HEAT & MASS TRANSFER

LAB MANUAL

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Submitted By:
NAME: Uzair Khalid Khan

ROLL No: 171533

CLASS: BEME F17-B

 List of Experiments

Linear Heat Conduction

1. To measure the temperature distribution for a steady-state conduction of energy through a uniform plane
wall and demonstrate the effect of a change in heat flow.
To measure the temperature distribution for steady-state conduction of energy through a
2. composite plane wall and determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for the flow of
heat through a combination of different materials in series.
To determine the thermal conductivity k (the constant of proportionality) of a metal
3.
specimen (good conductor).
To demonstrate that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-
4. sectional area for one-dimensional flow of heat in a solid material of constant thermal
conductivity.

Radial Heat Conduction

To measure the temperature distribution for steady-state conduction of energy through the
5.
wall of a cylinder (radial energy flow) and demonstrate the effect of a change in heat flow.

To understand the use of Fourier Rate Equation in determining the rate of heat flow for
steady-state conduction of energy through the wall of a cylinder (radial energy flow) and
6.
using the equation to determine the constant of proportionality (the thermal conductivity k)
of the disk material.

Extended Surface Heat Transfer

7. Measuring the temperature distribution along an extended surface and comparing the results with the
theoretical analysis.
Calculating the heat transfer from an extended surface resulting from the combined modes
8. of free convection and radiation heat transfer and comparing the results with the theoretical
analysis.

Combined Convection and Radiation

To determine the combined heat transfer (Qradiation + Qconvection) from a horizontal

9. cylinder in natural convection over a wide range of power inputs and corresponding surface
temperatures.

10. To determine the effect of forced convection on heat transfer from the surface of a cylinder at varying
air velocities and surface temperatures.
 Condensation Unit

11. To demonstrate the effect of Dropwise and Film wise condensation and determining the Heat Transfer
Coefficient.

Heat Exchangers

To demonstrate the difference between counter-current flow (flows in opposing directions)

12. and co-current flows (flows in same direction) and the effect on heat transferred,
temperature efficiencies and temperature profiles through a Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger.
To demonstrate the difference between counter-current flow (flows in opposing directions)
13. and co-current flows (flows in same direction) and the effect on heat transferred,
temperature efficiencies and temperature profiles through a Plate Heat Exchanger.
To demonstrate the difference between counter-current flow (flows in opposing directions)

14. and co-current flows (flows in same direction) and the effect on heat transferred, temperature
efficiencies and temperature profiles through a Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger.
Lab Layout
HEAT TRANSFER SERVICE UNIT
HT10XC
Introduction:
HT10XC is a service unit which can be used in conjunction with a range of small scale accessories to
demonstrate the three basic modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection& radiation).The factors that
affect the rate of heat transfer can be investigated and some of the practical problems associated with the
transfer of heat can be clearly demonstrated.
Equipment Description:
The service unit is housed in a robust steel enclosure and designed for use on a bench or table.
It provides two outputs to the accessories:
• A stabilized, variable low voltage DC supply to the heater of heat transfer accessory.
• A variable output (Auxiliary Output) to drive other functions (accessory dependent).
The service unit also incorporates the necessary instrumentation to measure the variables associated with
heat transfer, namely:
− Temperatures
− Heater voltage
− Heater current
− Light radiated
− Air velocity
− Cooling water flowrate
Modes of Operation:
1. Manual Mode
2. Remote Mode
Manual Mode:
In manual mode the outputs listed above are under control of potentiometer on the front panel of the unit.
Manual mode is entered whenever the standby switch is ON, and the Manual/Remote switch is in
Manual.
The outputs from the accessory being used are shown on the front panel displays of the Service Unit.
Remote Mode:
In remote mode the two outputs to the accessories are controlled by the computer.
Remote mode is entered whenever the standby switch is ON, and the Manual/Remote switch is in
Remote.
In remote mode the sensor readings are displayed on the software screen.
Front View of the Service Unit:

1. Standby Switch
2. Manual/Remote Switch
3. Multi-turn potentiometer
4. USB port connector
5. Top panel meter
6. Selector Switch
7. Radiometer connection
8. Zero potentiometer
9. Light sensor connection
10. Anemometer connection
11. Cooling water flow sensor connection
12. Thermocouple socket
13. Thermocouple selector switch
14. Temperature display
15. Auxiliary drive potentiometer
Rear View of the Service Unit:

16. Residual Current Circuit Breaker

17. OUTPUT 1
18. OUTPUT 2
19. Auxiliary Output
20. Main INPUT.
COMPUTER COMPATIBLE LINEAR HEAT
CONDUCTION ACCESSORY HT11C
Introduction:
The Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction Accessory comprises heating and cooling sections
which can be clamped together with interchangeable intermediate sections as required. Each intermediate
section contains a different specimen of metal conductor which allows a plane wall of the same material,
a plane wall of different cross section or composite walls with different materials to be created for
evaluation. The temperature difference created by the application of heat to one end of the resulting wall,
and cooling at the other end, results in the flow of heat linearly through the wall by conduction.
Heating Section:
The heating section is manufactured from 25 mm diameter cylindrical brass bar with a cartridge type
electric heating element.
Cooling Section:
The cooling section is manufactured from 25 mm diameter cylindrical brass bar to match the heating
section and cooled at one end by water passing through galleries in the section.
Intermediate Sections:
1. Brass specimen
30mm long brass section with 25mm diameter having thermal conductivity of 110 to 128
W/m˚C.

2. Stainless Steel specimen

30mm long stainless steel section with 25mm diameter having thermal conductivity of 25
W/m˚C.

3. Aluminum Alloy Specimen

30mm long Aluminum alloy specimen with 25mm diameter having thermal conductivity of 180
W/m˚C.

4. Brass specimen with reduced diameter

30mm long brass specimen with 13mm diameter having thermal conductivity of 110 to 128
W/m˚C.
Thermocouples:
Three thermocouples T1, T2, T3 are positioned along the heated section at uniform intervals of 15mm.
Three thermocouples T6, T7, T8 are positioned along the cooling section at uniform intervals of 15mm.
Two thermocouples T4 & T5 are positioned along the brass intermediate section, also at 15mm intervals.
Thermal paste:
The paste is applied between adjacent faces to minimize the temperature gradient across the joints.
Thermal paste ensures the perfect mating of the faces, removing the air gap between faces.
Flow Sensor:

The HT11C includes a turbine-type flow sensor for measurement of the cooling water flow rate directly
in liters per minute.

Front View of HT11C:

1. Base
2. Thermocouples
3. Miniature plug
4. Heating element lead
5. Brass section
6. Heating element
7. Heating section
8. Cooling section
9. Flow sensor
10. Cooling water exit
11. Flow control valve
12. Pressure regulating valve
13. Serrated Ferrule
14. Intermediate sections
15. Toggle clamps
 Experiment # 01
Objective:
To measure the temperature distribution for a steady-state conduction of energy through a uniform plane
wall and demonstrate the effect of a change in heat flow.
Method:
By measuring the change in temperature with distance, resulting from the linear conduction of heat along
a simple bar at different rates of heat flow through the bar.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction Accessory.

Theory/Background:
Provided that the heated and cooled sections are clamped tightly together, so that the two end faces are in
good thermal contact, the two sections can be considered to be one continuous wall of uniform cross
section and material.
According to Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:

If a plane wall of thickness (∆x) and area (A) supports a temperature difference (∆T) then the heat
transfer rate per unit time (Q) by conduction through the wall is found to be:
∆T
Q ∝ A ∆x
∆T
Q = C ∆x

Where C is a constant and will be investigated in later exercise.

The object of this exercise is to show that for a simple plane wall where the material and cross section are
constant: ∆T
Q∝ ∆X

Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT11C Computer Compatible
Linear Heat Conduction Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Clamp the heated and cooled sections of the HT11C together having lightly coated the mating
faces with the thermal paste.
3. Connect the six thermocouples and the cold water flow rate sensor of the HT11C to the
appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
4. Connect the cold water flow control valve to the socket marked AUXILARY OUTPUT on the
rear of HTXC console.
5. Connect the USB socket on the HT10XC to computer using the USB cable and set the selector
switch to REMOTE.
 6. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
7. Turn on the cooling water and adjust the flow control valve to give approximately 1.5 liters/min.
8. Set the heater voltage to 9 volts and allow the HT11C to stabilize.
9. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage, heater current and cooling water flow rate.
10. Follow steps 1 to 9 for heater voltages of 6, 9, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Distance between each thermocouple = 15mm =0.015m
Distance between thermocouple T1 & T3 = 30mm =0.030m
Distance between thermocouple T3 or T6 and the end face is 7.5mm = .0075m
Temperature difference in heated section ∆Thot = T1-T3 (˚C)
Temperature difference in cooled section ∆Tcold = T6-T8 (˚C)
Heat flow (power to heater) Q=I×V (Watts)

Results and Calculations:

Heater Heater Heater Cooling

Voltage Current Power T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8 Water
Sr. # V I Q flow rate

volts Amps watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C liters/min

1 9 0.85 7.7 32.1 30.7 29.1 21.1 20.4 19.7 1.5

2 11 0.96 9.6 34.5 32.8 30.7 29.1 21.1 20.4 1.5
3 13 1.26 16.5 47.2 44 40.6 31.5 28.25 25 1.5
4 15 1.46 21.8 57.1 52.7 48.2 36.3 31.7 27.2 1.5
Graph:
Plot a graph of temperature against position along the bar and draw the best straight line through the
points. Your graph should be similar to the given one.

