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PAPER - I : FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY – I

CODE NO. D - 56

1. Sociology – Definition – Nature and Scope – Relation to Psychology,

Anthropology – History and Economics.
2. Basic Concepts – Society – community – Association – Institutions –
Culture, Civilisation – Groups – Social Values and Norms – Role and
Status – Socialization.
3. Social Institutions – Marriage and Family – Economic – Political –
Educational and Religious
4. Social Structure and Social Stratification.
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
Ogburn and Nimkoff – A Hand book of Sociology
Mac Iver and page – Society – An Introductory analysis
Broom and Selzinc – Sociology
Sharma – Principles of Sociology
Gillin – Cultural Sociology

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B.A. SOCIOLOGY FIRST YEAR

PAPER – I : FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY

CONTENTS

LESSON PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.

1. Definition of sociology : The Nature and Scope of Sociology 1

2. Relation with other Sciences 8

3. Basic Concepts 12

4. Community 17

5. Association and Institution 20

6. Culture 23

7. Groups 26

8. Social Norms and Values 30

9. Classification of Norms Folkways 33

10. Role and Status 38

11. Socialization 41

12. Social Institutions 44

13. Marriage and Family 53

14. The Family 62

14. B. Social Institution 81

15. Religious Institution 87

16. Economic Institution 96

17. Political Institution 111

18.
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Educational Institution 122

19. Social Structure 130

20. Social Stratification 134

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IUSOC - I

1 - 20

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

B.A. SOCIOLOGY - FIRST YEAR

Paper I

FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLGY - I

LESSONS : 1 - 20

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Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation only)
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LESSON - 1

DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
STRUCTURE
1.0. Objectives
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Definition of sociology
1.3. Scope of sociology
1.3.1. Specialistic Schools of thought
1.3.2. Synthetic School of thought
1.4. Field of Sociology
1.4.1. Social morphology
1.4.2. Social Physiology
1.4.3. General Sociology
1.4.4. Social Control
1.4.5. Social Process
1.4.6. Social Pathology
1.5. Sociology is a Science
1.5.1. The study of the whole social life of men
1.5.2. An examination or the interdependence of various groups
1.5.3. Survey of the process of social change
1.5.4. Dealing with social processes
1.5.5. Investigation of Human personality
1.5.6. Emphasis on social problems
1.5.7. Analysis of human culture and Civilization
[Link]. Employs Scientific Method
[Link]. Factuals
[Link]. Universal law
[Link]. Nature of prediction
[Link]. Cause and effect relationship
1.6. Summary
1.7. Key words

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1.8. Suggested Questions
1.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Study the Nature and Scope to sociology.
 Define sociology, social pathology and social morphology.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
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Sociology is one of the youngest sciences. August comte first used the term
‘Sociology’ in its modern sense in 1839. The term “Socio’ means society and ‘logy’
means science. Hence etymologically Sociology means, the science of society.
The teaching of Sociology as a separate subject started in 1876 in the United
states and from there it went over France and England. In course of time it began to
be studied in many other countries. Now it is taught all over the world and its
popularity is constantly increasing.
Sociology like every other science is an intellectual discipline. It trains human
intellect, inspires a spirit of inquiry and it develops in the people a scientific outlook.
It is a social science par excellence which coordinates all other social sciences.
In what way does Sociology differ from other Social sciences? It was for the
understanding of social phenomena and the various aspects of society that the
different social sciences like History, Economics, Political Science, Anthropology,
Psychology etc., were brought into existence. All these sciences are interrelated but
each one is concentrating a particular phase of human society. History for example,
records the unique events; Economics is concerned with production and
consumption. Political Science deals with the political activities of men.
Anthropology studies human institutions as they existed in past. Psychology is
interested in the impulses and motives of human behaviour. All these science are
studying one or more aspects of society. Sociology is the only science which studies
the total aspects of social life. Hence it is regarded as mother of all social sciences.
1.2. DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY
It is in the fitness to study some of the definitions of Sociology to understand
more fully what Sociology is about. It has been defined in various ways by different
Sociologists.
1. “Sociology is the science of society or social phenomena”
2. “The subject matter of Sociology is the interaction of human minds”
3. Sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their
conditions and consequences”
-M. Ginsbergs
4. “Sociology may be defined as a body of Scientific knowledge of human
relationship”.
-J.F. Cuber
5. “Sociology deals with the behaviour of men in groups”
-Kimball Young
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6. “Sociology seeks to discover the principles of cohesion and order within the
social structure”
-Maclver
A critical approach of these definitions of Sociology shows that the chief interest
of Sociology is individuals, ideas, customs and environment. There is a large
measure of agreement among the Sociologists as to their field of study. The
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difference between these various definitions are essentially the difference of

approach. The common idea underlying them all is that Sociology is concerned with
human relationships. The subject matter is society rather than individuals though
individuals, cannot be left utterly out of account.
1.3. SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
There is no consensus about the scope of Sociology. The Sociologists, differ with
one another on this issue. There has come into being two schools of thought i.e., the
‘Specialistic School and the ‘Synthetic Schools’ dealing with the scope of Sociology.
1.3.1. Specialistic Schools of thought
The main supporters of this school were Simmel, Max Weber, Tonnies and
others. They clearly demarcate Sociology from other branches of Social study and
confine if to the inquiry into certain defined aspects of human relationships.
According to Simmel, “The distinction between Sociology and other Social
sciences is that it deals with the same topic but from different angle, and it is the
angle of the different modes of social relationships”. The business of general
Sociology is to disentangle the various forms of social relationships and to study
them in abstraction.
Max Weber also makes out a definite field for Sociology. According to him the
aim of Sociology is to interpret or understand social behaviour. But the social
behaviour does not cover the whole field of human relationships. Sociology is
concerned with the analysis and classification of types of social relationships.
1.3.2. Synthetic Schools of thought
Durkheim, Hobhouse and Sorokin are the chief exponents of this theory. The
theory of Durkheim is that Sociology has three principal divisions: 1) Social
Morphology 2) Social Physiology 3) General sociology.
Social morphology is concerned with geographical or territorial basis of the life
of people and its relations to various types of organizations.
Social Physiology is divided into number of branches and they deal with the
activities related to social groups. General Sociology is to discover general laws
governing those above social life.
Ginsberg has made a thorough survey of the view of both school and has drawn
his results about the field of Sociology is to discover general laws governing those
above social life.
Ginsberg has made a thorough survey of the view of both school and has drawn
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his results about the field of sociology. In his view Sociology studies all forms of
relations between individuals in society. The interrelationship between individuals in
society may be of three forms viz., the relationship of individuals to one another, the
relations of individuals to their community and the relations of individuals to their
physical environment.
According to Ginsberg there are four main objects of Sociology which may be
briefly stated below:
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1. Its object is to study the nature and functions of various social groups
and laws of their development.
2. Its object is to find out by means of the comparative method, the inter-
relations between institutions.
3. Its object is to formulate the laws or empirical generalization of social
development.
4. Finally its object is to interpret social laws in the light of the more
general laws of life.
In brief, Sociology studies all branches and all aspects of social phenomena. It
is concerned with the study of the various forms of interpersonal relationships in
society. It studies the nature of various social phenomena in the different stages of
social revolution. It studies normal as well as abnormal social phenomena. It studies
anything which has direct or indirect bearing upon social phenomena.
1.4. FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY
The above mentioned scope of Sociology can be further understood by a survey
of its field. The wide field has been divided into following classes.
1.4.1. Social Morphology
This field of Sociology includes all those subjects which fundamentally
geographic such areas population, its size, density, distribution etc. This
comprehends the following two studies.
a. Analysis of the size and quality of the population, in as much as it
affects the qualities of social relationships and social groups.
b. Study of the social structure or a description of this main forms of social
groups or institution as well as there classification.
1.4.2. Social Physiology
This field of Sociology is inclusive of all those subject which are studied by
particular social sciences such as religion, economy, language, morals, law etc.
Religion, economy, morals and language, are studied by sociology of religion,
sociology of economic life, sociology of morals and sociology of language respectively
of these are special sociologies.
1.4.3. General Sociology
General Sociology is the philosophical part of ‘sociology’. Its function is the
formulation of general social laws.
1.4.4. Social Control

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This consists of the study of factors such as law religion, fashion, modestic
which exercise some kind of control over the individual society.
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1.4.5. Social Processes

In this field of Sociology studied those integrative and disintegrative processes
such as cooperation and conflict etc., which exist among men or groups of human
beings.
1.4.6. Social Pathology
This particular branch of sociology particular studies the factors leading to
social disorganization and ways and means of preventing social disorganization and
ways and means of preventing social disorganization.
It would have become evident after perusal of the above mentioned field of
sociology that the scope of sociology is very wide. It studies the various aspects of
Sociology is social traditions, social processes, social morphology factors of social
control social pathology characteristics and mutual relationships of social
phenomena, effect of extra social elements upon social relationships and processes
etc., on social life. This is clear form a perusal of important branches of Sociology
such as Rural Sociology, Social pathology Sociology of Marriage, Family, Law,
Religion, Industry, knowledge value, Art, Science etc.
Actually it is neither possible nor essential to determine the scope of Sociology.
This would be as Sprott puts it, “a brave attempt to confine an enormous mass of
slppes material into a relatively simple system of pigeon holes. “The truth is that any
subject which is studied by the sociological method is included within the scope of
Sociology and it is not possible to determine especially in a developing Science what
exactly can do and what cannot be studied by its method.
1.5. SOCIOLOGY IS A SCIENCE
Sociology deals with different aspects of the social life of the individuals and
examines the working of society in acts varied parts. For this end those fundamental
things it prepares itself for the title of the science of society. The study of the
following facts will reveal that the critic are justified in giving it the said appellation.
1.5.1. The study of the whole social life of man
To begin with sociology has for its field the study of the whole life of man in
society. The main task of a Sociology it is to determine the nature and character of
human societies and of social institutions. He therefore attempts to discover the
evolution of man and society, its systems and structures and the development and
functions of social institutions. Further more the customs and the rules of conduct
by means of which societies are regulated and also the kind of groups and
communities that man has formed fall within the purview of its study.
1.5.2. An examination or the interdependence of various groups
Sociology is concerned with the examination of the nature and working of

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different types of groups. A very important task is to enquire into the nature of
interdependence of social groups. For instance, sociologist enquires into the
relationship between the structure of the family and economic organization of
society. Similarly he also views the mutual relations between the forms of society.
Similarly he also views the mutual relations between the forms of government and
the distribution or wealth between religion and capitalism and soon.
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1.5.3. Survey of the process of social change

Sociology is interested in the interconnections of the different parts of the
society and the process of social change. Sociologist attempts to know the laws of
change governing the society to find how one state of society is followed by another.
He is to establish empirical generalizations of laws of change.
1.5.4. Dealing with social Processes
Sociology is concerned with social processes like competition, co-operation,
conflict, accommodation and assimilation. It is concerned more with the individual
as self. The process through which an individual learns to function as a member of
society is called Socialisation and it is the chief topic of concern of sociology.
1.5.5. Investigation of Human Personality
Sociology studies the factors which shape the human personality namely
heredity and environment as also the psychological mainsprings of individuals life.
To achieve this aim Sociology must stand in a friendly relation to Biology, Geography
and Psychology.
1.5.6. Emphasis of Social Problems
Sociology deals with the social problems and tries to find their solutions. The
important social problems of which sociology takes special notice include crime,
poverty racial relation and social disorganization etc.
1.5.7. Analysis of human culture and civilization
Finally Sociology tries to analyse the sum total of human endeavour called
civilization and culture. Culture is what we are civilization is what we have. They are
very essence of society. There can be no good study of any society without the
analysis of its culture and civilization.
Thus on the basis of all these facts it is clear that Sociology is the science of
society viewed as a whole. It deals with the more general principles underlying all
social phenomena. The data which Sociology gathers from the observation of social
phenomen are systematically analysed and classified.
The following are the essential characteristics of science which are also found in
Sociology.
[Link]. Employs Scientific Method
All the methods of sociology are scientific in nature. The collection of data
through observations is made systematically. Sociometry, Schedule Questionnaire,
Interview and Case history are some of the scientific methods which sociology
employ in its analysis.
[Link]. Factuals
Sociology studies social relationships and activities. Its general problem is
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description of the social processes. In this way Sociology makes a scientific study of
facts and the general principles involved in them.
[Link]. Universal law
Sociology like all science make laws that are generally applicable regardless of
variation in culture. They are applicable to all communities as conditions do not
vary.
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[Link]. Nature of Prediction

