Chapter 12: Vibrations and Waves

12.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

o Hooke’s Law
• Periodic motion: a repeated motion, back and forth over the same path
• For simple harmonic motion (example: mass on spring) oscillating on frictionless
surface:

Maximum positive x = xmax Felastic = - Fmax a = - amax v=0

displacement

Equilibrium position x=0 Felastic = 0 a=0 v = vmax

Maximum negative x = -xmax Felastic = Fmax a = amax v=0
displacement

 In the absence of friction, oscillation would continue indefinitely, but due to

friction, it eventually comes to rest (damping)
 In simple harmonic motion, restoring force is proportional to displacement
- Spring force always pushes or pulls mass back toward equilibrium
position: sometimes called restoring force
- Definition of simple harmonic motion: vibration about an
equilibrium position in which a restoring force is proportional to
the displacement from equilibrium
- Hooke’s Law applies for small displacements from equilibrium for mass
on spring:
Felastic = -kx
- Restoring force is proportional to displacement
- Negative sign shows that direction of spring force always opposite
direction of mass’s displacement from equilibrium: spring force will
tend to move object back to equilibrium position.
- k = spring constant (N/m): measure of spring’s stiffness

o The Simple Pendulum

o Consists of bob (mass) attached to fixed string.
o Assumptions: all mass concentrated at a point, string mass negligible
o Restoring force of pendulum is component of bob’s weight:
Fg,x = Fgsinθ
where θ = angle pendulum makes with normal = displacement
o For small angles (<15º), sinθ ~ θ, where θ is in radians
o Since restoring force is proportional to displacement (θ), motion of simple pendulum is
simple harmonic motion for small displacements
o The conclusions reached for mass on spring apply equally to simple pendulum
o Gravitational potential energy at maximum displacement is converted to kinetic energy
at equilibrium position
12.2 Measuring Simple Harmonic Motion
o Amplitude, Period, and Frequency
• Amplitude: the maximum displacement from equilibrium position
• Period: time required to execute a complete cycle of motion (s)
• Frequency: number of cycles or vibrations per unit of time (s-1 = Hz)
• Period and frequency are reciprocals: T = 1/f; f = 1/T
• For simple pendulum, period depends on pendulum length and free-fall acceleration:
L
T = 2π
g
- When two pendulums have different lengths but same amplitude, shorter
pendulum has smaller arc to travel through, so shorter pendulum will have
shorter period
- For small angles, period is independent of displacement
- For ideal pendulums, period is independent of mass

• For mass-spring system, period depends on mass and spring constant:

m
T = 2π
k

- For a given amplitude, stiffer spring takes less time to complete a cycle of
motion
- Changing amplitude doesn’t affect the period
12.3 Properties of Waves
o Wave Motion
o A wave is the motion of a disturbance
 The medium is the material through which the disturbance travels
• The medium doesn’t actually travel with the waves; once the wave passes,
the medium returns to its original position
• Mechanical waves are propagated through a deformable, elastic medium
o Wave Types
o Pulse wave: single, nonperiodic disturbance
o Sine waves describe particles vibrating with simple harmonic motion
 Sine waves are a special case of a periodic wave in which the periodic motion is
simple harmonic motion
o Transverse waves: particles vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of the wave motion
 Waves are measured in terms of both displacement from equilibrium and distance
between neighboring displacements
• Crest: highest point above equilibrium position
• Trough: lowest point below equilibrium position
• Wavelength (λ): distance wave travels during one cycle
o Can be measured between any equivalent points on adjacent
disturbances, but usually measured from crest to crest or trough to
trough
o Longitudinal waves: particles vibrate parallel to direction of wave motion
 Example: sound waves in air
 Often called density or pressure wave: crests correspond to areas of compressions,
troughs correspond to rarefactions

o Period, Frequency, and Wave Speed

o Source of wave is a vibrating object
o Vibrating object that causes a sine wave always has characteristic frequency: frequency of
vibration of source = frequency of vibration of particles of medium.
o Frequency (f) is number of wave crests or troughs that pass a given point in a unit of time
o Period (T) is amount of time for one complete vibration of the particles of the medium:
time it takes for one complete wavelength to pass a given point
o Wave speed equals frequency times wavelength
 Derivation from book:
• v = Δx/Δt
• Δx = wavelength, and Δt = T, so v = λ/T
• Since f = 1/T, v = fλ
 Speed of mechanical wave is constant for any given medium; in other words, f and
λ are related to speed, they don’t cause it
o Waves transfer energy
 Waves transfer energy by motion of matter rather than by transferring matter itself
 Rate of energy transfer depends on amplitude of particles of the medium; greater
amplitude means greater energy transfer in a given time interval
• For mechanical waves, energy transferred is proportional to the square of
the amplitude
• Amplitude of a wave gradually diminished over time: damping, as energy is
dissipated
12.4 Wave Interactions
• Wave Interference
o Waves are unaffected by other waves passing through the same space at the same moment;
they are not matter, but displacements of matter
o Waves combine when they overlap; this is called superposition
o As waves pass through each other, they interact to form an interference pattern; this occurs
for all kinds of waves.
o Displacements in the same direction produce constructive interference
 The resultant wave is simply the sum of the displacements due to the addition of
the individual waves
 Superposition principle: when two or more waves travel through a medium,
resultant wave is sum of displacements of the individual waves at each point.
• Holds for all types of waves (mechanical and electromagnetic)
• Only valid when individual waves have small amplitudes of displacement
 After passing through each other, each wave has its original shape and direction
 When displacements are on same side of equilibrium we have constructive
interference: resultant is larger than the individual waves that make it up
o Displacements on opposite sides of equilibrium produce destructive interference
 When two waves have equal amplitude and displacements of opposite sign, they
cancel each other out completely; resultant wave has displacement of zero; this is
complete destructive interference
o With periodic waves, complicated patterns that involve areas of constructive and
destructive interference at different points, the locations of which may vary with time
• Reflection
o At a free boundary, waves are reflected; the reflected pulse is identical to the incident pulse
o At a fixed boundary, waves are both reflected and inverted
• Standing Waves
o Occur when waves of same frequencies, wavelength, and amplitude interfere
o Do not move along the string, even though the component waves do
o Consist of alternating regions of constructive and destructive interference
o Nodes: points at which incident and reflected waves cancel
o Antinodes: points midway between two adjacent nodes where amplitude is greatest
o For a string fixed on both ends, the ends must be nodes