Observe that each temperature profile is a straight line and that the gradient of the line increases with
increase in heat flow.
Conclusions:

We have concluded that heat transfers from hot surface to cold surface and the heat transfer rate per unit
time (Q) by conduction through the wall is directly proportional to temperature difference (∆T) and
inversely to plane wall thickness (∆x).
Q ∝ ∆T/∆X
Hence, Temperature and distance are inversely related. On increasing distance temperature decreases
and vice versa.
∆T ∝ 1/∆X

Sources of Errors:

• Human Error
• Measure Error
• Flow rate may not be constant throughout
• The wall may not be linear or properly connected
• Heat loss due to thermal paste
• Systematic errors or software issues
• Personal or random errors
• Readings may be taken before time
• Calibration error
• Error due to excessive due of equipment
• Heat loss to surrounding

Physical Applications:

• Steam engine
• Boilers
• Heat exchangers
• Heat pumps
• Power plants
• Heaters
• Central heating and cooling systems
• Temperature sensors in Electrical equipments
 Experiment # 02
Objective:
To measure the temperature distribution for steady-state conduction of energy through a composite plane
wall and determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for the flow of heat through a combination of
different materials in series.
Method:
By measuring the temperature distribution along a composite bar of different solid materials (conductor)
for one dimensional steady flow of heat and using the Fourier Rate Equation applied to each material to
determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction Accessory.

Theory/Background:
The heated, intermediate and cooled sections are clamped tightly together, so that the end faces are in
good thermal contact, and create a composite bar with a Stainless steel section sandwiched between two
Brass sections.
For continuity, the steady heat flow through the successive sections must be the same so Fourier’s Law
can be applied to three sections as follows:

Q khot × ∆Thot kint × ∆Tint kcold × ∆Tcold

= = =
A ∆xhot ∆xint ∆xcold

From which it follows that:

Q Xhot Xint Xcold
(T1-T8) = (∆Thot+ ∆Tint+∆Tcold) = =( + + )
A Khot Kint Kcold
Or
U

Q 1 Xhot Xint Xcold

= U(T1-T8) where =( + + )=R
A U Khot Kint Kcold

Where U is the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient and 1/U is the resistance to heat flow R.
Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT11C Computer Compatible
Linear Heat Conduction Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Clamp the intermediate Stainless Steel section (no instrumentation) between heated and cooled
sections having lightly coated the mating faces with thermal paste..
3. Connect the six thermocouples and the cold water flow rate sensor of the HT11C to the
appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
 4. Connect the cold water flow control valve to the socket marked AUXILARY OUTPUT on the
rear of HTXC console.
5. Connect the USB socket on the HT10XC to computer using the USB cable and set the selector
switch to REMOTE.
6. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
7. Turn on the cooling water and adjust the flow control valve to give approximately 1.5 liters/min.
8. Set the heater voltage to 9 volts and allow the HT11C to stabilize.
9. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage, heater current and cooling water flow rate.
10. Follow step 1 to 9 for heater voltage of 6, 9, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Distance between thermocouple T1 and the hot face ∆Xhot=37.5mm=0.0375m

Distance between the cold face and thermocouple T8 Xcold=37.5mm=0.0375m

Diameter of the bar D=25mm=0.025m
Heat flow (power to heater) Q=I×V (Watts)
The conductivity of Brass Section is approximately 121 W/m˚C.
The conductivity of the Stainless Steel is approximately 25 W/m˚C.
For each set of readings the derived results are tabulated under following headings:
Heat flow (Power to Heater) Q= V×I (Watts)
πD2
Cross Sectional area A= (m2 )
4
Temperature difference across composite wall ∆T18=T1-T8 (˚C)
1 Xhot Xint Xcold
Resistance to heat flow =( + + )=R
U Khot Kint Kcold
Q
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U= A(T1-T8)
Results and Calculations:
Heater Heater Heater Cooling Overall Heat
Voltage Current Power T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8 Water Transfer
Sr. V I Q flow rate Coefficient
# Q
U= A(T1−T8)
Volts Amps Watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C liters/min

1 7 0.64 4.5 35 34.4 33.4 21.6 21.1 20.6 1.5 636.62

2 9 0.86 7.8 46.2 45 43.5 23.6 22.75 21.9 1.5 654
3 13 1.27 16.6 74.4 71.7 68.9 27.3 25.5 23.6 1.5 653.54
4 15 1.41 22.1 50.2 47.6 45.2 21.1 19.5 19.2 1.5 672.01
5 17 1.68 28.1 58.7 55.3 52.4 21.8 19.9 19.5 1.5 640.01

Mean Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U= 651.462

Compare the two values obtained for the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U and U=1/R and comment
on any difference in the values obtained in the conclusion section below.

U = [Q/A]*1/ (T1-T8)
U = [7.8/ (4.9*10^-4)]*(1/ (1/0.4115))
A = 4.9*10^-4 m^-2
Q = 7.8W

U = 655.07

Difference = 655.07-651.46
=3.61
Graph:
Plot a graph of temperature against position along the bar and draw the best straight line through the
points for heated and cooled section. Extrapolate each line to the joint with the intermediate section then
join these two points to give the gradient through intermediate section.
Your graph should be similar to the given below.

Observe that the temperature gradient increases in the Stainless steel section because of the reduced
thermal conductivity of material.
Conclusions:

We have concluded that the heat transfer rate per unit time (Q) changes with material and is a function of
thermal conductivity coefficient ‘K’. Heat transfer rate is directly proportional to temperature difference
(∆T) and inversely to plane wall thickness (∆x).
Q ∝ ∆T/∆X
Hence, Temperature and distance are inversely related. On increasing distance temperature decreases
and vice versa.
∆T ∝ 1/∆X
Q
The overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U= A(T1-T8) is calculated and it depends on all the composite
1 Xhot Xint Xcold
walls between them such that =( + + ) = R.
U Khot Kint Kcold

Sources of Errors:

• Human Error
• Measure Error
• Flow rate may not be constant throughout
• The wall may not be linear or properly connected
• Thermal paste has its own transfer coefficient with affects the results
• Systematic errors or software issues
• Personal or random errors
• Readings may be taken before time
• Thermocouple error
• Calibration error
• Impurity in the material
• Heat loss to surrounding

Physical Applications:

• Designing of composite wall for heat transfer

• Steam engine
• Boilers
• Heat exchangers
• Heat pumps
• Power plants
• Heaters
• Temperature sensors in Electrical equipments
 Experiment # 03
Objective:
To determine the thermal conductivity k (the constant of proportionality) of a metal specimen (good
conductor).
Method:
By measuring the temperature difference across a metal specimen resulting from a known steady flow of
heat through the specimen and using the Fourier Rate Equation to calculate the thermal conductivity of
the specimen.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction Accessory.

Theory/Background:
The heated, intermediate and cooled sections are clamped tightly together so that the end faces are in
good thermal contact, and create a composite bar with a metal specimen of unknown thermal
conductivity sandwiched between two brass sections.
From Fourier’s Law:
∆Tint
Q= kint Aint
∆Xint
Where,
∆Tint=Thotface - Tcoldface
∆Xint = 30mm=0.03m
Q∆Xint
Therefore kint =
Aint(Thotface-Tcoldface)
Thermocouple T3 and T6 are located 7.5mm from the end faces compared with a distance of 15mm
between adjacent thermocouples (half the distance), therefore:
In the case of heated section the temperature of the end face (hot face) will be lower than T3 and can be
calculated as follows:
(T2-T3)
Thotface=T3-
2
In the case of cooled section the temperature of the end face (cold face) will be higher than T6 and can be
calculated as follows:
(T6-T7)
Tcoldface=T6+
2
2
Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT11C Computer Compatible
Linear Heat Conduction Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Clamp the intermediate Aluminum section (no instrumentation) between the heated and cooled
sections of the HT11C together having lightly coated the mating faces with the thermal paste.
3. Connect the six thermocouples and the cold water flow rate sensor of the HT11C to the
appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
4. Connect the cold water flow control valve to the socket marked AUXILARY OUTPUT on the
rear of HTXC console.
5. Connect the USB socket on the HT10XC to computer using the USB cable and set the selector
switch to REMOTE.
6. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
7. Turn on the cooling water and adjust the flow control valve to give approximately 1.5 liters/min.
8. Set the heater voltage to 9 volts and allow the HT11C to stabilize.
 9. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage, heater current and cooling water flow rate.
10. Follow steps 1 to 9 for heater voltages of 6, 9, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Distance between each thermocouple = 15mm =0.015m
Distance between thermocouple T1 & T3 = 30mm =0.030m

Distance between thermocouple T3 or T6 and the end face is 7.5mm = .0075m

Length of Aluminum specimen ∆Xint= 30mm=.0.03m

Diameter of Aluminum specimen = 25mm=0.025m

Temperature difference in heated section ∆Thot = T1-T3 (˚C)

Temperature difference in cooled section ∆Tcold = T6-T8 (˚C)

For each set of readings the derived results are tabulated under the following headings:

Heat Flow (Power to heater) Q= V×I (watts)

πDint 2
Cross Sectional area Aint= (𝑚2 )
4
T2-T3
Temperature of hot face of specimen Thotface=T3- 2
(˚C)
T6-T7
Temperature of cold face of specimen Tcoldface=T6+ 2
(˚C)
Temperature difference across specimen ∆Tint = Thotface -Tcoldface (˚C)
Q∆Xint
Thermal conductivity of specimen kint = (W/m ˚C)
Aint(Thotface−Tcoldface)
 Results and Calculations:
Heater Heater Heater Cooling Thermal
Voltage Current Power T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8 Water Conductivity
Sr. V I Q flow rate kint
#
volts Amps Watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C liter/min W/mm˚C

1 7 0.68 4.76 37.7 36.9 35.7 32.9 32.3 31.7 1.5 0.1531
2 9 0.87 7.83 41.3 40.1 38.5 34.8 34.1 33.3 1.5 0.184
3 13 0.23 15.99 48 45.6 43.2 37.1 36.1 35.1 1.5 0.2207
4 15 1.44 21.6 53.5 50.4 47.7 36.9 35.7 34.6 1.5 0.234
5 17 1.63 27.7 61.9 57.8 53.9 43.3 41.5 39.7 1.5 0.213

Mean Measured Thermal Conductivity of Aluminium Specimen = 0.198 W/mm˚C.