Sociology attempts to predict. In some areas of social life prediction to a limited
extent has been possible.
[Link]. Cause and effect relationship
Sociology delineates causes effect relationships. The social disorganization for
example, is studied by Sociology. It has traced the relationship between family
disorganization and divorce, between urbanization and family disorganization etc.
It is clearly evident from the foregoing description of Sociology that it is a
Science, when Sociology is viewed from the standpoint of the definition of science
then too, it qualifies the test of being a Science”.
According to Pearson, “The classification of facts the recognition of their
sequence and relative significance is the function of science”.
According to Lundberg, “Science is a procedure of discovering the conditions
under which events occur”.
The above defines are fully applicable to Sociology. Thus Sociology is as much
a science as all other Social Sciences.
1.6. SUMMARY
Sociology is one of the youngest sciences. Sociology like every other science is
an intellectual discipline. Sociology concerned with study of the various forms of
interpersonal relationship in society. It studies normal as well as abnormal social
phenomena. Sociology deals with different aspects of the social life of the
individuals and examines the working of society in acts varied parts. Sociology
concerned with examination of the nature and working of different types of groups.
Sociology tries to analyse the sum total of human endeavour called civilization and
culture. Sociology can lay claim to being a science because it employs the scientific
method in its study. Its exactness, the capacity to predict the possibility of
measurement in it etc. are comparatively less than the physical success in view of
the unique subject matter. But it can, despite these factors be called a science since
a number other sciences are science inspite of all there drawbacks.
1.7. KEY WORDS
Synthetic Schools
Morphology
Physiology
Pathology
1.8. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
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1. Define sociology and explain its nature.
2. Define sociology and scope of sociology?
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LESSON - 2

RELATION WITH OTHER SCIENCES

STRUCTURE
2.0. Objectives
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Sociology and political Science
2.3. Sociology and Philosophy
2.4. Sociology and Ethics
2.5. Sociology and Psychology
2.6. Sociology and Anthropology
2.7. sociology and History
2.8. Sociology and Economics
2.9. Summary
2.10. Key words
2.11. Suggested Questions
2.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to,
 Understand the relationship between sociology and political science
 Study to relationship between sociology and philosophy
 Explain the relationship between sociology and Ethics
 Study the relationship between sociology and psychology
 Assess the relationship between Sociology and Anthropology
 Study the relationship between Sociology and History
 Relate Sociology and Economics
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Sociology is called the mother of all social sciences. Although it is much later
origin that the other social sciences yet by virtue of its valuable subject matter and
useful store of knowledge. Sociology has reached its eight of glory.
The claim of Sociology to be regarded as the mother of social science mainly
rests on the fact that it is the science of society. It deals with the sum total of social
behaviour. Its chief concern is the study of the society a whole while other social
sciences related to certain aspect it. Thus the relation between Sociology is more
comprehensive and it includes the special social sciences. As they all have a
common subject viz., human social behaviour it is but natural that they should be
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interrelated. Sociology and other sciences have much in common. This fact can be
brought out by studying relations of Sociology with other social sciences.
2.2. SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Sociology and Political Science has close relation with each other since the
earliest times. Till recently the two sciences had been kept closely tied together. The
main works on social subjects such as Plot’s Republic. The politic of Aristotle and
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other classical work were meant to be complete treatises on political science. Even
now there is much in common between them and the two sciences very often make
in roads in each other’s of study.
Political Science is the branch of social science dealing with the principles of
organization and the government of human society. In other words political science
deals with the social groups organized under the sovereignity of the state. There is
much weight in saving that without the sociological background the study of
political science will be incomplete. Many political phenomena like forms of
government, the nature of governmental laws, the laws and sphere of the state
activity are determined by the social progress.
In the same way, sociology is also to dependent on political science for its
conclusion. The special study of political life of the society is indispensable. Here
Political science comes to the help of Sociology. Sociology as a distinct science is of
recent origin and prior to this it was studied in conjunction with political science.
There are even some common topics which both the sciences study alike. For
instance relation between law and morality, law and public opinion, law and liberty
and law and customs are such topics.
2.3. SOCIOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY
Sociology and social philosophy study the same problem from different angles
and with different methodology. Social philosophy is a normative science while
Sociology is prescriptive. But both facts and values, real and ideal are important to
human life. Ginsberg therefore writes “A complete study of human life its involves a
synthesis but not a fusion of social science and social philosophy”. Sociology
studies the society within the limitations of time and place, but social philosophy
studies human society as part of the universe values without facts are empty ideals,
facts without values are meaningless. Thus Sociology and social philosophy are
independent. Social philosophy takes the facts from Sociology and examines them
in the light of the supreme goal of human life.
2.4. SOCIOLOGY AND ETHICS
Ethics is the science of morality. It is concerned with the moral rightness and
wrongness of human action. Ethics and Sociology are intimately related to each
other. Man is a social being and he always lives in society. He acquires moral
standards and notions of right and wrong as a member of social group. In other
words it is the society, which influences the mental and moral development of the
individual. Thus it is clear the actual significance or moral life lies in a society.
Sociology is primarily concerned with the study of the social groups and it
investigates into all aspects of human life. Ethics throws light on the moral life of
the individuals and institutions of all times.
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It is said that personal good of the individual must at the same time be in
harmony with the general good of the society as whole. It is here that both Sociology
and Ethics come close to each other.
2.5. SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the study of the basic elements and processes of human
behaviour Psychologists study the elements of individual behaviour and the
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sociologists study the group of relationship of the individual. Social phenomena

imply relationship between the individual. The nature of co-operation and conflicts
between individuals cannot be properly studied without taking into consideration
the basic nature of human instinct, desire, motives and purposes. The nature of
interpersonal relationships can be studied by modern psychology.
Social psychology deals with the mental processes of man considered as a
social being. It studies particularly the influence of group life on the mental
development of the individual mind on the group. Sociology on the other hand
studies the various kinds of groups which compose the society the psychology has to
depend on sociology which provides the necessary material regarding the structure
organization and culture of societies to which individuals belong. Sociologists
recognize the importance of psychological factors in understanding the changes in
the structure. Since sociology and psychology are concerned with the study of
behaviour of individual in social setting they are called behaviour sciences.
2.6. SOCIOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology is the study of human species, its organisor is varieties and its
cultures. It is similar to sociology as the discipline is applicable generally. But
anthropology is confined to the study primitive or pre literate society while sociology
is concerned with contemporary complex societies.
Sociology depends very much on the material supplied by anthropology. In fact
the historical part of sociology is identical with cultural anthropology. Cultural
anthropology studies the culture of primitive man. Physical anthropology deals with
badly characteristics of early man and the environmental effect on the physical
growth of different at different times. Social anthropology deals with institutions
and human relationship of the primitive men of the past and present anthropology
thus develops its attention to the study of man and his culture as they developed in
times long past. Sociology has to depend upon anthropology to study social
phenomena from our knowledge of the past. Sociology borrowed cultural area
cultural trait and cultural sociology from social anthropology.
In the same way some of the conclusions drawn by sociologists have helped
anthropologists. Many have come to the conclusion about the existence of primitive
communism from the conception of private property in our modern society. Thus we
see both are inter-related science.
Sociology makes a study of social institutions and groups of modern people.
While anthropology is primarily concerned with social institutions and racial groups
of the primative people. Anthropology which studies cultures which are small and
static while sociology studies civilization which are very vafty dynamic. Both
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sociology and anthropology have quite different origins, methods and concepts.
2.7. SOCIOLOGY AND HISTORY
History studies the activities of the human race History of culture and
institution are of help in the understanding of sociology and in the collection of its
material. It gives an account of the society in the past. Sociology is concerned with
the study of the historical development of societies. It studies the various stages of
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life its modes of living, customs, manners and their expressions in the forms of
social institutions.
History is concrete and sociology is abstract. History presents chronological
distribution of incidence, cultures etc while sociology attempts to discover their
causes and general principles. History studies those incidences which are peculiar
or unusual. Sociology studies those incidences which are frequently repeated.
History emphasizes the doing of an individual while human group is the unit in
sociological study.
2.8. SOCIOLOGY AND ECONOMICS
Economics in the study of wealth it studies the causes of material welfare in a
given society. Sociology studies the nature of society which enjoy material welfare.
Economics is the science of wealth and studies its three phases, production
distribution and consumption. It is therefore concerned with the part of individual
and social action which is closely connected with the attainment of wealth. But
economics cannot go far ahead without sociology. In order to solve economic
problems economics has to take into account social phenomena existing at a
particular time. The theories of economic systems are nothing but the theories of
social organization.
Sociology is influenced by economics. Economics force pay a very important
role in every aspect of social life. Economic phenomena determines forms of social
needs and activities. The field of Sociology is concerned with social relationship but
economics is restricted only to the economic activities of man. Economics is
primarily concerned with all that is directly or indirectly related to the increase of
material happiness of man. But sociology is primarily concerned with the social
aspect of economic activities. Economics is an older science and sociology is of
recent origin.
2.9. SUMMARY
Sociology is the mother of all social sciences. It endeavors the study the social
life as a whole. Social life of men is so complex that it is not possible to isolate social
problems from the whole change of human experience. The life of man is many
sided. Sociology can understand social life as a whole by taking help from other
social sciences which study exclusively one or the other aspects of human activity.
2.10. KEY WORDS
Anthropology
Ethics
2.11. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

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1. Explain the relation between sociology and economy.
2. Give briefly on the relation between sociology and Anthropology
3. Write short notes on politics and sociology

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LESSON - 3

BASIC CONCEPTS
STRUCTURE
3.0. Objectives
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Society
3.3. Elements of society
3.3.1. Reciprocal awareness
3.3.2. Likeness
3.3.3. Difference
3.3.4. Interdependence
3.4. Besides the society also consists of
3.4.1. Usages and production
3.4.2. Modes of action and procedure
3.4.3. Authority
3.4.4. Mutual assistance
3.4.5. Many groupings and divisions
3.4.6. Control of burn an behaviour
3.4.7. Liberty
3.5. Theories of the Origin of Society
3.5.1. Social contract theory
[Link]. Criticism
3.5.2. Organic theory
[Link]. Criticism
3.5.3. Group-mind theory
[Link]. Criticism
3.6. Feral Cases
3.7. Summary
3.8. Key words
3.9. Suggested Questions
3.0. OBJECTIVES
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This lesson aims to,

 Reveal the elements of society and its types.

 Assess theories of the origin of society.

