondestructive) Bacteria

Bacteria can be used by humans in a number of useful ways. Despite the fact that
some bacteria play harmful roles, such as causing diseases and spoiling food, the
industrial and economic importance of bacteria includes both their useful and harmful
aspects. Seen below are the illustrations of some of these beneficial bacteria.
1. Legume nodule sec

Fig. 25 Illustration of Fig. 26 Sketch of

Legume nodule sec Legume nodule sec

Rhizobium is a genus of bacteria associated with the formation of root nodules on plants.
These bacteria live in symbiosis with legumes. They take in nitrogen from the atmosphere and
pass it on to the plant, allowing it to grow in soil low in nitrogen. The symbiotic bacteria receive
organic foods from the plant in exchange for nitrogen in a form the plant can use. This allows the
plant to grow in poorer soils or with less fertilizer than that needed by most other plant species.

2. Yogurt w.m. or Yogurt smear

Fig. 27 Yogurt smear Fig. 28 Sketch of

under the microscope Yogurt smear
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Yogurt, as we know it, is one of the most patronized products by many people. This particular
product actually contains Lactobacillus in which it is being fermented along with the milk to
produce acid that will give then the unique flavor of yogurt.

3. Spirulina lanatum

Fig. 30 Sketch of
Fig. 29 Spirulina Spirulina lanatum
lanatum under 400x
magnification

This illustration shows the magnified Spirulina lanatum. Spirulina is commonly used as a
protein supplement. Spirulina is an organism that grows in both fresh and salt water. It is a type
of cyanobacteria, which is a family of single-celled microbes that are often referred to as blue-
green algae.

D. Cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria)

Even though these are prokaryotic cells, cells of blue green bacteria are generally much
larger than the bacteria you have seen so far. Blue-green bacteria are some of the oldest forms of
life to appear in the fossil record. They were some of the first organisms to do photosynthesis
and were largely responsible for generating free oxygen in earth’s early atmosphere. Today,
cyanobacteria are important autotrophs in soils and aquatic ecosystems where they sometimes
form dense “blooms”. They differ from other bacteria in that cyanobacteria possess chlorophyll-
a, while most bacteria do not contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll-a gives them their characteristic
blue-green color. Seen below were the slides under cyanobacteria.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Anabaena

Fig. 32 Sketch of
Fig. 31 Anabaena under Anabaena
the microscope

Oscillatoria, wm

Fig. 33 Fig. 34 Sketch

Oscillatoria, of
wm viewed Oscillatoria,
under 400x

Nostoc

Fig. 35 Nostoc under Fig. 36 Sketch of

the microscope (400x Nostoc
magnification)
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

As we can see from the above illustrations, there are a couple of things similar to the
three bacteria. One is their structures which is somewhat like elongated or thread-like forming
long filaments. Another also is the appearance of spores in their cells.

CONCLUSION

Going back to the early times, it has been said that complex organisms we see nowadays
came from the simpler organisms which are the bacteria. For so many years of study and
discoveries, bacteria have been known to humankind. Commonly, these organisms are
sometimes portrayed as threats to human because of the dangers they may cause or bring to us.
But, not all bacteria have the goal of bringing diseases and the like. Some of them have
economic importance and are used in many different ways. They are sometimes cultured for
further studies and to be able to clearly identify them. We had also discovered the difference
between cyanobacteria and bacteria. They differ from other bacteria in that cyanobacteria
possess chlorophyll-a, while most bacteria do not contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll-a gives them
their characteristic blue-green color.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What major characteristics distinguishes bacteria from protists?

 Major characteristics that distinguishes bacteria from protist is size, and by the
presence or absence of a nucleus - protists have one (or more), bacteria do not. 
Another also is gene sequences - in particular the sequences for ribosomal RNA,
which is the most reliable way to classify organisms.

2. Name three bacteria (scientific names) and the diseases they cause to humans (Pls.
provide examples that were not studied during the activity).
 Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) causes fever, muscle aches, and
diarrhea. Pregnant women, elderly individuals, infants, and those with weakened
immune systems are most at risk for acquiring this infection.
 Salmonella causes fever, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Symptoms typically last
between 4 and 7 days.
 Vibrio causes diarrhea when ingested, but it can also cause severe skin infections
when it comes in contact with an open wound.
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

3. State three beneficial uses of bacteria.

 Pollution Clean-Up
Some organisms are able to break down compounds such as petroleum or
pesticides, which makes them useful in mining, pollution clean-up, and waste
processing. 

 Microbial Miners

Biomining is the use of prokaryotes to extract certain minerals from ores. Using a

bacterium such as Thiobacillus ferooxidans to leach copper from mining leftovers has
improved recovery rates and reduced operating costs for mining companies. Also,
using microorganisms to leach out the minerals, instead of the traditional methods of
high heat or toxic chemicals, is better for the environment.

 Waste Disposal and Biogas Production

Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are used to decompose sewage waste. They break
down organic matter into harmless, soluble sludge in settling tanks.

REFERENCES

Bacterial Kingdoms . World of Microbiology and Immunology. [Link]. 24 Sep.

2019 <[Link]

Bacterial Kingdoms. World of Microbiology and Immunology. [Link]. (September

24, 2019). [Link]
maps/bacterial-kingdoms

Bacterial Kingdoms. World of Microbiology and Immunology. Retrieved September 24, 2019

from [Link]: [Link]
transcripts-and-maps/bacterial-kingdoms

Bacterial Capsules Slide, w.m. Retrieved from: [Link]

slides/bacterial-capsules-slide-w-m/[Link]
Bacterial Capsule: structure, function and examples of Capsulated bacteria. July 23, 2017 Gaurab
Karki Bacteriology, Microbiology. Retrieved from:
[Link]
bacteria/
Name: Jhon Patrick P. Delmonte Course and Year: BS Biology-1 MN

Wassmann M, Moeller R, Rabbow E, Panitz C, Horneck G, Reitz G, Douki T, Cadet J, Stan-

Lotter H, Cockell CS, Rettberg P (May 2012). "Survival of spores of the UV-resistant Bacillus
subtilis strain MW01 after exposure to low-earth orbit and simulated martian conditions: data
from the space experiment ADAPT on EXPOSE-E". Astrobiology. 12 (5): 498–
507. Bibcode:2012AsBio.12.498W. 

Pathogenic clostridia. Nonclostridial infections of the oral cavity. Constance Pierce (n.d.).
Retrieved from: [Link]

Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health. (n.d.). Retrieved from:
[Link]

JEM-ARM200F Transmission Electron Microscope, JEOL USAInc, 2015. Retrieved from:

[Link]
%29/200kV/JEM-ARM200F/tabid/663/[Link]#195028-specifications.

Wagner SC (2011). "Biological Nitrogen Fixation". Nature Education Knowledge. 3 (10): 15.;

Retrieved from:
[Link]
.JPG/220px-Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG

Yogurt, w.m., Microscope Slide, Carolina. (n.d.). Retrieved from:

[Link]
Drew Smith, PhD (2016) in Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology from the University
of Colorado. Retrieved from: [Link]
Bacterial Infections 101, (2016). Retrieved from:
[Link]
Se Kye Kim, et. al., (2014) Complete Genome Sequence of Bacillus anthracis HYU01, Isolated
from Soil Samples in the Korean Peninsula. Retrieved from:
[Link]
Vivien Williams (n.d.) Mayo Clinic Minute: Signs and symptoms of syphilis. Retrieved from:
[Link]