Graph:
Plot a graph of temperature against position along the bar and draw the best straight line through the
points for the heated section and cooled section. Extrapolate each line to the joint with the intermediated
section then join these two points to give the gradient through intermediate section.
Your graph should be similar to the given one.

Observe that the temperature gradient decreases in the aluminum section because of the increased thermal
conductivity of the material.
Measure the temperature gradient through the aluminum section from graph then calculate the thermal
conductivity using average gradient. Compare the value obtained with that previously calculated.
Your results should give values of approximately 180 W/m˚C for thermal conductivity of Aluminum.
Conclusions:
The thermal conductivity constant k is measured experimentally for a metal specimen by following
formula:
Q∆Xint
kint =
Aint(Thotface−Tcoldface)

Thermal conductivity constant k is dependent on Length of Aluminium specimen

Sources of Errors:
• Improper physical contacts.
• Impurities of materials
• Heat loss to surrounding
• The wall may not be linear or properly connected
• Thermal paste has its own transfer coefficient with affects the results
• Systematic errors or software issues
• Personal or random errors
• Readings may be taken before time
• Thermocouple error
• Calibration error
• Impurity in the material
• Type and shape of material may affect

Physical Applications:
• Air Conditioning Systems
• Heat Exchangers
• Nuclear power plant.
 Experiment # 04
Objective:
To demonstrate that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area for one-
dimensional flow of heat in a solid material of constant thermal conductivity.
Method:
By measuring the temperature distribution for steady-state conduction of energy through a plane wall of
reduced cross-sectional area at different rates of heat flow.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction Accessory.

Theory/Background:
The heated and cooled sections are clamped tightly together with a section of reduced diameter in
between. The end faces are in good thermal contact and create a compound bar of the same material but
with a reduction in cross-sectional area in the intermediate section.
From Fourier’s law:

∆T
Q = kA
∆X
Or
Q∆X
∆T =
kA
ie ΔT is inversely proportional to A.
For the heated section
Q∆Xhot
∆Thot =
khotAhot
For intermediate section (reduced cross-section):
Q ∆Xint
∆Thot =
kint Aint

For cooled section:

Q ∆Xcold
∆Tcold =
kcold Acold
Since the results will be the same for ΔTcold and ΔThot ( same cross section) , results will be calculated
for the hot section only.

Since the results will be the same for ΔTcold and ΔThot ( same cross section) , results will be calculated
for the hot section only.
Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT11C Computer Compatible
Linear Heat Conduction Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Clamp the intermediate bass section of reduced diameter (no instrumentation) between heated and
cooled sections having lightly coated the mating faces with thermal paste..
3. Connect the six thermocouples and the cold water flow rate sensor of the HT11C to the
appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
4. Connect the cold water flow control valve to the socket marked AUXILARY OUTPUT on the
rear of HTXC console.
5. Connect the USB socket on the HT10XC to computer using the USB cable and set the selector
switch to REMOTE.
6. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
7. Turn on the cooling water and adjust the flow control valve to give approximately 1.5 liters/min.
8. Set the heater voltage to 9 volts and allow the HT11C to stabilize.
9. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage, heater current and cooling water flow rate.
10. Follow step 1 to 9 for heater voltage of 6, 9, 12, 15 & 21 volts.
Technical Data:

Distance between thermocouple T1 and T3 ∆Xhot= 30mm =0.03m

Distance between hot face and cold face Δ Xint= 30mm =0.030m
Distance between the thermocouple T6 and T8 ΔXcold = 30mm=0.03m
Diameter of the bar (heated and cooled section) D=25mm=0.025m
Diameter of the bar (reduced section) D=13mm=0.013m
Heat flow (power to heater) Q=I×V (Watts)
The conductivity of brass section in approximately 121W/m˚C
Temperature difference in heated section ∆Thot = T1 –T3 (˚C)
T2−T3
Temperature of hot face of reduced section Thotface = T3 − 2
(˚C)
T6−T7
Temperature of cold face of reduced section Tcoldface = T6 + 2
(˚C)
Temperature difference in reduced section ∆Tred= Thotface –Tcoldface (˚C)
ΔThot
Temperature Gradient in heated section Grad hot =
ΔXhot
ΔTred
Temperature Gradient in reduced section Grad red =
ΔXred

πDhot2
Cross Sectional area (heated) Ahot= (m2 )
4
Grad red
Ratio of temperature gradient =
Grad hot
Ared
Ratio of Cross Section =
Ahot
 Results & Calculations:

V I Q Gred
T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8 T T ΔT Ghot Gre Ared
Sr Hot Cold Red d/ /
.# face face Gho Ahot
Vo Amp Watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C t
lt ˚C ˚C ˚C

1 7 0.71 5 33 32.6 31.8 22.8 22.7 21.9 32 22.65 9.35 40 31.67 7.79 3.71

2 9 0.96 8.64 47.3 45.7 44.4 21 19.7 18.5 43.8 21.65 22.1 99.66 236.67 7.39 3.69

3 12 1.2 14.6 67 64.1 61.8 24.1 22 20 60.65 25.15 35.5 173.3 1183.3 6.8 3.69

4 15 1.47 22.4 87.8 84.1 79.8 33.8 30.5 26.6 77.65 35.45 42.2 123.3 1406.6 11.4 3.77

5 17 1.68 29.1 96.7 92.1 87 34.9 31.1 26.9 84.5 29.2 55.25 323.3 1841.6 5.68 3.69

From the measured values, confirm that the ratio of the temperature gradients is the inverse of the ratio of
the cross sectional areas.
Graph:
Plot a graph of temperature against position along the bar and draw the best straight line through the
points for heated and cooled section. Extrapolate each line to the joint with the intermediate section then
join these two points to give the gradient through intermediate section.
Your graph should be similar to the given below.

Using the graph obtained determine the ratio of the temperature gradient in the heated/cooled sections to
the temperature gradient in the reduced diameter section. Determine the ratio for each setting of heat flow
and show that the gradients are in inverse proportion to the cross-sectional areas.
Conclusions:

It is found experimentally that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to cross sectional area
for one dimensional flow of heat energy in a solid material of constant k.

Sources of Errors:

• Corrosion on metal surface

• Faulty thermocouples
• Heat loss to surrounding
• Impurities in material
• Improper physical contact

Physical Applications:

• Laboratories
• Heat Systems
• Power Generation Plants
• Oil and gas industries
• Designing of Composite wall for Heat Flow
COMPUTER COMPATIBLE RADIAL HEAT
CONDUCTION ACCESSORY HT12C
Introduction:
Computer compatible radial heat conduction accessory is designed to demonstrate the application of the
Fourier rate equation to simple steady-state conduction radially through the wall of a tube. The
arrangement, using a solid metal disk with temperature measurements at different radii and heat flow
radially outwards from the center to the periphery, allows the temperature distribution and flow of heat by
radial conduction to be investigated.
Heat Transfer Disk:
The disk is manufactured from brass 3.2mm thick and 110 diameter with a central copper core 14mm
diameter. Thermal conductivity of brass disk is approximately 125W/m˚C at the typical operating
temperatures in the [Link] entire radial specimen is located inside a plastic enclosure which
provides an air gap and insulates the section to minimize heat loss to the surroundings and prevent burns.
Heating Element:
The central core of the disk is heated by a cartridge type electric heating element which is operated at low
voltage.
Cooling water:
The periphery of the disk is cooled by cold water flowing through a copper tube, attached to the
circumference if the disk.
Thermocouples:
Six thermocouples are positioned at different radii in the heated disk to indicate the temperature gradient.
First thermocouple is located in the edge of the copper heated core at a radius of [Link] remaining
thermocouples are located at a uniform intervals of 10mm from the center of the disk.
− T1 7mm
− T2 10m
− T3 20mm
− T4 30mm
− T4 40mm
− T6 50mm
Front View of the HT12C:

1. PVC base
2. Copper tube (for cooling water)
3. Brass disk
4. Central copper core
5. Thermostat
6. Plastic Enclosure
7. Flow rate sensor
8. Flow control valve
9. Pressure regulator
10. Heater
 Experiment # 05
Objective:
To measure the temperature distribution for steady-state conduction of energy through the wall of a
cylinder (radial energy flow) and demonstrate the effect of a change in heat flow.
Method:
By measuring the change in temperature with radius resulting from the radial conduction of heat, from
the heated center of a disk to the cooled periphery, at different rates of heat flow through the disk.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT12C Computer Compatible Radial Heat Conduction Accessory.