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3.1. INTRODUCTION
Man as a social being has to establish relations with other members of society
to fulfill his needs. Some have used the terms procedure for institutions. Authority
is an essential elements of society. It is this element that regulates and controls the
related individuals or classes. In society even inequality is based on mutual
relationship. People of opposite characteristics often assume complement roles. In
any society an individual cannot behave just as he likes. In the adjustment of the
individual to society has to exercise certain restrictions upon human behaviour.
This control is exercise through tradition mores, folkways, taboos, laws and norms.
3.2. SOCIETY
A society is a group or association of individual who live together for realizing
certain common ends. It is an organized system of interrelated individuals. The
most important aspect of society is the system of relationship and the pattern of
norms of interaction by which the members of the society maintain themselves.
3.3. ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY
3.3.1. Reciprocal awareness
The members of the society should be aware of the physical presence of one
another. Without this awareness there cannot be any social relationship.
3.3.2. Likeness
Likeness is an essential prerequisite of society. The sence of likeness was
focussed in early society on kinship. In modern societies the condition of social
likeness is expressed in the principle of nationality or one world.
3.3.3. Difference
Society also implies difference and it depends on the latter as much as on
likeness. All over social systems involve relationships in which differences
complement one another e.g., family rests upon the biological difference between
sexes.
3.3.4. Interdependence
Interdependence is another essential to constitute society. The fact of
interdependence is very much visible in the present world.
3.3.5. Co-operation
Co-operation is also essential to constitute society without co-operation no
society can exist. Unless people co-operate with each other they cannot live a happy
life. Family rests on co-operation.
3.4. BESIDES, THE SOCIETY ALSO CONSISTS OF
3.4.1. Usages and Procedure

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Man as a social being has to establish relations with other members of society
to fulfill his needs. This results in mutual behaviour which as time passes takes the
form of usage and custom. The daily life of almost all members of society are made
easy by these customs. They are handed on form generation to generation.
3.4.2. Modes of action and procedures
Some have used the term procedure for institutions. Procedures for institution
like marriage, religious belief, inheritance etc., play an important part in society.
 14

3.4.3. Authority
Authority is an essential element of society. It is the element that regulates and
controls the related individuals or classes. Authority is based on inequality in
society and is present in all societies. It is evident at present in the relation between
industrialists and labourers and in the past between masters and slaves landlords
and serfts.
3.4.4. Mutual assistance
In society even inequality is based on mutual relationship. People of opposite
characteristics often assume complement roles. People who differ from one another
in respect of sexes income, status, wealth, education etc., help and assist each
other.
3.4.5. Many groupings and divisions
People who have the same interests or objectives combine together to form
different kinds of groups and achieve their object through mutual assistance. Some
of these groups like family and neighbourhood and secondary groups like trade
union, labour union etc., are extremely important for the development of social life.
In addition there are the geographical divisions class, caste etc.
3.4.6. Control of human behaviour
In any society an individual cannot behave just as he likes. In the adjustment
of the individual to society has to exercise certain restrictions upon human
behaviour. This control is exercised through tradition mores, folkways taboos, laws
and norms.
3.4.7. Liberty
If there are no liberties to balance the restrictions, society and individual
cannot develop. In all civilized societies of the world people have the freedom to get
education, choose a desired profession, marry and beget children.
3.5. THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF SOCIETY
Various theories have been put forward regarding the origin of society. The
chief among them are social Contract Theory, the Organic Theory and the Group
Mind Theory. Each of these theories has tried to determine the nature of the mutual
relationship between individual and society. Some give free dominance to society
while others attach more importance to the Individual.
3.5.1. Social Contract Theory
This theory views society as deliberately set up by man for certain ends.
Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau were the chief exponents of this theory. All of them
were of the opinion that before existence of a civil society, men lived in a ort of pre-

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social state called the State of Nature. Then by mutual contract among themselves
society came into existence.
According to Hobbes, man in the State of Nature was in perpetual conflict with
his neighbours. It was on account of his selfish nature. He was of the view that life
of man was ‘solitary, poor, nasty brutish and short, every man was an enemy to very
man. In order to protect himself and to live in peace with all men he organized
himself in society, society emerged.
 15

Locke on the other hand believed that the state of nature was not a state of
war. In the state of peace, goods will mutual assistance and preservation. The only
disadvantages was that there was no recognized system of law and justice in it. To
get rid of this deficiency and to exercise his liberty, man entered into a contract and
there by a civil society emerged.
Rousseau held that man in the State of Nature were equal, self-sufficient and
contented. They lived a life of happiness and primitive simplicity. But growth in
number of man and the quarrels arising among them led to the formation of society.
[Link]. Criticisms
1. This theory is rejected as no reference to it is the records of history
2. It is criticized on the fact that savage men of the State Nature would not
have had the wisdom of forming civil society.
3. Social contract theory is not uniform as the dropounders of this theory have
given different views.
4. If man lived in a free some of nature he could not have thought of under
taking the bonds of society.
5. The theory assumes that man as an individual is prior to society but in fact
sociality is inborn in man.
3.5.2. Organic Theory
This theory places emphasis on the nature and unity of society. It presents
society as a kind of social organism. According to this theory society is an organism
whose structure and function resemble those of human beings and also follows the
same laws. Society like an organism is subject to the laws of growth and decay.
Different system of an organism are compared to the parts of society. For the
example the circulatory system is compared to the communication and transport
system and the nervous system to the government and so on.
[Link]. Criticisms
1. A society has no specific form compared to the body of an individual.
2. Units of society are not fixed in respective positions.
3. Units of society are dispersed persons and not physically continuous like
the cells of an individual.
4. Society has no common sensorium on central organ of perception and
thought as an individual has.
3.5.3. Group-Mind Theory
Here society is looked upon as a mind. It is the empodiment of the absolute
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mind and is the final state of the evolution of the mind. Group mind is superior to
individual mind.
[Link]. Criticism
The critics say that society is something more than the aggregate of individual
mind. They do not agree that society has a mind and will of its own distinct from
that of the individual.
 16

From the above theories we find that the Social Contract Theory gives
importance to the individual and the Group Mind Theory and Organic theory give
importance to the society. But in reality the relationship is not one-sided. Man is a
social animal by nature, he cannot, afford to live alone and his needs cannot be
satisfied without the co-operation of his fellow beings.
3.6. FERAL CASES
Maclver has three cases in which infants was isolated from all social
relationships to make experiments about men’s social nature.
1. The first case is Kasper Hauser who from his childhood until his
seventeenth year was brought up in the woods of Nuremburg. Even at
the age of seventeen he could hardly walk and had the mind of an
infant.
2. The second case was of two Hindu children who in 1929 were
discovered in a wolf’s den. One of them died soon after the discovery
and other could walk only on four feet and could make only sounds like
the wolf.
3. The third case was of Anna, an illegitimate American child who had
been placed in a room at the age of six months and was discovered five
years later. On discover it was found that she could not walk and was
indifferent to people around her.
These are proofs of man’s social nature. Human nature develops is man only if
he lives in society.
3.7. SUMMARY
A number of theories have been first forwarded to explain the origin of society.
They are the Divine origin theory, the Force Theory, the social contract theory, group
mind theory etc. But none of these theories are satisfactory. Society did not come
into existence all or a sudden. It is the result of gradual evolution. It passed
through several stages before reaching to the present complex form.
3.8. KEY WORDS
Society
Organic
Contract
Empodiment
Group mind

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3.9. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. What is society? What are its elements?
2. Explain the special features of society
3. Explain the origin of Theories of society with examples.

 17

LESSON - 4

COMMUNITY
STRUCTURE
4.0. Objectives
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Essential Elements of Community
4.2.1. Definite locality
4.2.2. Group of people
4.2.3. Community sentiment
4.2.4. Likeness
4.2.5. Naturality
4.2.6. Particular name
4.3. Community is distinct from society
4.4. Summary
4.5. Key words
4.6. Suggested Questions
4.0. OBJECTIVES
By reading this lesson the student can be able to understand
 Essential elements of community
 The relationship between the community and society
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Community is an area of social living marked by some degree of social
coherence (Maclver). A community not only includes a system of rules and definite
structure by which its members may live a common life, it also admits within itself a
variety of associations and institutions where by its members may pursue both their
individual and social interests.

It is a matter of common knowledge that no individual can live in isolation. He

is linked in many ways to his fellows who form a group. It is not possible for him to
become the member of all the groups existing in the world. He can establish his
relations only with people who reside near him in a definite art of the locality. It is
quite natural that the people who over any length of time reside in a particular
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locality should develop social likeness should have common social ideas, common
traditions and the sense of belonging.

The term community has been variously defined by different sociologists.

Bogardus : “Community is a social group with some degree of ‘we feeling’ and living
in a given area”.
 18

Ogburn & Nimkoff : “Community is the total organization of social life within a
limited area”. Maclver : Wherever the community of any group small or large live
together in such a way they share not this or that particular interest but the basic
conditions of a common life, we call that group a community.
4.2. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY
4.2.1. Definite locality
The first condition of the community is a definite locality. Since without it the
relations between human beings cannot be established and we feeling cannot evolve.
4.2.2. Group of People
The community is a group of people whenever individual live together in such a
way they show basic condition of a common life we call them community.
4.2.3. Community Sentiment
It means the belonging together. The members of a community use the same
language, conform to the same mores possess the same sentiment and have the
same attitude.
4.2.4. Likeness
A community is a group of people who live within a narrow territorial area and
share a common way of life. In this way the members exhibit, similarity, in language
customs, mores, tradition etc., besides many other things.
4.2.5. Naturality
Community are not made willfully but are natural. A man is born into
community and it is in this community that he develops himself.
4.2.6. Particular name
Every community has some particular name which is expressive of the
individuality of the locality.

In addition to these elements of community a common life and some degree of

self dependence are also necessary for it. The proof of its permanence is that it is
not transitory or transitory but denotes permanent life in a definite place.

4.3. COMMUNITY IS DISTINCT FROM SOCIETY

1. Society is prior to community
2. Society refers to human relations but community deals with the people as
such.
3. Community is territorial and not society
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4. Society is all pervasive but community is limited in size.
 19

5. Society is wider than community

6. Common way of life is essential to community and not to society. In this
way the two bodies are separate entities.
4.4. SUMMARY
Community is a group of people when ever the individuals live together in such
a way that they spare the basic conditions of a common life we call them for forming
a community. Community sentiment means of feeling of belonging together. A
community is a cluster of people living within a narrow territorial reading who share
a common way of life.
4.5. KEY WORDS
Community
Organization
Transitory
Neighbourhoods
4.6. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between society and community.

2. Give brief notes on essential elements of community

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 20

LESSON - 5

ASSOCIATION AND INSTITUTION

STRUCTURE
5.0. Objectives
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Elements of Association
5.3. Characteristics
5.4. Institution
5.5. Social Importances of Institution
5.6. Distinction between Institution Association
5.7. Difference between Institution and Community
5.8. Summary
5.9. Key words
5.10. Suggested Questions
5.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Discuss the elements of Association.
 Find out the characteristics of Institution
 Explain the differences between Institution and Association.
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Association is a special type of group; which is organized for a particular
purpose. The number and type of association go with the nature of society.
While living in a society people seek the fulfullment of their ends in company on
some co-operative basis, so that each is in some degree and manner contributing to
the ends of his fellows. In such an event the group may organize itself expressly for
the purpose. When this happens an Association is born. Thus generally speaking
an Association is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or limited
number of purposes. To quote Maclver, “we define an Association, than as a group
organized for the pursuit of an interest or group of interest in common.
5.2. ELEMENTS OF ASSOCIATION
1. An association consists of a group of people. It cannot come into being
in the absence of a certain number of persons. There is a close
relationship between human objectives and associations because one
cannot exist without the other.
2. ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
The group of people must have common interest. They cannot form an
association unless there is before them a common interest.
3. Another important feature of an association is co-operative spirit. An
association originates in spirit of co-operation.
4. It must be duly organized. Without a definite organization no
association can work efficiently.
 21

5. The organization of an association rests upon a particular set of rules.

These rules serves code of conduct to determine the pattern of
behaviour in a group life. Association differes from society on those
points.
1. Society is older than association
2. The aim of society is general while association in particular
3. Society may be organized or unorganized but association
must be organized
4. The membership of society is compulsory while that of
association is optional
5. Society is permanent while most associations are
temporary. Association also differs from community on the
following grounds :
1. An association is partical while the community is whole
2. Unlike an association community is a self-contained unit.
3. Unlike most association community is territorial.
4. Community is national while association is of human creation.
5. Most associations are transitory but community is permanent.
5.3. CHARACTERISTICS
Institutions occupy an important place in the organization and working of
human society. They are in the wheels on which human society marches on.
Each organization of association is dependent upon certain recognized and
established set of rules, traditions and usages. These usages and rules are given the
name of institutions. They are forms of procedure. Marriage, the system of
property, and ineritance are main examples of property and inheritance are the main
examples of some important institutions.
5.4. INSTITUTION
1. Institution has some definite objectives
2. The symbol of an institution can be material or nonmaterial
3. Institution depends upon collective activities of men
4. they are means of controlling individuals
5. They are more stable than other means of social control
6. Institutions are formed for the fulfillment of the primary needs.

