Review of Semiconductor Devices

Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Review of Semiconductor Devices

The PN Junction Diode

Open-circuited pn junction

NA: acceptor atoms concentrations (atoms per cubic meter)

ND: Donor atoms concentrations (atoms per cubic meter)
The Junction Built-in Voltage: With no external voltage applied, the barrier voltage
Vo across the pn junction is given by

where ni is the intrinsic concentration (the number of hole-electron pairs per cubic
meter)

k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = absolute temperature, q = the

magnitude of the electronic charge,

Now, at room temperature of (273 + 20) = 293ºK, VT = 293/11,600 = 0.025 V = 25

mV.

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Volt-ampere characteristics
The forward and reverse diode characteristics are shown below:

These characteristics can be described by the analytical equation called Boltzmann

diode equation given below :
IS is the reverse-bias saturation current. For silicon pn
junctions, typical values of IS are in the range of 10−18
to 10−12 A. 1≤ n ≤ 2.

n= 1 – for germanium and

= 2 – for silicon

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Temperature Effects

The diode a.c. resistance

Transition Capacitance (CT)

𝜀𝐴
𝐶𝑇 =
𝑊
ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions

W = Width of depletion region

Diffusion Capacitance ( CD )

but

where τn is the electron lifetime in the p region

where τT is called the mean transit time of the junction

where I is the forward-bias current.

Note that Cd is directly proportional to the forward current I and thus is negligibly
small when the diode is reverse biased
For forward bias: CD >> CT
For reverse bias: CD << CT

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Common-emitter characteristics

Active region
In case of npn device, in order for the transistor to be biased in the forward-active
mode, the B–C junction must be zero or reverse biased, which means that VCE must
be greater than approximately VBE(on).

At low values of VCE (lower than about 0.3 V), as the collector voltage goes below
that of the base by more than 0.4 V, the collector–base junction becomes forward
biased and the transistor leaves the active mode and enters the saturation mode.

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

The curves are theoretically linear with respect to the VCE in the forward-active
mode.
The slope in these characteristics is due to an effect called base-width modulation
The phenomenon is generally called the Early effect. When the curves are
extrapolated to zero current, they meet at a point on the negative voltage axis, at
VCE = −VA. The voltage VA is a positive quantity called the Early voltage.

base-width modulation
For a given value of VBE in an npn transistor, if VCE increases, the reverse-bias
voltage on the collector–base junction increases, which means that the width of the
B–C space-charge region also increases. This in turn reduces the neutral base width
W. A decrease in the base width causes the gradient in the minority carrier
concentration to increase, which increases the diffusion current through the base.
The collector current then increases as the VCE voltage increases.
As VCE ↑, Base width ↓, recombination in the base ↓, 𝜶 ↑, IC↑
VA: Early Voltage, determine the slope of IC Vs VCE for agiven VBE and hence
determine the value of the resistance associated with collector controlled source.

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

The linear dependence of iC versus vCE in the forward-active mode can be described
by

Where (IS) is assumed to be constant

Hence, the nonzero slope of the curves indicates that the output resistance ro
looking into the collector is finite. This output resistance is determined from

where IC is the quiescent collector current when VBE is a constant and VCE is small
compared to VA.

Operating Regions of Bipolar and MOS Transistors

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Small-Signal Models of Bipolar Transistors

The hybrid π equivalent circuit for CE configuration BJT (approximate)

Consider the bipolar transistor, which operate in the forward-active region.

The elements of the small signal model are function of the quiescent voltages and
currents established by the bias.
Transconductance

at Vce=0

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Small signal current gain hfe (βo)

Note: dc current gain , hFE, βF, βdc
𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑑𝑐 = a function of current but over a wide range currents it is fairly constant
𝐼𝐵

Generally, βdc=β

at a fixed VCE
Typical values of βo are close to those of βF
In saturation hFE → 0, because ∆IC→ 0 for a change ∆IB
Input Resistance
The small-signal input resistance seen by vbe, is given by

The resistance rπ is called the diffusion resistance or base–emitter input resistance.

Thus, the small-signal input shunt resistance of a bipolar transistor depends on the
current gain and is inversely proportional to IC

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Exact hybrid π- equivalent circuit

ro is called the small-signal transistor output resistance.

In active region, we see that the Early effect collector current does vary with VCE
due to .

Collector-Base Resistance rμ
The element rμ is the reverse-biased diffusion resistance of the base–collector
junction. This resistance can normally be neglected (an open circuit).

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

However, the resistance does provide some feedback between the output and input,
meaning that the base current is a slight function of the collector–emitter voltage.

The series resistance rb

The parameter rb is the series resistance of the semiconductor material between the
external base terminal B and an idealized internal base region B’.

Typically, rb is a few tens of ohms and is usually much smaller than rπ ; therefore,
rb is normally negligible (a short circuit) at low frequencies.

However, at high frequencies, rb may not be negligible, since the input impedance
becomes capacitive.

Note: In this Course, when we use the hybrid-π equivalent circuit model, we will
neglect both rb and rμ, unless they are specifically included. The equivalent circuit
will be:

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Hybrid π-model equivalent circuit at high frequencies

Cπ= CDe + Cje

Cμ=Cjc

CDe: The Base-Charging or Diffusion Capacitance

Cje: Emitter junction transition capacitance
Cjc: Collector junction transition (depletion) capacitance

h-parameter equivalent circuit

One common equivalent circuit model for bipolar transistor uses the h-parameters,
which relate the small-signal terminal currents and voltages of a two port network.

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

If we assume the transistor is biased at a Q-point in the forward-active region, the

linear relationships between the small-signal terminal currents and voltages can be
written as

Relations between h- and hybrid π-parameters

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Review of Semiconductor Devices
Dr. Ali T. Shaheen

Note: At high frequencies, the h-parameters become complex functions of frequency,

so that the hybrid π-model is used instead.

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