Theory/Background:
When the inner and outer surfaces of a thick walled cylinder are each at a different uniform temperature,
heat flows radially through the cylinder wall.
The disk can be considered to be constructed as a series of successive layers.
From continuity consideration the radial heat flow through each of successive layers in the wall must be
constant if the flow is steady but since the area of the successive layers increases with radius, the
temperature gradient must decrease with radius.
The radial specimen in the HT12C consist of a disk 3.2mm thick (x) with inside radius Ri=7mm and
outside radius Ro=55mm.
The object of this exercise is to show the temperature profile resulting from the radial flow of heat
outwards from the center of the disk at different rates of heat flow.
Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT12C Computer Compatible
Radial Heat Conduction Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Connect the six thermocouples and the cold water flow rate sensor of the HT12C to the
appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
3. Connect the cold water flow control valve to the socket marked AUXILARY OUTPUT on the
rear of HT10XC console.
4. Connect the USB socket on the HT10XC to computer using the USB cable and set the selector
switch to REMOTE.
5. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
6. Turn on the cooling water and adjust the flow control valve to give approximately 1.5 liters/min.
7. Set the heater voltage to 12 volts and allow the HT12C to stabilize.
 8. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage, heater current and cooling water flow rate.
9. Follow steps 1 to 8 for heater voltages of 6, 9, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Thickness of brass disk = 3.2 mm
Inner radius of disk = 7 mm; T9=25.9˚C
Outside radius of disk = 55 mm; T0=19.4˚C

Results and Calculations:

Heater Heater Heater Cooling Water
Voltage Current Power T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 flow rate
Sr. # V I Q
liter/min
Volts Amps Watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C

1 10 1.62 16.2 31.4 29 23.9 21.6 19.5 18.1 1.5

2 13 1.81 23.53 36.9 33.6 25.6 23.3 20.4 18.6 1.5
3 15 1.49 22.3 93.4 88.6 85.1 28.3 24.9 22.0 1.5
4 17 2.42 36.4 51.9 46.5 35 29.6 23.5 21.7 1.5
5 19 3.08 58.8 73.6 65.4 46.9 38.1 29.1 25 1.5

T(r)– Ti /(T0-Ti)=[ln(r/ri)/ln(ro/ri)]

T(r) – Ti = [ln(r/ri)/ln(ro/ri)]*(To - Ti)

T(r) = [ln(r/7*10^-3)/ln(55*10^-3/7*10^-3)]*(292.4-298.9)
T(r) = -3.155 (lnr/ln7*10^-3)

Analytical values:
T2 = 27.2 ˚C
T3 = 26.1 ˚C
T4 = 25.2 ˚C
T5 = 22.4 ˚C
T6 = 21.3 ˚C
Graph:
For each set of readings plot a graph of temperature against radius and draw a smooth curve through the
points. Your graph should be similar to the given one. Observe that each temperature profile is a curve
and that the gradient at any point on the curve decreases with increasing radius from the heated center.
Conclusions:

We can conclude that when inner and outer wall of cylinder are at different temperature, the heat will
start flowing from hot to cold wall and gradient of temperature found is inversely proportional to the
radius.

Sources of Errors:

• Human error
• Heat losses to surrounding
• Material impurities
• Systematic error
• Random Error

Physical Applications:

• Laboratories
• Oil and gas industries
• Power Generation Plants
• Automobile manufacturing
• Heat systems
 Experiment # 06
Objective:
To understand the use of Fourier Rate Equation in determining the rate of heat flow for steady-state
conduction of energy through the wall of a cylinder (radial energy flow) and using the equation to
determine the constant of proportionality (the thermal conductivity k) of the disk material.
Method:
By measuring the change in temperature between the inside radius (heated) and outside radius (cooled) of
the disk at different rates of heat flow through the disk.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT12C Computer Compatible Radial Heat Conduction Accessory.

Theory/Background:
When the inner and outer surfaces of a thick walled cylinder are each at a different uniform temperature,
heat flows radially through the cylinder wall.
The disk can be considered to be constructed as a series of successive layers.

From continuity consideration the radial heat flow through each of successive layers in the wall must be
constant if the flow is steady but since the area of the successive layers increases with radius, the
temperature gradient must decrease with radius.
If a concentric layer (of thickness dR and radius R from the center) in the wall of the cylinder is
considered, the area of heat flow is 2πR for a unit length of cylinder.
The temperature gradient normal to the axis of the cylinder is dT/dR.
According to Fourier’s Law:
Q = -2πR k (dT/dR)
Since Q is independent of R, integration gives:
Q ln (R6/R1) = -2π k ( T6-T1) for heat flow through a unit length of the cylinder.
Where, R1 id the inside radius with corresponding temperature T1 and R6 is the outer radius with
corresponding temperature T6.
Considering a cylinder of length x and rearranging the equation to eliminate the –ive sign
Gives:
2πk(T1-T6)
Q=
R6
ln (R1)

Where ln=loge
Rearranging the equation gives:
R6
Qln (R1)
k=
2πx(T1 − T6)
Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT12C Computer Compatible
Radial Heat Conduction Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Connect the six thermocouples and the cold water flow rate sensor of the HT12C to the
appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
3. Connect the cold water flow control valve to the socket marked AUXILARY OUTPUT on the
rear of HT10XC console.
4. Connect the USB socket on the HT10XC to computer using the USB cable and set the selector
switch to REMOTE.
5. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
6. Turn on the cooling water and adjust the flow control valve to give approximately 1.5 liters/min.
7. Set the heater voltage to 12 volts and allow the HT12C to stabilize.
8. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage, heater current and cooling water flow rate.
9. Follow steps 1 to 8 for heater voltages of 6, 9, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Thickness of brass disk x=3.2 mm
Inner radius of disk (where thermocouple T1 is located) R1= 7 mm
Outside radius of disk (where thermocouple T6 is located) R6 = 50 mm
Thermal conductivity of brass disk 125W/m˚C ( approximately)
 Results and Calculations:
Heater Heater Heater Cooling Thermal
Voltage Current Power T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Water conductivity
Sr. V I Q flow rate of disk
# k
Volts Amps Watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C liter/min W/m˚C

1 10 1.62 16.2 31.4 29 23.9 21.6 19.5 18.1 1.30 119

2 13 1.81 23.53 37.9 33.6 25.6 23.3 20.4 18.6 1.33 119.2
3 15 2.11 31.6 45.1 40.7 31.3 25.9 22.2 19.5 1.29 120.8
4 17 2.42 36.4 51.9 46.5 35 29.6 23.5 21.7 1.29 117.86
5 19 3.08 58.8 72.6 65.4 46.9 38.1 29.1 25 1.28 118.3
Mean Measured Thermal conductivity of the disk = 119.03 W/m˚C.

K = {[Q*ln(Ro/Ri)]/[2*3.14*x*(Ti-To)]}

K = 126.77 w/m ˚C
As, k 125 w/m ˚C for brass;
So, Q = 8.304w
% error = (8.304-8.165)*100/8.304 = 1.68%
Using relationship for k;
K 1→ 3 = 112.3 w/m ˚C
K 1 →4 = 129.7 w/m ˚C
Q 1→ 3 = 8.17w
Q 1→4 = 8.16
Graph:
For each set of readings plot a graph of radius on the logarithmic axis and temperature on the linear axis
then draw the best straight line through the points. The result should be a straight line similar to diagram
below.
Conclusions:
The radial energy is analysed through a cylindrical wall for a steady state conduction of energy, the rate
of thermal conductivity k is also determined by Forrier’s law.

Sources of Errors:
• Minor fault in apparatus
• Heat losses in surrounding
• Improper setup
• Impurities in materials
• Human Error

Physical Applications:
• Laboratories
• Heat exchangers
• Nuclear plants
• Power Generation Plants
COMPUTER COMPATIBLE EXTENDED SURFACE
HEAT TRANSFER ACCESSORY HT15C
Introduction
Extended Surface Heat Transfer Accessory HT15C has been designed to demonstrate the temperature
profiles and heat transfer characteristics for an extended surface (cylindrical pin) when heat flows along
the rod by conduction and heat is lost along the rod by combined convection and radiation to the
surroundings.
Heated Bar
The bar is manufactured from a sloid cylindrical brass bar with a constant diameter of 10mm and is
mounted horizontally with a support at the heated and a steady at the tip. The bar is coated with a heat
resistant matt black paint which provides a consistent emissivity close to unity. The thermal conductivity
of the brass rod is approximately 121 W/mK.
Heater
The rod is heated by a cartridge type electric heating element which operates at low voltage.
Thermocouples
Eight thermocouples are attached to the surface of the rod at equal intervals of 50mm giving an overall
instrumented length of 350mm.
Thermocouple T1 measures the temperature at the hot end of the rod and T8 measures the temperature at
the tip. Thermocouple T9 is mounted adjacent to the heated rod to measure the ambient air temperature.
1. Steady
2. Thermocouples
3. Bar
4. Thermostat
5. Plastic housing
6. Heater lead
7. Heating element
8. Support
9. Base plate
10. Bar
11. Thermocouple for ambient air
 Experiment # 07
Objective:
Measuring the temperature distribution along an extended surface and comparing the results with the
theoretical analysis.
Method:
By heating one end of a solid cylindrical rod (a pin) and measuring the temperature distribution along the
surface of the rod.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT15C Computer Compatible Extended Surface Heat Transfer Accessory.