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5.5. SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF INSTITUTIONS
A social institution transfers cultural elements from one generation to another,
introduces unity in human behaviour controls their conduct and guides men
according to circumstances. In society morals, ideals, knowledge and modes of
behaviour are transferred from one generation to another through the institution.
Institution indicates the right path to man and imposes control upon his activities.
The society by means of the institutions compel people to work collectively in
conformity with social culture.
 22

5.6. DISTINCTION BETWEEN INSTITUTION AND ASSOCIATION

a. Institutions are rules of procedure while, Associations are aggregations of
people.
b. An association represents human aspects while an institution denotes a
social conditions of conduct and behaviour.
c. Associations are things but institution are modes.
5.7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSTITUTION AND COMMUNITY
1. Institution is a group of law and procedure while community is a group of
human beings.
2. Institution is a abstract, but community is concrete
3. Institution is related to particular sphere of human life, while community
is related to social life as a whole.
By an association I mean any group of persons pursuing a common purpose by
a covers of cooperative action extending beyond a single act and for this purpose
agreeing together upon certain methods of procedure and laying down, in however,
rudimentary a form, rules for common action. Institution provide definite role and
status to individual. It provides meant of social control. Institutions determine the
place and duties of an individual in the society. It brings a cultural harmony in the
society.
5.8. SUMMARY
An association consists of a group of people. The group of people must have
common interest. The organization of an association rests upon a particular set of
rules. Institutions occupy an important place in the organization and working of
human society. In society morals, ideals, knowledge and of behaviour are
transferred from one generation to another through the institution. Institution
indicates right path to man and imposes control upon his activities.
5.9. KEY WORDS
Inheritance
Conformity
Concrete
5.10. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the elements of Association
2. Write the difference between institution and community


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 23

LESSON - 6

CULTURE
STRUCTURE
6.0. Objectives
6.1. Introduction
6.2. The following are the essential characteristics of culture.
6.3. Material and non-material culture
6.4. Analysis of culture
6.4.1. Traits
6.4.2. Complexes
6.4.3. Culture area
6.4.4. Cultural transmission
6.4.5. Acculturation
6.4.6. Cultural accumulation
6.4.7. Cultural integration
6.4.8. Cultural diffusion
6.5. Civilization
6.6. Characteristics
6.7. Relation between culture and civilization
6.8. Summary
6.9. Key words
6.10. Suggested Questions
6.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Explain the essential characteristics of culture
 Illustrate the analysis of culture
 Establish the relationship between culture and civilization
6.1. INTRODUCTION
In common parlance the word ‘culture’ is understood to mean beautiful, refined
or interesting. But this interpretation does not constitute its scientific definition.

Some of the more popular definitions of culture are as follows

1. “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief, art, morals,
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law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as member of
society Tylor.

“Culture is the organized body of conventional understanding, manifest in art,

artifact, which persisting through tradition, characteristics human group”.

“Culture is symbol, continues cumulative and progressive progress”.

 24

(White L.A.)
6.2. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE ESSEDNTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1. Culture is inclusive of those elements which man has created and in
which he can make improvement.
2. The introduction of novel elements increases complexity and qualities of
culture.
3. It is communicated from one generation to another generation in physic
form.
4. Culture is found in only in human society.
6.3. MATERIAL AND NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
Culture is often divided into material and non-material parts. Material culture
consists of the physical objects of culture along with the ways in which they are
used : Nonmaterial culture consists of beliefs, customs, ideas, ideologies and social
structure.
A piece of pottery along with its use is part of material culture. A taboo against
marrying one’s own sister is part of non-material culture.
6.4. ANALYSIS OF CULTURE
6.4.1. Traits
A trait is the simplest unit of culture. Such unit may be material such as a
safety pin or non-material like shaking hands when meeting friends.
6.4.2. Complexes
A culture complex is a group of traits organized around some basic activity.
Foot ball complex is an example. It many traits are cheers, referee’s whistle, etc.
6.4.3. Culture areas
They are geographical areas within which the various cultures show significant
similarities in important characteristics.
6.4.4. Cultural transmission
It is the process by which culture is passed on to each succeeding generation
through learning. Each generation learns its culture and teaches it to the next along
with whatever changes that take place.
6.4.5. Acculturation
It is the process by which the young learn the culture from the elders.
6.4.6. Cultural accumulation
As time passes new things are added to culture and others are discarded.
Cultural accumulation takes places when traits are added than discarded.

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6.4.7. Cultural integration
It is the organization of the various parts of culture in relation to one another.
6.4.8. Cultural diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading of cultural traits or complex from one society to
another. This is the way in which most societies acquire new traits. Whenever
societies come in contact which one another diffusion takes place.
 25

6.5. CIVILIZATION
It implies a degree of cultural development and complexity which comparatively
few societies attain. Although different criteria are used to denote civilization, the
most important one is that of a written language. Although culture uses language,
not all cultures have a written language. Although culture uses language, not all
cultures have a written languages.
6.6. CHARACTERISTICS
Civilization refers to the whole machine of a system of mechanical devices
developed by man. It is external mechanical, utilization and concerned only with
means. It can be measured quantitatively on the grounds of efficiency. The works of
civilization can be more easily comprehended and communicated. Even a layman
can learn to handle a machine. The works of a civilization can be improved by
anybody. Civilization always shows an upward travel and hence is cumulative.
6.7. RELATION BETWEEN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
1. Civilization has a precise standard of measurement but culture does not.
2. Civilization always keep on advancing but culture does not.
3. Civilization is passed on from generation to generation without effort but not
culture.
4. Civilization is borrowed without change or loss but not culture.
5. Civilization is the vehicle of culture
6. Civilization is an environment for culture.
Culture is the organized body of conventional understanding manifest in art,
artifact, which persisting through tradition characteristics human group culture is
the beeding ground of civilization gives strength and stamina for the wheels of
society of march. According to ogbun, civilization represents material “culture” and
culture implies “non-material culture” of civilization is like a body, culture is its soul.
6.8. SUMMARY
Culture is found in only in human society. It divided into material and non-
material parts. A trait is the simplest unit of culture. Culture is passed on to each
succeeding generation through learning. Diffusion is the spreading of cultural traits
to complexity from one society to another civilization implies a degree of cultural
development and complexity which comparatively few societies attain civilization
refers to the whole machine of a system of mechanical devices developed by man.
6.9. KEY WORDS
Material culture
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Non-material culture
Acculturation
6.10. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the types of culture.
2. Explain the differences between culture and civilization

 26

LESSON - 7

GROUPS
STRUCTURE
7.0. Objectives
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Characteristics of Groups
7.3. Types of groups
7.3.1. Primary groups
7.4. Characteristics
7.5. Importance of primary group
7.5.1. Development of personality
7.5.2. Increased in efficiency
7.5.3. Satisfaction of psychological needs
7.6. Secondary group
7.7. Characteristics
7.8. In group
7.9. Out group
7.10. Formal and informal groups
7.11. Summary
7.12. Key words
7.13. Suggested Questions
7.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Discuss the types of Groups
 Find out the importance and characteristics of groups.
7.1. INTRODUCTION
A social group is a collection of individual interacting on each other under a
recognizable structure. According to Williams, “A social group is a given aggregate of
people, playing interrelated roles and recognized by themselves or others as a unit of
interaction”. It may be a political party, a cricket club or potential group. A political
group is made up of a number of people having certain characteristics in common,
but devoid of any recognizable structure. Once a potential group becomes organized
it gets the name of a social group.

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Social group is a collection of individuals, two or more interacting on each
other, who have some common objects of attending and participate in similar
activities. It ranges from a pair or a couple to a group or millions of people. For
instance, a single family or a foot ball team consists of a few persons while a crowd
my extend over hundred of thousands of people.
 27

7.2. CHARACTERISTICS
1. The members of the group are related to each others.
The member of a group should be interrelated. It is the social relations that
we call a group. There should be reciprocal communication.
2. Groups involve a sense of unity.
A sense of unity is essential for every group. The members treat each other
as their own and there is a feeling of sympathy between them.
3. The members of the group have a sense of we-feeling
As a result of this sense, the members of a group help each other in
performing their duties and defend themselves collectively.
4. The interest, ideals and values of group members are common.
A group includes those persons who are related to each in such a way that
they should be irrigated as one. The interests ideals and values of the
persons of a group should be common.
5. There is similarity of behaviour.
The behaviour of persons in a group if similar. A social, group is not merely
a group of persons but the continuation of their behaviour.
6. Control of group over the actions of the members.
The main reason for the similarity of behaviour in group life is that the
actions of the members are controlled by the group.
7. The members of the group are affected by its characteristics.
Each group possesses some special characteristics which separate the
similar from the dissimilar groups.
7.3. TYPES OF GROUPS
7.3.1. Primary Group
A primary group is characterized by intimacy, face to face contact and a relative
degree of permanence Cooley called such groups as family, the play group of
children and the neighbourhood as primary because they are fundamental in
forming the behaviour pattern and the attitudes of their members.
7.4. CHARACTERISTICS
1. Physical closeness among the members.
The members of the groups must be close to each other physically which will
facilitate exchange of thoughts and will help one another.
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2. Small size.
The size of the primary group should be small. It is here that the desired
intimate relations are developed intimacy decreases with increase in size.
3. Stability.
To promote closeness in a primary group it must be stable to some extent.
 28

4. Continuity in relations.
Continuity in relations is necessary for the members for the members of a
primary group. But meeting frequently and exchanging thoughts the intimacy
increase.
7.5. IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY GROUP
7.5.1. Development of Personality
Psychologists have maintained that the personality of a child is developed in the
family and play group.
7.5.2. Increased in efficiency
With the development of personality the primary group’s efficiency is increased.
The members of a group get help, inspiration and co-operation from others.
7.5.3. Satisfaction of psychological needs
Primary group satisfies many psychological needs of the individual. They
provide a sense of contentment and security and satisfy their desire of loving and
being loved.
7.6. SECONDARY GROUP
Groups which show little intimacy and are more temporary and involve less
continuous face to face contact have come to be called secondary groups for e.g.,
political associations, church organizations, club etc.
7.7. CHARACTERISTICS
1. Position of a member depends on his role.
In the secondary group the position of every member depends on his role.
2. Individuality in persons.
Individuality develops in the person because relations are based on self
interest.
3. Self-dependence among members.
Members of a secondary group are self dependent as they have to safeguard
their interests themselves.
7.8. IN GROUP
An in group is any group considered by its members as distinct from others.
Members of a particular type think of themselves as constituting the in group.
7.9. OUT GROUP
It is any other group than the one from whose view it is being considered. The
members of a group considered all other groups as out groups.
7.10. FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS
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Formal groups are these which are organized with a definitely prescribed
structure and according to rules governing much of the interaction of their
members. They generally have this structure and these procedures as stated in the
constitution and by-laws etc. They generally contain official positions or officers
whose occupants perform the function state in the constitution of by-laws for e.g.
school, stage etc.
 29

Informal groups are groups which do not have a specifically started

organizational system of rights duties and officers. They are usually formed on the
basis of repeated contacts leading to multitude of interest and enjoyments of shared
experiments. E.g., play group of children.
They it is clear that the primary groups were most suited in the primitive
societies where social structure was neither complex nor complicated. But these
groups cannot function smoothly in modern time because of our complicated social
arrangement. It does not mean in any way that the need of primary groups has
decreased. A social group exists when to two or more people are in direct or indirect
contact and communication.
7.11. SUMMARY
Social group is a collection of individuals, two or more interacting on each
other, who have some common objects of attending and participate in similar
activities. The members of the group are related to each others. Formal groups are
these which are organized with a definitely prescribed structure and according to
rules governing much of the interaction of their members.
7.12. KEY WORDS
Primary group
Secondary groups
In group
Out group
7.13. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the types of social groups.
2. Explain in the characteristics of secondary group.