Theory/Background:
Where it is required to cool a surface by convection, the rate of heat removal can be improved by
increasing the area of the surface. This is usually achieved by adding extended surfaces called fins or
pins.
A temperature gradient exists along each fin or pin due to the combination of the conductivity of the
material and heal loss to the surroundings (greater at the root and less at the tip).
The temperature distribution along the fin or pin must be known to determine the heat transfer from the
surface to its surroundings. Since radiation and natural convection from the surface occur simultaneously,
both of these effects must also be included in the analysis.
By considering the steady state energy balance for an extended surface of uniform material and cross
sectional area the following equation can be derived:
d2 θ(x)
− m2 θ(x) = 0
dx 2
HP
Where m2 =
A kBrass
θ(x) = Tx -Ta

Since H, P, A and kbrass are constant for a given rod with fixed power input, m2 must be constant and
therefore m must be constant.
Assuming that the diameter of the pin is small in comparison with its length then heat loss at the tip can
be assumed to be negligible ( at the tip x=L ).
At x=L,

dθ(x)
= 0
dx
Therefore:
θ(x) (Tx-Ta) cosh m(L-x)
= =
θo T1-Ta cosh m L

The purpose of this exercise is to observe the temperature gradient along the extended surface and to
show that the term m is constant at all positions along the surface.

Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT15C Computer Compatible
Extended Surface Heat Transfer Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Connect the nine thermocouples on HT15C to the appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
3. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
4. Set the heater voltage to 20 volts.
5. Monitor temperature T1 regularly.
6. When T1 reaches 80˚C, reduce the heater voltage to 9 volts (the initial higher setting will reduce
the time taken for the temperature on the rod to stabilize)
 7. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage and heater current.
8. Follow steps 1 to 7 for heater voltages of 6, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Length of the rod (distance from T1 to T8) = 350 mm
Distance between each thermocouple = 50mm

For each position along the rod (dimension x) use the corresponding measured temperatures to find the
value of m which satisfies the relationship:

(Tx-Ta) cosh m(L-x)

=
T1-Ta cosh m L

Note: The value for m can be found by iteration using a suggested starting value of 7.4.
Find the average value of m then use this value to calculate the theoretical temperature Tx at each
position x along the rod.

Results and Calculations:

Measured Temperatures
Heater Heater Heater Avg
Sr. Voltag Curren Power T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 value
# e t Q of
V I m
Watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C
Volts Amps
1 8.9 0.3 3 53.1 44.6 45 35.3 32.4 31.1 29.4 29.5 26.4
2 9.4 0.3 3.3 49.65 41.56 36.95 33.4 30.94 30.07 28.7 28.9 27 7.4

Theoretical Temperature

Sr. T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
#

˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C
1 53.1 44.96 39.38 35.6 35.1 31.52 30.66 30.98
2 49.64 42.74 38.01 34.8 32.68 31.35 30.65 30.37
Graph:
1. For each set of measurements, plot a graph of measured surface temperature Tx against position
x along the extended surface and draw a smooth curve through the points. Your graph should be
similar to the given one.

2. Plot the theoretical temperature profile which you have calculated using the average value for
m and compare the curve with your measured values.
Conclusions:

The analysis for temperature distribution on extended surface is done and compared to theoretical
analysis, both are found to a great extent. Temperature changes as heat moves from one end of rod to
another and heat is attached via thermocouples attached to it.

Sources of Errors:

• Calibration error
• Human Error
• Improper physical contact
• Energy loss to surrounding

Physical Applications:
• Heat Exchangers
• Regenerators
• Metallurgical operations
• Aerospace industries
 Experiment # 08
Objective:
Calculating the heat transfer from an extended surface resulting from the combined modes of free
convection and radiation heat transfer and comparing the results with the theoretical analysis.
Method:
By heating one end of a solid cylindrical rod (a pin) and measuring the temperature distribution along the
surface of the rod.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT15C Computer Compatible Extended Surface Heat Transfer Accessory.

Theory/Background:
The following theoretical analysis uses an empirical relationship for the heat transfer due to natural
convection proposed by W.H McAdams in the publication “Heat Transmission”, third edition, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1959.
The total heat loss from the rod can be calculated as follows:
Qtot=HAs ( Ts-Ta)
Where the heat transfer coefficient H is the combined coefficient due to natural convection and radiation,
ie
H = Hcm + Hrm W𝑚−2 𝐾 −1
And
As= πDL (Total area of the extended surface )
Where
L=Length of the rod = 350mm
D=Diameter of rod= 1mm
The average convective heat transfer coefficient Hcm can be calculated using the following simplified
empirical relationship:
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 0.25
Hcm = 1.32 [ ]
𝐷
Where
Ts= Average surface temperature of the rod K
Ta= Ambient air temperature T9+273 K
The average radiative heat transfer coefficient Hrm can be calculated using the following relationship:
𝑇𝑠 4 − 𝑇𝑎4
𝐻𝑟𝑚 = 𝜎𝜉𝐹
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
Where,
σ = Stefen Boltzman constant σ = 5.67×10−8 (W𝑚−2 𝐾 −4 )
ξ = Emissivity of surface (Dimensionless)
F=1 View Factor (Dimensionless)

Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT15C Computer Compatible
Extended Surface Heat Transfer Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Connect the nine thermocouples on HT15C to the appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
3. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
4. Set the heater voltage to 20 volts.
5. Monitor temperature T1 regularly.
6. When T1 reaches 80˚C, reduce the heater voltage to 9 volts (the initial higher setting will reduce
the time taken for the temperature on the rod to stabilize)
7. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage and heater current.
8. Follow steps 1 to 7 for heater voltages of 6, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Length of the rod (distance from T1 to T8) = 350 mm
Distance between each thermocouple = 50mm
Diameter of the rod =10mm
 Results and Calculations:

Thermocouple Readings
Heater Heater Heater
Sr. Voltage Current Power T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 Hcm Hrm Qout
# V I Qin

Volts Amps Watts ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C

1 8.9 0.3 3 53.1 44.6 45 35.3 32.4 31.1 29.4 29.5 26.4 7.078 6.435 1.9
2 9.4 0.4 3.3 49.6 41.5 34.9 33.5 30.9 30.5 28.7 28.9 27 10.77 6.26 0.83

Hcm = 1.32[(304.435-300)/0.001]^0.25 =10.77

Ts = Tm = 31.435i +273 = 304.435k
Hrm = 6*{(3040435^4-300^4)/(304.435-300)} = 6.26
H = 6.26+10.77 = 17.03
Qtotal = 17.03 * As * (304.435-300) = 0.83
As = (pi)DL = 3.14*10.01*0.35 = 1.099*10^-2 [m^2]
Conclusions:
The heat transfer is conducted for an extended surface because of free convection and radiation and
temperature varied from one thermocouple to another.

Sources of Errors:
• Human Error
• Heat losses to surrounding
• Improper setup.
• Faulty equipment

Physical Applications:
• Regenerators
• Aerospace industries
• Nuclear power plants
• Mechanical processes
• Heat exchangers
 COMPUTER COMPATIBLE
COMBINED CONVECTION AND RADIATION ACCESSORY
HT14C
Introduction:
The HT14C Computer Compatible Combined Convection and Radiation Accessory is designed to
demonstrate heat transfer from a solid surface to its surroundings. A hot surfaces loses heat (heat is
transferred) to its surroundings by the combined modes of convection and radiation. In practice these
modes are difficult to isolate and therefore an analysis of the combined effects at varying surface
temperature and air velocity past the surface provides a meaningful teaching exercise.
Baseplate:
The accessory is mounted on a PVC baseplate.
Heated Cylinder:
The heated cylinder has an outside diameter of 10mm, a heated length of 70mm and is internally heated
throughout its length by an electric heating element which is operated at low voltage.
Cylindrical Duct:
The heated cylinder is mounted horizontally at the top of a cylindrical duct which is attached to the outlet
of a centrifugal fan. The inside diameter of the duct is 70mm.
Thermocouples
Thermocouple T9 is fitted in the wall of the duct to measure upstream air temperature. Thermocouple
T10 is attached to the wall of the heated cylinder to indicate the surface temperature of cylinder midway
along the cylinder.

Anemometer
A rotating vane type anemometer is mounted inside the duct to allow the velocity of air to be measured.
Fan
A centrifugal fan is mounted at the base of the vertical duct to provide a controllable air current through
the duct.
1. PVC Baseplate
2. Led light
3. Manual Switch
4. Guard
5. Cylindrical Duct
6. Anemometer
7. Cylindrical Duct
8. Heated Cylinder
9. Covering
10. Locking screw
11. Index Mark
12. Plug connection
13. Thermocouple Plug for T10
14. Lead from anemometer
15. Thermocouple plug for T9
16. Centrifugal fan
 Experiment # 09
Objective:
To determine the combined heat transfer (Qradiation + Qconvection) from a horizontal cylinder in natural
convection over a wide range of power inputs and corresponding surface temperatures.
Method:
By measuring the temperature on the surface of a horizontal cylinder subjected to heat loss by radiation
and natural convection in combination then comparing the results obtained with those obtained from a
theoretical analysis.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT14C Combined Convection and Radiation Accessory.