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 30

LESSON - 8

SOCIAL NORMS AND VALUES

STRUCTURE
8.0. Objectives
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Social norms and values
8.3. Characteristics of norms
8.4. Important of norms
8.4.1. A normless society of an impossibility
8.4.2. Norms give cohesion in society
8.4.3. Normy influence individual attitude
8.5. Conformity to norms
8.6. Summary
8.7. Key words
8.8. Suggested Questions
8.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Analyse the importance of Norms and values.
 Discuss the characteristics of social norms and values.
8.1. INTRODUCTION
Social order is obtained through regulation of human behaviour according to
certain standards. Such standards of behaviour have been termed social norms and
along with the concept of norms there goes the concept of values. The fact is that
essential characteristics of group life is that it possess a set a values which regulate
the behaviour of individual members.
Human groups are the products of interaction among individual. When a
number of individuals interact, a set of standards develop that regulate their
relationships and modes of behaviour. These standards of group behaviour are
called social norms.
Norm in popular usage means a standard and here our concern is chiefly with
social norms. According to Sheriff and Sheriff “they represent standardized
generalizations concerning expected modes of behaviour”.
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8.2. SOCIAL NORMS AND VALUES
A norm is a standard which prescribes the performance or characteristics of a
large group of people against which other individuals can be compared. The term
social norm was introduced by Sheriff to denote accepted customs, rite, traditions,
attitudes and values found in every established group. Respect for aged motor,
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worship of cow, taking breakfast, both are accepted social norms of Hindus. Social
norms are constantly built in course of our social interaction in every day life.
Social norms involve judgments of value. An act of behaviour is either
approved or disapproved according as in conforms or does not conform to a group.
Social norms have a high emotional tone. Hindus obstain from beef and condemn
those who do not.
8.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF NORMS
1. Norms are standards of group behaviour.
An essential characteristics group life is that is possesses a set of values
which regulate the behaviour of individual members.
2. Norms incorporative value judgment.
An act of behaviour is either approved or disapproved according as it
conforms or does not conform to social behaviour.
3. Norms are related to factual world.
Norms are not abstract. The Normative System is related to events in the
real world.
8.4. IMPORTANCE OF NORMS
8.4.1. A normless society is an impossibility
Norms are of great importance to society. It is impossible to imagine a
normless society because without norms behaviour our would be unpredictable.
The standard of behaviour used in the norms give order to social relations.
8.4.2. Norms give cohesion in society
A group without norms would be as Hobbes says solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
and short. The human organism in order to maintain itself must live in a
normatively regulated system. The Normative System gives to society a cohesion
without which social life is not possible.
8.4.3. Norms influence individual attitude
Norms influence an individual’s attitude and his motive. The individual
becomes as good member to the extent he abides by norms. The norms determine
and guide his judgment of others and of himself.
8.5. CONFORMITY TO NORMS
Norms are not formed by all but only by a particular group. They are formed on
matters related to a particular group. The behaviour of groups vary as different
groups have different norms.
A social norm operative in one social system may not be operated in another for
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e.g. Muslims practice polygamy while Christians do not. Norms do not apply equally
to all members of society. What is proper for a women is not always proper for a
man. Similarly what is proper for a doctor is not proper a teacher.
A norms by definition implies a sense of obligation. It lays on a standard of
behaviour which one ought to follow. Conformity to norms is normal, violators of
norms suffer loss of prestige and are subject, to ridicule, find and imprisonment.
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Conflict is normal is a group but order and conformity is essential for group life.
There is, therefore need to regulate individual and group behaviour in the interest of
social order. The emphasized, therefore is on the normal, usual and the accepted
course of conduct which is determined by social mechanism. It is a way,
internalities social discipline. Norms and values have an important role is it. These
of the several elements that constitute the social structure are significance norms
are rooted institution. Value are worth or standards of social behaviour derived from
social interaction and accepted as constituent facts of social structure.
8.6. SUMMARY
Human groups are the products of interaction among individual. When a
number of individuals interact, a set of standards develop that regulate their
relationships and modes of behaviour. A norm is a standard which prescribes the
performance or characteristics of a large group of people against which other
individuals can be compared. Norms influence an individuals attitude and his
motive. The norms determine and guide his judgment of others and of himself.
8.7. KEY WORDS
Proscriptive
Prescriptive
Values
8.8. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the types of community norms
2. Elucidate the characteristics of norms
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LESSON - 9

CLASSIFICATION OF NORMS
STRUCTURE
9.0. Objectives
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Folkways
9.3. Mores
9.4. Law
9.5. Basic features
9.6. Customs
9.7. Social role of customs
9.8. Fashion
9.9. Characteristics
9.10. Social role of fashion
9.11. Summary
9.12. Key words
9.13. Suggested Questions
9.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aim to
 Explain the classification of Norms
 Assess folkways and mores.
 Find out the basic features of law and customs.
 To understand the characteristics of fashion.
9.1. INTRODUCTION
In sociology folkways and more are effective methods of social control. These
are deep routed in the society. These two have special significance and is necessary
to distinguish between the two and to understand the relationship existing between
customs, habits, fashions etc.
9.2. FOLKWAYS
The folk ways are the recognized ways of behaving in society. They include
conventions, forms of etiquette and myriad modes of behaviour evolved by men. The
vary of course from society to society and form time to time. Wearing a necktie is
folk way in western community. No less to is the filling of teeth among Philippine

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Negritos.
A.W. Green opines, “Those ways of acting that are common to a society or a
group and that are handed down from one generation to the next are known as folk
ways”. Folkways are numerous and range form the most trifling acts and behaviour
to the most serious things of life. Their number is infinite. The folkways of eating
are quiet interesting. The Hindus do not take meat. The Bengalis prefer rice to
 34

bead. Ants and insects are eaten by Indians in Brazil, but not in Europe and
America.
Folkways are not static but change with changing social conditions. Some folk
ways undergo continuous and rapid change. E.g. Folk ways connected with
economic functions of a group. An individual starts an innovation. Orders finding
the innovation better than the old one accept and follow it.
Folkways are obeyed partly because of their social role and partly because there
is social sanction behind them. They are binding on the people and many of these
tend to become habits with them.
To violate some of the talk ways is usually possible, but it is impossible to
violate all of them.
The sanctions of the folk ways are themselves folk ways. In society for each
violation of norm there is usually some standardized procedure for punishing. But
the sanctions are comparatively mild consisting generally in informal relations.
9.3. MORES
The folkways which serve as the regulator of social life are termed as mores.
The folkways which are considered by the group to be of great significance and
rather indispensable to its welfare are called mores. They are the folkways in their
capacity as instruments of control. They express the group standards, the group
sense of what is fitting, right and conductive to well being.
Mores play a vital social role and for this reason they are attached great social
significance.
Firstly they determine much of our individual behaviour. They both compel
behaviour and forbid it. In society there are innumerable mores like monogamy,
anti-slavery, democracy and prohibition, conformity to which is regarded as
necessary.
Secondary mores identify the individual with the group. He maintains those
social bonds which are essential of satisfactory living.
Lastly the mores are guardians of society. The mores hold the members of the
group together. There are mores for each sex, for all classes and for all groups
whose function is to maintain the solidarity of the group.
The mores differ from folkways on several points.

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1. Folkways are of more general and wider character than mores.
2. Mores imply more of a value judgment than folkways.
3. Mores are more effective and are always moulding and restraining the
tendencies of the individuals than the folk wages.
4. It is out of mores and not folkways that our profound convictions of right
and wrong come.
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5. Folkways are less deeply rooted in society and change more rapidly than the
mores which are more deeply rooted and change less frequently.
6. Folkways change with one’s social status and occupational position but
mores do not change that way.
9.4. LAW
A law is more or less systematic body of generalized rule Law means the code
upheld by the state.
9.5. BASIC FEATURES
1. Laws are the general condition of human activity prescribed by the state
for its members.
2. Law is only enacted by a proper law making authority. It is a product of
conscious thought.
3. Law is definite, clear and precise
4. Law applies equally to all without exception in identical circumstances.
5. The violation of law is followed by penalties determined by the authority
of state.
Law and custom are the important codes which regulate social life and
maintain social order. In simple societies, custom con suffice whereas in complex
societies people cannot do without laws. However custom and law differ from each
other on several points.
1. Law is a make but custom is a growth
2. Law needs a special agency for enforcement but custom does not need any
agency.
3. Law is specific while customs are not
4. Law is more flexible and adoptable than custom
5. Customs fade and disappear without formal abolition and without
recognition by any authority; but laws disappear only when abolished by a
recognized authority.
6. Law is more idealistic than custom.
7. Law generally deals with matters which are vital to the life of society;
whereas the subject matter of custom is more ordinary and familiar.
But despite these differences both custom and law compliment and supplement

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each other and go side by side in society.
9.6. CUSTOMS
Customs are one of the most powerful and common means of social control.
Customs refers primarily to practices that have been often repeated by generations.
They are habits which through repetition become the basis for an order of social
behaviour.
9.7. SOCIAL ROLE OF CUSTOMS
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1. Customs regulate social life. They are powerful and regulate social life
especially among illiterate people.
2. Custom is the repository of social heritage. It preserves our culture and
transmits it to the succeeding generations brings together and develops
social relations among them.
3. Customs are universal: There is no country or community where
customs are not found. In some communities they are regarded as
sacred and their violation cannot be even thought of.
4. Customs are both democratic and totalitarian at the same, time, it is
democratic because it is made by the group. Everybody contributes to
its growth. It is totalitarian because it affects every sphere of life.
9.8. FASHION
Fashion is an important means of social control. It determines our speech,
opinion, belief, recreation, dress, music, art and literature. They are folkways which
serve only for a short time.
9.9. CHARACTERISTICS
1. Fashion is changeable. It is short and hardly lives a decade.
2. Fashion is artifical because it is created and followed with a purpose in
mind.
3. Fashion is started by somebody and others have to adopt it. When it
becomes universal it loses its novelty and gives place to new fashion.
4. Fashion frequently grows where customs break off
9.10. SOCIAL ROLE OF FASHION
1. Fashion statistics two strong demands of social man the demand for
novelty and demand for conformity.
2. Fashion facilitates social change by providing a transitional change from
one custom to another and modifies the rigidity of customers.
3. Fashion radiates generally from the richer class of people. This enhances
the prestige of upper class and those imitating them.
The mores help in regulating our group behaviour. In large complex societies
the mores are not as compelling as in small societies. Folkways and mores are
effective methods of social control. Folkways are behaviour pattern of everyday life
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which generally arise unconsciously in a group. Custom is endoring, fashion is
changeable. Customs stands for society, fashion for individuality.
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9.11. SUMMARY
Folkways and mores have special significance and is necessary to distinguish
between the two and to understand the relationship existing between customs,
habits, fashions etc. The folk ways are the recognized ways of behaving in society.
They include conventions, forms of etiquette and myraid models of behaviour evolved
by men. The folkways which serve as the regulator of social life are termed as
mores. Mores play a vital social role and for this reason they are attached great
social significance. Mores determine much of our individual behaviour. A law is
more or less systematic body of generalized rule law means the code upheld by the
state. Law and custom are the important codes which regulate social life and
maintain social order. Customs are one of the most powerful and common means of
social control.
9.12. KEY WORDS
Folkways
Trifling acts
Monogamy
Idealistic
9.13. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the classification of norms.
2. Explain fashion and its characteristics.
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 38

LESSON - 10

ROLE STATUS
STRUCTURE
10.0. Objectives
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Definition
10.3. Nature and functions of role
10.4. Social status
10.5. Kinds of status
10.6. Summary
10.7. Key words
10.8. Suggested questions
10.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Easily understand the Nature and functions of role status.
10.1. INTRODUCTION
Role is one of the aspects of social structure. It is used to indicate the relation
of individual in culture. It is used organization of society.
10.2. DEFINITION
According to K. Young, “In every society and every group each member has
some function or activity with which he is associated and which carries with it some
degree of power prestige. What the individual does or performs in his role”. Jones
and Cerald define role as “Shared norms concerning the behaviour of certain
persons in certain settings”. Roles are always enacted by individuals, they are an
aspect of social inter-action, they refer to behaviour which is culturally and socially
defined. They have no meaning apart from social situation and outside our cultural
setting, and they are associated with a pattern of behaviour which society demands
and expects. He is expected to keep to the left when cycling on the road, overtake
another cycle only on the right, obey the traffic signals, and the like. These are
expectations and demands of society and he has learned them through social
experience.
10.3. NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ROLE
Each human being is born in a society is organized, and in order to fit into it he
must play a definite role. In relatively stable societies most rules are traditional. It
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may be said that the social role is something which is imposed on an individual by
the group. A person grows with cultural roles. The role of a son, scholar or chief is
provided by society and accepted by the individual. Children are taught to respect
parents and priests. Along with cultural roles there are personal roles which are
determined by the individual himself, and which allow scope for individual initiative
and discovery. Roles are not only determined by culture and personality but also
 39

individuals experience in specific situational. But social rules are also greatly
determined by such factors as age, sex, occupation, class and the like e.g. The role
of a woman is different from the role of a man. Most of the roles in society are
reciprocal E.g. parent-child, husband-wife, teacher-student, leader-follower, or
employee - employer roles. Roles are interlocked to make up the larger system we
call society. Each individual perceives the other individual in a definite role and
adjusts his own behaviour accordingly.
A role may be a wag of communicating; meeting certain needs, or
accomplishing certain goals, organizing a relationship or resolving an awkward
situation. But roles are learned and acquired through a long process of growth and
development. In this process language plays a very significant part. It helps to
organize the system of responses as also the environmental factors. It is generally
observed that no two persons take the some role in exactly the same way. Learning
to take roles is accompanies by learning to differentiate oneself from others.
10.4. SOCIAL STATUS
The status of an individual is closely related to his role, in fact, in Sociology, the
two terms are used interchangeably but there is difference status in the position and
degree of acceptance given to an individual by others; it is the position occupied by a
person relative to the needs of society; it is the prestige value of his position. It does
not necessarily mean high position; but position in the social hierarchy. Role is the
activity of a person, each individual has a status in his own community as well as in
each group with which he is associated. The respect he enjoys in his society,
influence with people, his standing in his job and social life are due in large part to
the social roles he plays.
Prestige is determined by the functions and importance of cultural roles.
A leader is given more respect than a member; a president enjoys greater prestige
than a secretary. High social status has been given to warriors, kings and priests in
different cultures. There are persons who perform many roles and are given greater
prestige. Status depends on the perceived value the person has for the role and this
value depends on those qualities which the community thinks important. Today
athletes film stars and musicians are as much honoured as the professional peoples
because those roles are very important in our culture.
10.5. KINDS OF STATUS
There are two kinds of status in society. That is ascribed and status achieved.
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Status is ascribed to individuals by cultural norms without any consideration of an
individual’s ability strength or choice. E.g. Membership in a case, ascribed status
prevents social mobility of the population. It also kills the initiative and individuality
of a person. It is believed to prevent social progress. Therefore it is against the
principle of equality.
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A role in our culture, status to be achieved through individual effort. So much

intelligence time, education and hard work are essential for a successful man in the
competitive struggle of today. In the choice of a mate, profession or mode of life
there is freedom and status is accorded not only to the successful but to those who
use approved means of achieving success. Modern civilized society is tending to
become an open society from class carriers and there is a powerful tendency to
accord status only on merit of performance. Roles and status has an important
influence on socialization, traits, attitudes and ideas.
10.6. SUMMARY
Role is one of the aspects of social structure. It is used to indicate the relation
of individual in culture. A person grows with cultural roles. Most of the roles in
society are reciprocal. Prestige is determined by the functions and importance of
cultural roles. Status depends on the perceived value the person has for the role
and this value depends on those qualities which the community thinks important.
There are two kinds of status in society, that is ascribed and achieved. Status is
ascribed and achieved. Status is ascribed to individuals by cultural norms without
any consideration of an individuals is ability strength.
10.7. KEY WORDS
Achieved status
Ascribed status
10.8. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the social status and its kinds.
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 41

LESSON - 11

SOCIALISATION
STRUCTURE
11.0. Objectives
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Elements of Socialisation
11.3. Agents of Socialisation.
11.3.1. Family.
11.3.2. Playmates and recreational group.
11.3.3. The School.
11.3.4. Education individuals occupation and marriage
11.4. Need for Socialisation
11.5. Summary
11.6. Key Words.
11.7. Suggested questions.
11.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Reveal the elements of socialization
 Discuss the agents of socialization
11.1. INTRODUCTION
Socialisation is the process by which individuals learn to conform to the norms
of the group. It is through the process of socialization that man find fulfillment
within society. Socialisation makes an individual a social person. Every man tries
to adjust himself to the condition of society and to the environment. This
adjustment is called ‘socialisation’.
11.2. ELEMENTS OF SOCIALISATION
There are four elements which play their part in the socialization process of the
individual. They include.
1. Physical and psychological heritage of the individual
A child is born with certain in born physical and mental capacities in the
environment of his family. If he has no capacities he imbibes the culture of his
family. If he has no proper mental and physical capacities he may not be able to
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make proper use of his environment.
2. The environment in which he is born
In the same way if the environment is not proper he may not be able to bring
out his best even if he has the best mental and physical capacity. A good school,
social equality, political freedom, in short a proper environment has an effect on the
society of the individual.
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3. The culture in which he is brought up

The environment is conditioned by the group for there is a culture peculiar to
each group. Man lives in a group and while living he has to conform to the culture
of the group.
4. Peculiar experiences
The last of these factors is the experience of the individual. For example when
a child is forced to study he may associative education with physical punishment.
sometimes even suffering is necessary to socialize a man.
11.3. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
11.3.1. Family
The family became the first place where a new person undergoes the process of
socialization. The parents are the first persons to socialize the child. They are not
only closely related to him but also are physically nearer the child than others. Here
it is from the mother that the child receives the earliest stimuli.
11.3.2. Playmates and recreational group
Next to his parents the child requires something from his equals which he
cannot acquire from elderly person. From them acquires the co-operative morality
and some of the informed aspects of culture.
11.3.3. The School
In addition to the effect of education the child in the school is influenced greatly
by the personalities of his teachers. They learn to express their views which is a
result of education and constant association with teachers.
11.3. 4. Education, individuals occupation and marriage
The teacher and friends in college and those of his work place play an
important role in socialization.
Besides both man and women are strongly influenced by the personality of their
life partner and their future depends on tails. In this way the children in the family
become successfully the protector, husband and father.
In brief, socialization is a process which begins at birth and continues till the
death of the individuals.
11.4. NEED FOR SOCIALISATION
Socialization is inevitable for the development of the individual. This is best
brought out in the following example.

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In 1920 in India two children were found in a wolf’s den of which one was eight
years old and the other a couple of years younger. The second dies after a few
months while the first lived for six years. She was completely innocent of the modes
 43

or ways of human behaviour. She crowed like a wolf’s could not speak and became
nervous at the sight of human beings. Due to the absence of socialization she
possessed none of the characteristics of human beings. The self of the individual
develops only through socialization.
11.5. SUMMARY
socialization is a social process through which individual develops his own self
by learning the norms and by knowing about his own self from others. Every society
prescribes its own ways and means of giving social training to its new born members
so that they may develop their own personality. The process of socialisation of
conditioned by culture Since every society has its own culture the ways of the
process of socialisation also differ for from society to society.
11.6. KEY WORDS
Agents
Play Mates
11.7. SUGGESTED QUESTION
1. Write short notes on socialisation.
2. Explain the agents of socialisation.

Prof. O. SUBRAMANIYA PILLAI

S.T. Hindu College
Nagercoil.
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 44

LESSON - 12

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
STRUTURE
12.0. Objectives
12.1. Introduction
12.2. The nature of social Institutions
12.3. Characteristics of Institution
12.4. Social importance of the Institutions
12.4.1. Knowledge
12.4.2. Institution
12.4.3. The society
12.5. Primary and secondary institutions
12.6. Kinds of social institutions
12.6.1. Sea behaviour
12.6.2. Labour and economic process
12.7. Independence of Social Institutions
12.8. Institutions and Associations
12.9. Difference between institution and community
12.10. Difference Between Institution and Association
12.11. Summary
12.12. Key words
12.13. Suggested Questions
12.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Study the characteristics of institution
 Establish the relationship between institution, community and
association.
12.1. INTRODUCTION
Culture is the sum total of the social processes and products to human society
Social Institutions are one of the products of culture. They reflect the maturing
ways of culture and grow up through the folkways and mores. Major social
institutions represent the universal society arrangements. That is they are found in
all types of societies. Institution help to maintain order and control in society. A

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scientific study of social institutions is basic to the understanding of culture and
society. They become synonymous with culture and society.
12.2. THE NATURE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Institutions are generally defined as certain enduring and accepted forms of
procedure governing the relations between individuals and groups’. According to
C.a. Ellwood institutions are “habitual ways of living together, which have been
sanctioned, systematized and established by the authority of communities”. Society
 45

recognizes and approves these ways of living or forms of procedure. They are the
direct outcome of planning. Institutions are agencies of permanent human
associations. They are the wheels on which human society matches on. HE Barnes
describes them as the family. It is explained as the strongholds of social life. The
family as social institution grows out of necessity and contingency.
The term institution is an abstraction for e.g. We see abstractions involved in
such nouns as Government, or behaviour, we cannot see any of these things. The
words stand for ideas. Institutions are accepted not merely by all who participate in
them but by all who share the common orientation. e.g. A father plays his role in
the family loyalty, because the values the importance of the family. Legal sanctions
do not compel the father play his role in the family.
The word institution also refers to practices to established ways of doing things.
The Government, marriage and family are called institution although they are
practices rather than group. In this sense the family is and it conducts itself in
institutionalized ways. Groups which promote and protect such interests as cultural
values and social order, are the most important institutions. For e.g. Education and
equal justice are Indian values, Schools and courts are institutions that promote
and defend these values.
Modern life is not as simple as that of ancient times. It is complex. The
complexity has been produced by our growing and different needs. The needs are
self expression. These needs are met by social institution. Social represent that
Social structure of society, e.g. The Indian caste system. Human society with the
help of social institution organizes, directs and execute the various activities to
satisfy human needs.
Social institutions are simply social habits. e.g. the habit of shaving in the
morning taking a siesta or uttering the last prayer before going to bed. Habits are
systematized instituted or established by groups. They are slowly acquired by
individuals in society. They are acquired by constant repetition of acts. Institutions
may also be defined as habitual ways of living together which have been sanctioned,
systematized and established by the authority of communities. A social institution
is a complex of concepts and attitudes regarding the ordering of a particular class of
human relationships. E.g. Family relationships. The concepts and attitudes are
condensed into mores traditions and codes.
12.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTITUTIONS:
1. Institution has some definite objectives.
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2. There is a symbol of an institution which can either be material or non-
material.
3. Every institution has some rules which must be compulsorily obeyed by
individuals.
4. The institution has definite procedures which are formulated on the basis of
customs and dogmas.
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5. Institutions depend upon the collective activities of men.