Theory/Background:
If a surface at a temperature above that of its surroundings is located in stationary air at the same
temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air and the
surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of natural convection to the air and radiation to
the surroundings.
In case of natural convection the Nusselt number Nu depends on the Grashof and Prandtl numbers and
the heat transfer correlation can be expressed in the form:
Nu=f ( Gr , Pr ) and the Rayleigh number Ra=(Gr Pr)
The following theoretical analysis uses an empirical relationship for the heat transfer due to natural
convection proposed by VT Morgan in the paper “ The Overall Convective Heat Transfer from smooth
Circular Cylinder ” published in TF Irvine and JP Hartnett (eds.), Advances in Heat Transfer vol. 16,
Academic, New York, 1975, pp 199-269.
If
Ts=surface temperature of cylinder (K)
D=Diameter of cylinder (m)
L=Heated Length of cylinder (m)
Ta=Ambient Temperature of air (K)
Heat Transfer Area (surface area) As=(πDL) (𝑚2 )
Heat loss due to natural Convection Qc=HcmAs(Ts-Ta) (W)
Heat loss due to radiation Qr=HrmAs(Ts-Ta) (W)
Total Heat Loss from the cylinder Qtotal=Qc+Qr
The average heat transfer coefficient for radiation Hrm can be calculated using the following relationship:
𝑇𝑠 4 − 𝑇𝑎4
𝐻𝑟𝑚 = 𝜎𝜉𝐹
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
Where
σ = Stefen Boltzman constant σ = 5.67×10−8 (W𝑚−2 𝐾 −4 )
ξ = Emissivity of surface (Dimensionless)
F=1 View Factor (Dimensionless)
The average heat transfer coefficient for natural convection Hcm can be calculated using the following
relationship:
Ts+Ta
Tfilm = (K)
2
1
β= (𝐾 −1 )
Tfilm
gβ(Ts-Ta)D3
GrD=
ν
RaD=( GrD Pr)
Therefore
gβ(Ts-Ta)D3
RaD=
ν
Nu = c (RaD) n (From Morgan, where c and n are obtained from the Table 1 )
kNum
Hcm= (W𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 )
D

Where,
Ra = Rayleigh number
Gr= Grashof number
Nu= Nusselt Number
g=Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
β=Volume expansion coefficient ) −1

ν=Dynamic Viscosity of air m2s-1

k=Thermal conductivity of air Wm-1K-1

Note: k, Pr, and ν are physical properties of air taken at film temperature and can be found from the table-
2.
Table listing constant c and exponent n for natural convection on a horizontal cylinder (source-Morgan):
RaD C N

10−9 𝑡𝑜10−2 0.675 0.058

10−2 𝑡𝑜 102 1.02 0.148
102 to 104 0.850 0.188
104 to 107 0.480 0.250
107 to 1012 0.125 0.333
Table 1

Tfilm ν k Pr

(K) (𝑚−1 𝑠 − ) (W/mK) (Dimensionless)

300 1.684×10−5 0.02624 0.708
350 2.076×10−5 0.03003 0.697
400 2.590×10−5 0.03365 0.689
450 3.171×10−5 0.03707 0.683
500 3.790×10−5 0.04039 0.680
550 4.434×10−5 0.04360 0.680
600 5.134×10−5 0.04659 0.680

Table 2

Alternatively a simplified equation may be used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient for free
convection from the publication “Heat Transmission”, third edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.

𝑇𝑠−𝑇𝑎 0.25
Hcm = 1.32 [ ] (W𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 )
𝐷
 Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT14C Computer Compatible
Combined Convection and Radiation Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Connect the thermocouples on HT14C to the appropriate sockets on the front of service unit.
3. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
4. Set the heater voltage to 5 volts.
5. Monitor temperature regularly and allow the HT14C to stabilize.
6. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage and heater current.
7. Follow steps 1 to 6 for heater voltages of 6, 12, 15 & 21 volts.

Technical Data:
Heated length of the cylinder L = 70 mm
Diameter of the Cylinder D =10mm
Emissivity of surface ξ=095

Stefen Boltzman constant σ = 5.67×10−8(W −2 −4)

Results and Calculations:

Heater Heater Heater

Sr. Voltage Current Power T9 T10 Hcm Hrm Qc Qr Qout=
# V I Qin Qc+ Qr

Volts Amps W ˚C ˚C W𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 W𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 W W W

1 7.1 1.1 8 29.8 140.3 12.607 10.1255 3.295 2.45 5.745
2 7.6 1.3 8.5 30.3 141.3 12.905 11.2678 3.495 2.48 5.98
3 8.1 1.6 9 31.6 142.8 13.654 11.9874 3.795 2.49 5.987
4 8.6 1.9 9.5 32.8 143.6 13.981 12.0354 3.995 3.5 6.52
5 9.1 2.2 10 33.5 144.7 14.430 12.5469 4.015 3.6 7.1
Conclusions:

Analysis of heat transfer through a horizontal cylinder is done with a combined effect of radiative heat
transfer and convective heat transfer over wide range of power inputs.

Sources of Errors:

• Improper calibration
• Heat loss to surroundings
• Systematic Error
• Human error

Physical Applications:

• Heat systems
• Boilers and condensers
• Regenerators
• Aerospace industries
 Experiment # 10
Objective:
To determine the effect of forced convection on heat transfer from the surface of a cylinder at varying air
velocities and surface temperatures.
Method:
By measuring the temperature on the surface of a horizontal cylinder subjected to heat loss by radiation
and forced convection in combination then comparing the results obtained with those obtained from a
theoretical analysis.
Equipment:
• HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit.
• HT14C Combined Convection and Radiation Accessory.

Theory/Background:
In free/natural convection the heat transfer rate from a surface is limited by the small movements of air
which are generated by changes in the density of the air as the air is heated by the surface. In forced
convection the air movement can be greatly increase resulting in improved heat transfer rate from a
surface. Therefore a surface subjected to forced convection will have a lower surface temperature than
the same surface subjected to free convection, for the same power input.

If a surface at a temperature above that of its surroundings is located in moving air at the same
temperature as the surroundings then heat will be transferred from the surface to the air and the
surroundings. This transfer of heat will be a combination of forced convection to the air and radiation to
the surroundings.
Total heat loss from the cylinder
Qtotal=Qfcm+ Qrm
Where,
Heat loss due to forced convection Qfc=HfcmA(Ts-Ta)
Heat loss due to radiation Qr=HrmA(Ts-Ta)
Heat Transfer Area A= πDL

The average heat transfer coefficient for radiation Hrm can be calculated using the following relationship:
𝑇𝑠 4 − 𝑇𝑎4
𝐻𝑟𝑚 = 𝜎𝜉𝐹
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
Where
σ = Stefen Boltzman constant σ = 5.67×10−8 (W𝑚−2 𝐾 −4 )
ξ = Emissivity of surface (Dimensionless)
F=1 View Factor (Dimensionless)
Ts=T10 Surface temperature of cylinder (K)
Ta=T9 Ambient Temperature (K)

Hcm = 1.32[(𝑇𝑠−𝑇𝑎)/𝐷]^0.25 (W𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 )

Where,
k=Thermal conductivity of air W𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
Nu= Nusselt Number (Dimensionless)
D= Diamter of the Cylinder (m)
An empirical formula can be used to calculate the value for Nu as follows:

0.5
0.62𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.33 𝑅𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.3 + ( 0.25 ) (1 + (282000) )
0.4
(1 + ( 𝑃𝑟 )0.66 )

From SW Churchill and M Bernstein “A correlating Equation for Forced Convection from gases and
liquids to circular cylinder in crossflow ” Journal of Heat Transfer. 99:300-306(1977)

Where

Re=Reynolds number = UcD/ν (dimensionless)

Pr=Prandtl number for air ( dimensionless)

Uc= Corrected air velocity (m/s)

Corrected air velocity Uc=1.22Ua (m/s)

(The cylinder causes a blockage in the duct resulting in a local increase in the air velocity)

Values for k,ν and Pr depend on the temperature of the air and can be found using the table 1.
 Tfilm ν k Pr

(K) (𝑚−1 𝑠 − ) (W/mK) (Dimensionless)

−5
300 1.684×10 0.02624 0.708
350 2.076×10−5 0.03003 0.697
400 2.590×10−5 0.03365 0.689
450 3.171×10−5 0.03707 0.683
500 3.790×10−5 0.04039 0.680
550 4.434×10−5 0.04360 0.680
600 5.134×10−5 0.04659 0.680
Table 1
Procedure:
1. Locate the HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit alongside the HT14C Computer Compatible
Combined Convection and Radiation Accessory on a suitable bench.
2. Connect the thermocouples and anemometer on HT14C to the appropriate sockets on the front of
service unit.
3. Switch on the main switch on the service unit HT10XC.
4. Tart the centrifugal fan by pressing the switch on the connection box.
5. Set the fan to give an air flow rate of 0.5 m/s.
6. Set the heater voltage to 20 volts.
7. Monitor temperature regularly and allow the HT14C to stabilize.
8. When the temperatures are stable, select the GO icon in the software to record the temperatures,
heater voltage, heater current and air velocity.
9. Follow steps 1 to 8 for same heater voltage of 20 volts but with required increasing air velocities.
Technical Data:
Heated length of the cylinder L = 70 mm
Diameter of the Cylinder D =10mm
Emissivity of surface ξ=0.95
Stefan Boltzmann constant σ = 5.67×10−8 (W𝑚−2 𝐾 −4 )
 Results and Calculations:

Heater Heater Heater

Sr. Voltage Current Power Ua Uc T9 T10 Hfcm Hrm Qcf Qr Qout=
# V I Qin Qfc+ Qr

Volts Amps W m/s m/s ˚C ˚C W−2−1 W−2−1

W W W
1 11.9 1.9 22.5 0.09 0.11 29.7 204.5 11.698 13.4 2.98 3.24 6.22
2 11.9 1.9 22.7 2.93 3.57 29.9 142.9 15.68 12.9 3.64 3.68 7.21
3 11.9 1.9 22.8 4.19 5.12 30 125.2 29.8 10.98 3.98 3.94 7.98
4 11.9 1.9 22.9 5.46 6.66 30.2 110.1 38.5 8.81 4.21 4.21 8.45
5 11.9 1.9 23 6.87 7.01 31 116.1 47.9 7.54 4.56 5.1 9.57
Graph:
Plot a graph of surface temperature of the cylinder T10 against corrected air velocity Uc. Your graph
should be similar to the given one:
Conclusions:

The analysis of heat transfer is done by means of forced convection from the surface of a cylinder by
changing the surface temperature and air velocity. And then we found heat loss due to forced convection
and radiation.

Sources of Errors:
• Heat losses
• Human Error
• Impurities in material
• Improper physical contacts

Physical Applications:
• Laboratory equipment
• Vehicles
• Air conditioning
CONDENSATION UNIT
WL 230
Introduction:
Knowledge of process of condensation is an important prerequisite for the design and construction of
Condensers in power plants and processing plants.

With the condensation unit, the process of condensation on cooled pipes can be made visible. In
particular, different forms of condensation that is drop and film condensation can be demonstrated.
CONSTRUCTION OF UNIT:
The test stand is designed as a table top unit. All components, controls and displays are arranged in a
clear manner on a panel.
Condenser pipes:
Two condenser pipes K1, K2 made up of gold and copper are fitted in the upper part of the vessel.
Cooling water:
Cooling water flows through the inside of the pipes.
Temperature and mass flow rate measurement:
The heat given off by the steam at the condensation pipes can be determined from the measurement of the
feed and return temperatures ( T1, T2 and T4, T5) and the mass flow rate ( F1 and F2).
Flow control valves:
The cooling water flow rate is adjusted via the control valves V1 and V2.
Water Jet pump:
Water jet pump is used to evacuate the vessel.
Condensate separator:
In order to prevent the escape of steam and thus the loss of water, the suction pipe is fitted with cooling
system and a water separator. The water drawn off is fed back into the vessel.
Steam Generator:
The boiler section contains an electric heater for boiling the water. Two baffle plates are installed in the
section.
Dimension of Condenser pipe
Outer Diameter = 12mm
Cooled Length = 96mm
Surface Area Cooled = 36.18 cm2

Schematic Diagram of Condensation Unit

 Experiment # 11
Objective:
To demonstrate the effect of Dropwise and Filmwise condensation and determining the Heat Transfer
Coefficient.
Method:
By measuring the temperatures of the water at entering and exit point of the condenser.
Equipment:
Condensation Unit WL-230
Theory/Background:
Condensation occurs when steam comes into contact with a wall that has a temperature lower than the
saturation temperature of the stream, the stream precipitates as liquid.
The condensate can take the form of a continuous film or individual drops of liquid on the wall. Hence
the terms film and drop condensation.
In practice film condensation usually occurs. Drop condensation only occurs on very smooth surfaces that
cannot be wet. The transfer of heat is much higher in the case of drop condensation than for film
condensation since there is no continuous liquid film to isolate the steam from the wall.
Since smooth surfaces that cannot be wet are not realizable in practice over the long term, the poorer, but
more certain values of film condensation are usually assumed.
One of the condensers on the test stand is polished and gold plated to provide a durable surface that
cannot be wet. In addition the surface must be perfectly clean. It is for the reason that only pure distilled
water may be used.
Coefficient of Heat Transfer:
To determine the coefficient of heat transfer experimentally , the amount of heat energy transferred Q is
established and inserted in the formula along with the transfer surface area A and the temperature
difference Ts-Tw.

Q
α=
A(Ts-Tw)
Where
Ts = Temperature of the saturated steam
Tw = Temperature of the wall of condenser

The energy transferred is determined from the cooling water flow rate.
Q̇=ṁcp(Tout-Tin)=ρV̇cp(Tout-Tin)
In this equation V̇ is the cooling water flow rate Tout the return temperature and Tin the feed temperature
of the cooling water. The heat capacity Cp and the density ρ at the mean coolant temperature are used .
𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
2

Heat Flow density and Coefficient of Heat Transmission:

The important parameters for assessing the performance of a condenser are the heat flow density q̇ and
the coefficient of heat transmission k. The heat flow density provides an indication of the loading of the
condenser surface area.
𝑄̇
𝑞̇ =
𝐴
The coefficient of heat transmission k refers to the flow of heat due ti the difference between the
temperature of the steam and the cooling water.
𝑄̇
𝑘=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 )
Procedure:
1. Evacuate the cold vessel to 0.3 bar using water jet pump.
2. Adjust the cooling water flow rate for both condensers to achieve the desired difference between
temperatures of surfaces ( T3 , T6) and the temperature of the steam (T7).
3. Adjust the heart power so that the steam temperature remains constant.
4. If necessary readjust the cooling water flow rate to keep the difference between the temperatures
(T7-T3 and T7-T6 respectively) constant.
5. The process of condensation on the condensation pipes can be clearly observed.
6. Read off all temperatures and flow rates and record.
Technical Data:
Outer Diameter of condenser = 12mm
Cooled Length of condenser = 96mm
= 0.003618 m2

Surface Area of condenser

Reference of condensers and values

Type of condensation Film condensation Drop Condensation

Surface Copper Gold
Flow adjusting valve V1 V2
Display and flow rate F1 F2
Inlet temperature T1 T4
Outlet temperature T2 T5
Surface temperature T3 T6
Table 1
Table 2
 Results and Calculations:

Copper

Sr. Inlet Outlet Flow Surface Steam Coefficient Heat Coefficient

# Temperature Temperature rate Temperature Temperature Of Flow Of
Heat Density Heat
Transfer Transmission
T1 T2 F1 T3 T7 α q̇ k

ᵒC ᵒC 𝑚3 /s ᵒC ᵒC W/K𝑚2 kW/𝑚2 W/𝑚2 K

1 80 64 30 43 100 0.76 15395.246 0.69

2 85 70 30 46 119 0.79 15425.87 0.72
3 90 74 30 49 127 0.82 15497.91 0.76
4 95 79 30 53 136 0.85 16173.68 0.809

GOLD

Sr. Inlet Outlet Flow Surface Steam Coefficient Heat Coefficient

# Temperature Temperature rate Temperature Temperature Of Flow Of
Heat Density Heat
Transfer Transmissi
T4 T5 F2 T6 T7 α q̇ on
k
ᵒC ᵒC 𝑚3 /s ᵒC ᵒC W/K𝑚2 kW/𝑚2
W/𝑚2 K

1 80 64 30 43 100 1.70 33582.09 1.55

2 85 70 30 46 119 1.73 33683.86 1.59
3 90 74 30 49 127 1.77 33741.65 1.64
4 95 79 30 53 136 1.80 33904.01 1.68
Conclusions:

We conclude that we flowed both liquid in same direction (i.e. co-current flow) and in different direction
(i.e. counter flow). We found out that rate of heat transfer is high in counter flow as compared to parallel
flow.

Sources of Errors:

• Variations in flow rate

• Systematic Error
• Calibration Error
• Parallel error

Physical Applications:

• HVAC system
• Vehicles
• Aircrafts
• Chimneys
• Glass industry
• Power Plants
HEAT EXCHANGER
SERVICE UNIT
H102
Introduction
The transfer of heat from one medium to another is an essential process in almost all industrial and
commercial processes. From heavy engineering such as power generation and oil refineries, to small
domestic heating systems, heat exchangers carry out an important process that should be understood by
all engineers.
Heat exchangers can take many forms. However several common aspects are shared between the various
designs. In order to maximize the heat transfer rate or reduce the volume of the heat exchanger,
artificially increasing the turbulence of the two fluid streams is beneficial. This can be achieved by a
combination of increasing the stream velocity and having flow diverters or baffles that cause rapid
changes in flow direction.
Increasing the effective surface area of the contact between the two streams will also increase the heat
transfer rate. If this can be achieved by the use of corrugations or fins that do not result in an increase in
the volume then this will result in a more efficient design.
In industrial applications design for ease of maintenance is also important. Fouling of the heat transfer
surface due to deposits from the heat transfer media will result in reduction in efficiency with time. If this
cannot be easily removed then replacement of the heat exchanger is a costly solution.
The Hilton Heat Exchanger Service Module H102 and its range of optional heat exchangers have been
purpose designed to both visually and practically determine heat exchangers in action.
The heat Exchangers under consideration are:

• Concentric Tube Heat Exchangers H102A

• Plate Heat Exchanger H102B
• Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger H102C
 Experiment # 12
Objective:
To demonstrate the difference between counter-current flow (flows in opposing directions) and co-
current flows (flows in same direction) and the effect on heat transferred, temperature efficiencies and
temperature profiles through a Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger
Method:
By measuring the temperature of cold and hot water at entering and exit point of the Heat Exchanger.
Equipment:
Heat Exchanger Service Unit H102
Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger H102C.
Theory/Background:
The shell and tube heat exchanger is an efficient design and finds application in food, chemical and
refrigeration plant. This type of heat exchanger consists of a number of tubes in parallel enclosed in a
cylindrical shell. Heat is transferred between one fluid flowing through the tubes bundle and the other
fluid flowing through the cylindrical shell around the tubes. Baffles are often included inside the shell to
increase the velocity and turbulence in the shell side fluid and thereby increasing the heat transfer.
Temperature Efficiency:
The temperature change in each stream ( hot and cold ) is compared with the maximum temperature
difference between two streams. This could only occur in a perfect heat exchanger of infinite size with no
external losses or gains.
The temperature Efficiency of Hot Stream will be:
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 = × 100%
𝑇1 − 𝑇3