6. Institutions are the means of controlling individuals.
7. Institutions are more stable than other means of social control.
8. Institutions are formed for the fulfillment of primary needs.
12.4. SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE INSTITUTIONS
Institutions are socially important because they transfer cultural elements from
one generation to another for e.g. the father of the family teaches his son and
daughters about family way of life, economic way of life and religious way of life. A
social institution introduces unity in human behaviour, for eg. In a Hindu family, its
members follow the standards approved by society. That is, the norm of the family
is strictly followed. Thus it establishes unity of behaviour among its members. A
social institution also controls the conduct and guides men, for e.g. there are laws to
control the conduct of an unsocial and anti=social act. Similarly there are habits
and customs to guide men in society. The following considerations must be
mentioned with reference to the social importance of the institutions.
12.4.1. Knowledge
1. Knowledge, belief, moral ideas and modes of behaviour are transferred from
one generation to another through the medium of institution, for e.g. knowledge
about society belief in God, Truth and the way of behaviour are taught to the
younger generation by the older. This teaching chiefly take place through the
medium of institutions such as the family, religion and education. It helps the
young to find solutions for the problems faced by them.
12.4.2. Institution
2. Institution indicate the right path to man and exercise control upon his
activities, for e.g. in the family and individual learns his duty and his unsocial acts
are controlled by norms.
12.4.3. The Society
The society by means of the institutions compel, people collectively, to work in
conformity with culture.
12.5. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS
The primary institutions are also called as basic of fundamental institution.
They grow spontaneously. Such are the institutions like family, proper and
government. As civilization develops, secondary institutions arose. They are also
called as subordinate Institution which are found within the larger field of primary
institution. Eg. Government is a primary institution. But a republic is a deliberate
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form of Government and a secondary institution. Property is a primary institution.
Inheritance, tax is secondary institution. The primary institutions are far more
important than the secondary institutions, although the latter are mush more
numerous at present. The institutions that are connected with agriculture and
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industry are the most basic primary institutions. The family as a primary social
institution grows out of the drive for self perpetuation and the sexual needs. Though
the family exists for the purpose of procreation, it has often contributed to other
institutional activities such as industry, religion and education.
The same primary institutions are found among all people at any given level of
civilizations. For e.g. Property, family religion and education in urban, rural and
primitive civilization. This is because mankind constituter one animal species and
are alike in their physical make-up. In other words the human factor is a constant.
The diversity in basic primary institutions can be understood only when we study
the folkways of the people.
12.6. KINDS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
The origin and function of major social institution is related to man and society.
folkways and more are considered as a basic step to the maturing of society’s
institutional arrangement. There are six major types of social institutions in society.
12.6.1. Sex behaviour
1. Sex behaviour and family relationships. This develops in the institution we
call the home and family –Sex behaviour is regulated in the family by folkways and
mores. The head of the family, the father or the eldest male, tries to maintain
cordial relations among its members.
12.6.2. Labour and economic process.
2. Another is labour and economic process. This is the institution which we
call industry and work. The labour force is organized with a view to increase
production and the standard of life of the work by certain rules and regulations.
There are certain approved ways and means to improve our economic processes
such as production, consumption and distribution. A third is worship and the
supernatural. This becomes in society the institutions of religion. For e.g. people
worship different Gods to get bliss. Human sacrifice is a supernatural belief. A
fourth is the search for truth and adaptation. This institution is called as the school
of education. We send children to school to know truth and to adaptation. This
institution is called as the school of education. We send children to school to know
truth and to adapt role and status in society through education. Education
institutions shape the personality of an individual. The fifth social institution is law
and control. This is called as the state and Government. The Government
maintains law and order in society by controlling and regulating the social behaviour
of individuals. The sixth is the institution of community it deals with the mutual
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interests, recreation and organization of society.
12.7. INDEPENDENCE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
We mean by interdependence that a social institution like the family is
dependent on order social institutions in society for its existence and function and
function. For e.g., an individual works in a bank which is an economic institution to
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help the others for their functioning and existence (An institution cannot exist by
itself just as watertight compartment). This organism and inter-relational aspects
helps us to understand the complexity of society and its development. They reflect
the factors of change and of balance and equilibrium in society. They reflect the
factors of change and of balance and equilibrium in society. These
interrelationships are cloquent testimony to the unity of all societies. They also help
us to know the inseparable relationships between the individual and society.
The individual has three important functions in society in relation to social
institutions. As a biological organism he brings to society a certain equipment at
birth. He is conditioned by his social environment, he establishes contact with other
individuals in society and is greatly influenced by them. His character is affected by
his own actions and by what he does for and to society. These help us to
understand the close relationship between the individuals and society. Society
should produce strong individuals with an integrated personality.
We realize the importance of the interrelationship of the individual and society
when we study the relation of social institution, agencies and activities for to
protection and development of the individual in society. A major function of the
institutions is to conserve the individual and to act as individual wants the service of
more than one institution in the fast changing technological civilization. Each
institution represents a particular department of life of the individual. The
institutions therefore, represent and reflect nature and the needs of the individual.
These institutions should serve the individual for his adequate development in
society.
Social institutions change due to various factors such as technology and
organization. They should help the individuals to change himself to move with e.g.
in earlier days the family imparted religious education to its members. At present
special agencies present the religious education. Similarly recreation was cosmetic.
Now it has been commercialized. The trend in modern society illustrates, the unity
of the individual with society and the essential unity of the institutions.
Technical assistance should be given to institutions; therefore there are social
agencies besides society becomes more and more complex in its interrelations. The
specific needs of the individual can be satisfied only through technical assistance.
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For instance there are national agencies of playground and recreational associations.
Similarly national agencies have developed in the fields of child labour, child welfare
and child education. These agencies are considered as a working laboratory for the
study of institutions. The functions of the Institutions are increasing as civilization
advances. We may like to know of the special functions of each of the institutions in
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relations to the needs of the individual. Some of the old functions disappear. New
agencies have come to take the place of old institutions such as caste. In the family
we see new agencies to train people to work on problems of health and sanitation.
In the field of education, the functions of the school have been increasing.
Schools teach 3 Rs. I.e., reading writing and arithmaties. Besides they have budget,
administration, canteen, health inspection, playing grounds and libraries. Thus the
traditional functions of education have been experiencing transformation. By
adjusting itself to the new needs and wants of the changing times, the institutions
become modern. They continue to exist in one form or other. In the religious
institution we stress the importance of its social service.
The increasing functions of economic institutions in recent years appear quits
impressive. The problems and needs of working people are taken care of by trade
unions. There are different kinds of unions for business men and professional
people. There are labour courts to settle the disputes between the workers and the
management.
In political institutions many private organizations and agencies have come up
to guard the individual and to help him in many ways. There are service agencies of
the central and state Governments. E.g. Women’s club and Civics committees.
12.8. INSTITUTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS
The distinction between associations and institutions is of capital importance in
Sociology. Associations are the matter of which social life is made, whereas the
corresponding institutions are the dynamic element which gives life and activity to
them. Associations are things; Institutions are modes and ways. We are born and
live in associations, but we, move and act through institutions. Though both these
elements of social life are interrelated, yet the attributes of one are not the attributed
of the other. Sociology is more concerned with institutions than with associations.
Institutions express themselves through associations when an association serves
public rather than private interests and does so in an accepted way, it may be called
an institution. The main distinctions between institutions and association are the
following:
1. Institutions are constituted of laws and systems, Associations are
comprised of human beings.
2. Associations have form and are concrete whereas institutions have no
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form and are abstract.
3. Institutions evolve while associations are formed.
4. Associations lack the stability of institutions.
5. Institution is a procedure of working while an association is an
organized group.
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6. Institution indicates procedure of work and association membership.

Man is a member not of an institution, but of an association. This
difference between association and institution can best be understood
by the following table.

Institution Association
1. Formless and abstract Concrete
2. Evolved Constituted
3. Permanent Comparatively impermanent
4. Procedure of working Organized group
5. Comprised of laws and system Comprised of human beings
6. Indicative of a method of working Indicative of membership
7. Aims at fulfillment of primary needs Aims at other kinds of definite
objectives
8. Dependent upon human activities Bases / upon mutual co-operation
9. Has a definite structure Has no specific structure
10. Laws based upon racial customs Laws formed after national
and dogmas consideration
11. Compulsory observance of laws Observance of laws in limited only as
long as
12. A symbol, not a name Definite name

12.9. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INSTITUTION AND COMMUNITY

1. Institution is an organisation of laws and procedure community is a group or
human beings.
2. Institution is formed for the fulfillment of certain needs, whereas community
is a group of people living in of definite locality sharing a common life.
3. Institution is abstract, Community is concrete. Hence people are not
members of people living in of definite locality sharing a common life.
4. Every institution it related to a particular sphere of its community is related
to social life as a whole.

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5. Institution is dependent upon collective activity. Association is dependent
upon mutual relations.
6. The structure of institution encompasses worker festivals and ritual besides
social relations. The structure of community is inclusive of groups of human beings
community sentiment and social relations.
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12.10. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INSTITUTION AND /ASSOCIATION

The difference between institution and association can be clearly understood by
considering the institution of marriage Certain customs, traditions and virtuals are
found associated with marriage in every society e.g. the custom of wearing a ring.
The tradition of wearing tilak on the forehead and virtuals uttered by priest. These
are established and approved by society. It is compulsory for every member of
society to obey them. A regulation of the sex desire and the institution of marriage
for the development of society is equally necessary and the institution of marriage is
found in every society. But it may differ in form. Marriage is an institution that is
not created at any particular time or by some people. It develops according to rituals
and traditions. The institution of marriage our society is the result of evolution over
thousands of years. It has a definite procedure, some specific laws and a system. It
has no form and is abstract. It has symbols. In Hindu marriage, tying of thali
putting vermilion on the forehead and going round the holy fire are some of the
symbols of the institution of marriage. Performance of these rituals means that he
the marriage has been performed.
We shall compare the institution of marriage with an association. The
recreational sclub or a debating club has form and also concrete. It has a particular
location where its members meet. The aim of the club is the fulfillment of secondary
needs, not primary ones. A club is impermanent. Members can leave it if they so
desire. It is based upon mutual co-operation. It has no delimite structure like the
institution of marriage. The laws of a club enforce obedience only as long as an
individual is a member of the club.
Association are created by men for despatch of common business and for the
regulation of the members to one another. This is done by rules and procedures.
Rules and procedures of associations are created by men. Such forms are
distinctively institutions. Every association has, with respect to its interest its
characteristic institutions. The temple, has its modes of worship, its rituals. The
family has marriage. The state has its own peculiar institutions such as
representative Government and legislative procedures. Eg. Sec. Table-1.
We belong to associations not to institutions, sometime we confuse institution
with association because the same terms in a different reference, may mean other
one or the other. There is no difficult deciding according, to our definition that the
temple is an association and pray an institution. Trade union is an association and

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collective bargaining an institution. The family is an association and monogamy an
institution. If we are considering something as an organised group, it is an
membership. Institution denote a mode or means of service. When we consider a
college as a body of teachers and students, we are selecting it associational aspect,
but when we regard it as an educational system, we are selecting its institutional
feature. We do not belong to marriage or property system but we do belong to
families and to states.
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Table 1
Association Institutions Interests
Family Marriage, the home inheritance Sex, home parentage
College Lecture and examination Learning, Vocational
system, graduation preparation
Business Book-keeping system and Profits
Share capital
Table
Association Institutions Interests
Trade Collective, bargaining Job security wage rates
Strike, Picketing conditions of work:
Temple Creed communion of Office, power Government
worship policy
State Constitution, legal code, General regulations of the
forms of Government social order.

12.11. SUMMARY
Institution brings a cultural harmony in the society. Society seems to be unified
whole due to the verification and harmony brought in by various institutions. AT
every steps in the society, man looks for various norms in existence. Association is
an artificial creation, community is a natural growth.
12.12. KEY WORDS
Institutionalized.
Club.
Inheritance.
12.13. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. What are the characteristics common to all Institutions explain them clearly.
2. Define Association and Community.