The temperature Efficiency of Cold Stream will be:

𝑇4 − 𝑇3
𝜂𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑇1 − 𝑇3
Where,
T1 = Inlet Temperature of Hot fluid (ᵒC)
T2= Outlet Temperature of Hot fluid (ᵒC)
T3= Inlet Temperature of Cold fluid (ᵒC)
T4= Outlet Temperature of Cold fluid (ᵒC)
The Mean Temperature Efficiency
𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 + 𝜂𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑
Procedure:
1. Install the shell and tube heat exchanger on the heat exchanger service unit to give the counter-
current flow.
2. Turn on the Main switch and Heater switch
3. Set the hot water temperature controller to 60ᵒC
4. Set the Cold water flow rate Vcold to 15g/sec
5. Set the hot water flow rate Vhot to 35g/sec.
6. Monitor the stream temperatures and the hot and cold flow rates.
7. Record the T1, T2, T3, T4, Vhot and Vcold.
8. This completes the basic Counter-Current flow experiment observations.
9. Next connect the Shell and Tube heater exchanger to give the co-current flow.
10. Follow the same steps as for the Counter-Current flow and record the readings.
 Results and Calculations:

Counter-Current Flow

Sr Hot water Hot water Cold water Cold water Cold Hot
.# Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Water Water
Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Flow Flow
e e e e Rate Rate 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
ṁ ṁ
T1 T2 T3 T4
g/sec g/sec
ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC
1 80 64 30 43 17 35 2.98 3.64 3.23
2 85 70 30 46 18 37 3.54 3.98 3.67
3 90 74 30 49 19 39 3.98 4.12 4.06
4 95 80 30 53 21 41 4.52 4.56 4.5444

Co-Current Flow

Sr Hot water Hot water Cold water Cold water Cold Hot
.# Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Water Water
Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Flow Flow
e e e e Rate Rate 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
ṁ ṁ
T1 T2 T3 T4
g/sec g/sec
ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC
1 80 58 30 47 17 35 2.99 3.65 3.34
2 85 63 30 52 19 37 3.55 3.99 3.87
3 90 68 30 56 20 39 3.99 4.13 4.20
4 95 74 30 60 22 42 4.53 4.65 4.58
Conclusions:

We conclude that we flowed both liquid in same direction (i.e. co-current flow) and in different direction
(i.e. counter flow). We found out that rate of heat transfer is high in counter flow as compared to parallel
flow.

Sources of Errors:
• The flow rates may vary
• Human Error
• Random Error

Physical Applications:
• Vehicles
• Aircrafts
• Refrigerators
• Oil and gas industry
• Chemical industry
• Fertilizer industry
• Food Industry
 Experiment # 13
Objective:
To demonstrate the difference between counter-current flow (flows in opposing directions) and co-current
flows (flows in same direction) and the effect on heat transferred, temperature efficiencies and
temperature profiles through a Plate Heat Exchanger.
Method:
By measuring the temperature of cold and hot water at entering and exit point of the Heat Exchanger.
Equipment:
Heat Exchanger Service Unit H102
Plate Heat Exchanger H102B.

Theory/Background:
The plate heat exchangers are extremely versatile and exhibits one of the most efficient heat exchanger
design on terms of its capacity relative to its volume. In addition, some designs allow on-site variation of
capacity by the addition or removal of plate combination.
The plate heat exchanger finds application in food processing and chemical industries where different
combinations of plates and gaskets can be arranged to suit a particular application.
The H102B Plate heat exchanger is a 4-plate brazed model that demonstrates the basic principles of heat
transfer.
Temperature Efficiency:
The temperature change in each stream ( hot and cold ) is compared with the maximum temperature
difference between two streams. This could only occur in a perfect heat exchanger of infinite size with no
external losses or gains.
The temperature Efficiency of Hot Stream will be:
 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 = × 100%
𝑇1 − 𝑇3

The temperature Efficiency of Cold Stream will be:

𝑇4 − 𝑇3
𝜂𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑇1 − 𝑇3
Where,
T1 = Inlet Temperature of Hot fluid (ᵒC)
T2= Outlet Temperature of Hot fluid (ᵒC)
T3= Inlet Temperature of Cold fluid (ᵒC)
T4= Outlet Temperature of Cold fluid (ᵒC)
The Mean Temperature Efficiency
𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 + 𝜂𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑

Procedure:
1. Install the Plate heat exchanger on the heat exchanger service unit to give the counter-current
flow.
2. Turn on the Main switch and Heater switch
3. Set the hot water temperature controller to 60ᵒC
4. Set the Cold water flow rate Vcold to 18g/sec
5. Set the hot water flow rate Vhot to 33g/sec.
6. Monitor the stream temperatures and the hot and cold flow rates.
7. Record the T1, T2, T3, T4, Vhot and Vcold.
8. This completes the basic Counter-Current flow experiment observations.
9. Next connect the plate heater exchanger to give the co-current flow.
10. Follow the same steps as for the Counter-Current flow and record the readings.
 Results and Calculations

Counter-Current Flow

Sr Hot water Hot water Cold water Cold water Cold Hot
.# Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Water Wate
Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Flow r
e e e e Rate Flow 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
ṁ Rate
T1 T2 T3 T4 ṁ
g/sec
ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC g/sec
1 80 57 30 53 18 33 46 46 92

Co-Current Flow

Sr Hot water Hot water Cold water Cold water Cold Hot
.# Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Water Water
Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Flow Flow
e e e e Rate Rate 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
ṁ ṁ
T1 T2 T3 T4
g/sec g/sec
ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC
1 80 67 30 46 18 33 26 32 58
Conclusions:

We conclude that rate of heat transfer is high in counter flow (in different direction) as compared to
parallel flow (in same direction) in concentric tube heat exchangers.

Sources of Errors:
• Variations in flow rate
• Systematic Error
• Calibration Error

Physical Applications:
• Vehicles
• Aircrafts
• Refrigerators
• Oil and gas industry
• Chemical industry
• Fertilizer industry
• Food Industry
• Nuclear power plants
 Experiment # 14
Objective:
To demonstrate the difference between counter-current flow (flows in opposing directions) and
co-current flows (flows in same direction) and the effect on heat transferred, temperature
efficiencies and temperature profiles through a Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger.
Method:
By measuring the temperature of cold and hot water at entering and exit point of the Heat
Exchanger.
Equipment:
Heat Exchanger Service Unit H102
Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger H102A.

Theory/Background:
The concentric tube heat exchanger consists of two coaxial tubes one inside and other carrying
fluids of different temperatures. Due to the temperature difference, heat will flow from the hotter
stream to the cooler one. This is the simplest form of heat exchanger and a design that may be
successfully analyzed and described by empirical equations.
The temperature Efficiency of Hot Stream will be:
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 = × 100%
𝑇1 − 𝑇3

The temperature Efficiency of Cold Stream will be:

𝑇4 − 𝑇3
𝜂𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑇1 − 𝑇3
Where,
T1 = Inlet Temperature of Hot fluid (ᵒC)
T2= Outlet Temperature of Hot fluid (ᵒC)
T3= Inlet Temperature of Cold fluid (ᵒC)
T4= Outlet Temperature of Cold fluid (ᵒC)
The Mean Temperature Efficiency
𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 + 𝜂𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑

Procedure:
1. Install the concentric tube heat exchanger on the heat exchanger service unit to give the
counter-current flow.
2. Turn on the Main switch and Heater switch
3. Set the hot water temperature controller to 60ᵒC
4. Set the Cold water flow rate Vcold to 17g/sec
5. Set the hot water flow rate Vhot to 35g/sec.
6. Monitor the stream temperatures and the hot and cold flow rates.
7. Record the T1, T2, T3, T4, Vhot and Vcold.
8. This completes the basic Counter-Current flow experiment observations.
9. Next connect the concentric tube heater exchanger to give the co-current flow.
10. Follow the same steps as for the Counter-Current flow and record the readings.
 Results and Calculations:

Counter-Current Flow

Sr Hot water Hot water Cold water Cold water Cold Hot
.# Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Water Water
Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Flow Flow
e e e e Rate Rate 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
ṁ ṁ
T1 T2 T3 T4
g/sec g/sec
ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC
1 80 58 30 47 17 35 44 34 78

Co-Current Flow

Sr. Hot water Hot water Cold water Cold water Cold Hot
# Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Water Water
Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Temperatur Flow Flow
e e e e Rate Rate 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
ṁ ṁ
T1 T2 T3 T4
g/sec g/sec
ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC ᵒC
1 80 64 30 43 17 35 32 22 54
Conclusions:
The analysis of heat transfer temperature efficiency and temperature profiles is done for a a concentric
tube heat exchanger co current and counter current directional flows.

Sources of Errors:
• Variations in flow rate
• Systematic Error
• Calibration Error
• Random Error

Physical Applications:
• Vehicles
• Aircrafts
• Refrigerators
• Oil and gas industry
• Chemical industry
• Fertilizer industry
• Food Industry
• Nuclear power plants