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LESSON - 13

MARRIAGE AND FAMILY

STRUCTURE
13.0. Objectives
13.1. Introduction
13.2. The reasons for and the nature of marriage
13.3. Classification
13.4. Exogamy
13.5. Endogamy
13.5.1. Divisional or Tribal endogamy
13.5.2. Caste endogamy
13.5.3. Class endogamy
13.5.4. Sub caste endogamy
13.5.5. Race endogamy
13.6. Cause of endogamy
13.7. Advantages of endogamy
13.8. Disadvantages of endogamy
13.9. Exogamy
13.10. Forms of exogamy
13.10.1. Gotra Exogamy
13.10.2. Pravar exogamy
13.10.3. Village exogamy
13.10.4. Pinda Exogamy
13.11. Inter-caste Marriage
13.12. Anuloma or Hypergamy
13.13. Pratiloma of hypogamy
13.14. Cross cousin marriage
13.15. Polygamy
13.15.1. Enforced celibacy
13.15.2. Variety
13.15.3. More Children
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13.15.4. Social Prestige
13.15.5. Economic Necessity
13.16. Polygamy
13.17. Polyandry
13.17.1. Adelphic or fraternal polyandry
13.17.2. Non-fracternal polyandry
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13.18. Summary.
13.19. Key words.
13.20. Suggested Questions.
13.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Assess the classification of marriage.
 Discuss the reasons for and the nature of marriage.
13.1. INTRODUCTION
We shall study marriage as an important social institution of society in this
chapter. It is a universal social institution i.e., it is found in all types of society and
at all levels of culture. First we shall study the important features of marriage among
the Hindus. Then we shall also consider it among other communities. Hindu
marriage is a religious sacrament.
The aims of Hindu marriage are said to be progeny and pleasure. Marriage is
desired for the fulfillment of one’s religious duties. These are certain rites which
must be performed for marriage to be complete. The main rites are offering in the
rites are performed by a priest in the presence of a sacred fire and accompanied by
the rituals. They are necessary for the marriage to be complete. Hindu marriage is a
sacrament. It is considered sacred because it is said to be complete only on the
performance on the sacred rites.
As marriage is said to be sacred it is irrevocable. The parties to the marriage
cannot dissolve it all. They are bound to each other until they die. It calls for
sacrifice on the part of the other. The individuals is forced to make marriage a
success by means of the compromise and adjustment. Marriage is a social duty
towards the family and the community and there is little ideal of individual interest.
The social background provided by of individual interest.. The social background
provided by the joint-family and castes with its dominion in all aspects of life,
afforded no scope for the recognition of any personal factor, individual interests and
aspirations in the relation between husband and wife. Marriage binds a man and a
woman in permanent relationship for the physical, social and spiritual purpose of
sexual pleasure, procreation and observance of dharma. Sex desire is one of the vital
forces of human beings. It should be satisfied. Without the satisfaction of human
beings, sex desire of one cannot attain full integration of personality. It ensures
normal development of human beings. The Second important function marriage is
procreation. What we mean by procreation is of giving birth to a child. Human

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beings are mortals. The death of a person is compensated by the birth of a child.
Otherwise society cannot perpetuate. Thus when old people die young one are
incorporated into society and Society’s existence continued. The third function of
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marriage is dharma. Dharma means duty. The duty of a Hindu, said in the four
stages of Ashrama, dharma must be observed and performed by an individual to
attain bliss. The four stages of life are Brahmacharya, Grahasta, Vanaprastha and
Sanniyasa.
13.2. THE REASONS FOR AND THE NATURE OF MARRIAGE
Sex-gratification is a basic reason for the formation of the family and the
institution or marriage. It is usually regularised and socially sanctioned. It is not the
only cause. Satisfaction of the sexual desire is implied in a healthy and normal
physical survival. But the cultural traditions of a people decide the exact way of this
satisfaction. Different ways are followed by people to satisfy sex desire, bio psychic
needs compel men to marry. Biological organism, e.g. man needs woman and vice-
versa. Psychological needs are those desires related to human emotions. In marriage
these emotions are satisfied. This can be explained by the birth of child and the
feeling of love and affection show to the child by the couple. Thus the biological and
psychological needs are fulfilled according to the culture of Society.
Generally sex gratification forms the dominant motive for marriage. Besides we
want a dependable social mechanism for the care, and rearing of children. Another
important reason for marriage is that it transmits culture from one generation to
another. e.g. Parents educate children. It ensures a two fold survival, viz., that of the
group and its culture of children. Another important reason for marriage is that it
transmits culture from one generation to another. e.g. Parent educate children. It
ensures a two fold survival, viz., that of the group end its culture.
The economic organization of people is dependent upon co-operation and
division of labour between the two sexes. In married life we find co-operation
between husband and wife. Work between them is also, divided according to their
sex and ability, e.g. Men perform hard work like ploughing and women are given
light work such as taking care of the children and home. The stable functioning of
the economic organization is made possible only when the two sexes enter into
socially sanctioned, permanent relations with each other, i.e. marry.
The nature of the marital bond is the same everywhere. It has social sanction
generally in the form of a civil or religious ceremony. It authorizes two persons of
opposite sexes to engage in sexual and socio economic relations with one another.
The marital bond brings together not just two individuals, but two families. In India
it binds the relatives and villages. It is not a tool designed to secure for personal
satisfaction. It is a social mechanism which creates and fosters social solidarity. It is

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the individualistic and personal aspect of marriage which is stressed in urban is the
individualistic and personal aspect of marriage which is stressed in urban society.
13.3. CLASSIFICATION
The following are the ways of classifying marriages:
1. According to the number of persons united in any marriage. Monogamy
marriage of one men to one woman. Polygamy marriage involving either
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more than one woman of which there two types. Polygony-one man to
two or more women. Polyandry-one woman to two or more men.
2. According to the manner in which descent of the married pair is
accorded.
3. Patrilineal-descent is traced in the direct male line e.g. child to father to
father’s father, etc.
Matrilineal – descent is traced in the direct female line Bilineal -
descent is traced in both lines.
According to the place of residence of the married pair. Patrilocal
husband and wife take up residence with the parents of the husband.
Neolocal – Husband and wife reside by themselves. The main forms marriage
are endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, hypogamy, polygamy, polyandry, group
marriage etc.
13.4. EXOGAMY
Exogamy is the form of marriage in which one must marry within one’s own
caste or other group. This rule does not permit marriage of close relative.
Endogamous marriage is that which is confined within the group. The practice of
marrying outside one’s clan is also called exogamy. The following forms of endogamy
are found in India.
13.5. ENDOGAMY
13.5.1. Divisional or Tribal endogamy
This is the endogamy in which no individual can marry outside his own tribe or
division. A breach of endogamy brings disaster to the tribes. It entails
excommunication.
13.5.2. Caste endogamy
In this form of endogamy marriage is contracted within the caste. If a man
marries outside his caste, he will be ostracized. But now-a-days intercase marriage
is quite common. Tamilnadu government encourages one to marry outside one’s
caste. This will also help to reduce caste conflict.
13.5.3. Class Endogamy
Class endogamy is that in which marriage can take place between people of
only one class or of a particular status.
13.5.4. Sub caste Endogamy
This is the type of endogamy in which choice for marriage is restricted to the
sub caste.

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13.5.5. Race Endogamy
Race endogamy is that in which one can marry in the race. People of the
Veddah race never marry outside the race.
13.6. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CAUSE OF ENDOGAMY
1. When any woman of a group marries into another group, her children also
belong to the other group and thus the numerical force of the group suffers. It also
helps to maintain property and wealth within the group.
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2. The partners in marriage belong to the same religion.

3. The caste endogamy is to maintain the sense of superiority of the group.
4. The purity of the caste is maintained by endogamous marriage.
5. Caste endogamy is observed because to the fear about strangers.
13.7. ADVANTAGES OF ENDOGAMY
1. It tends to maintain the sence of unity within the group.
2. Woman in are happier within their own group.
3. Purity of the caste is maintained.
4. Other people do not gain authority over the group’s wealth.
5. The business secrets of the group are kept intact.
13.8. DISADVANTAGE OF ENDOGAMY
1. The nation is divided into small endogamous groups. These groups develop
loyalty to caste and not to the nation. Therefore endogamy is said to destroy national
unity.
2. The scope for choice of a life partner is limited because one should marry
within one’s caste or group. The deficiency in one caste cannot be compensated by
the other in endogamous marriage. As a result we find malpractices such as
polygamy, unsuitable marriages dowry system, bride price etc.
3. It generates caste conflict. Members of one caste develop prejudice to other
castes. This is the main cause at the root of cartelism in India. As long as
endogamy and caste solidarity exist the institution of cartelism in India. As long as
endogamy and caste solidarity exist the institution of caste will remain. Besides it is
a negation of democracy. Therefore endogamous marriage should be discouraged.
Thus at the present time it has become necessary, from the point of view of
national and international interest, that the endogamous to be made avoid. The
feeling of community mindedness cannot be developed. The unfortunate
consequences of dowry and other problems of widow remarriage are to be persons.
Polygamy, unsuitable marriages and late marriage, lead to corruption in society.
One way of arresting such consequences is to put a stop to endogamous marriages.
These ties are being constantly broken by the effect of modern Western education,
social legislation and civilization. Further in our country intercaste marriage are
encouraged due. Incentives given to the couples by the Government. This will help
up to realize to the ideals of democracy and unity at the national and international
levels.
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13.9. EXOGAMY
Exogamy is the contrast of endogamy. In endogamous marriage one can marry
only within ones own caste or group. But in exogamy brides are selected from other
castes or groups while endogamy exhibits conservative attitude, exogamy is
progressive, that is, mates in exogamous marriage are considered to have
progressive views. They are also modern. Exogamy, though not prominent, is
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approved from the biological view point. It leads to healthy and in intelligent off
springs.
13.10. FORMS OF EXOGAMY
13.10.1. Gotra Exogamy
The practice among the high caste members is to marry outside the Gotra.
People who marry within the Gotra have to repent and treat the woman like a sister
or mother. The child born to her is believed to be unhealthy. Since members of
Gotra are believed to be blood relations, marriage within the Gotra is forbidden.
13.10.2. Pravar Exogamy
The high caste people forbid marriage between persons belonging to the same
pravar. People who use the name of a common saint at religious functions are
believed to belong to the same pravar. Thus pravar is a kind of religious and
spiritual bond.
13.10.3. Village exogamy
Village exogamy as form of marriage is practiced by many Indian tribes. It is
the recognized custom to marry outside the tribal village. This form of marriage is
found among the Madhya of Madhya Pradesh. The reason for village exogamy is the
villagers are considered or relatives.
13.10.4. Pinda Exogamy
The Hindus prohibit marriages within the Pings. There are different opinions as
to who are the members of the same pinda. According to Mitakshara school those
who descend from a common parentage belong to Sapinda. According to
Brahaspathi, offspring from five maternal generations and seven paternal
generations are Sapinda and they cannot intermarry. The opinion of Brahaspathi is
not accepted. The generation of the mother is not considered to be Sapinda in
several parts of India. In general, Sapinda marriages do not take place in North
India.
13.11. INTER-CASTE MARRIAGE
Inter caste marriage is the union of a man and woman of two different castes.
According to sociologists, into force only when the varna system was transformed
into the caste system. Endogamous marriage is a barrier to social progress. It
fosters only caste loyalty and not loyalty to the nation. The result is that we find
conflict between castes. Because of caste conflicts in Indian villages the
development programmes of our Government could not be implemented
successfully. Thus endogamous marriage is seen to act as a barrier to national
progress. Besides the difficulties experienced in finding a suitable bridegroom in
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one’s caste, results in such malpractices is the encouragement of interacts marriage.
This will help promote national unity and the achievement of democratic goals. Two
forms of intercase marriage are found and accepted. 1. Anuloma. 2. Pratiloma.
13.12. ANULOMA OR HYPERGAMY
In the anuloma marriage system men of higher castes wed woman of lower
castes under the kind of social structure that caste has given rise to in India, a man
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and a woman must invariably marry outside has or her own gotra. if millionaire’s
daughter who choose to marry a pauper who will accept no doles from his father-in-
law, would lose her economic status likewise, under the caste system, if a high caste
woman marries a low caste man she loses caste status which indicates the degree of
ritual purity. A daughter, before her marriage shares her father caste status and
after marriage her husband’s. But man himself does not lose caste status or ritual
purity by marrying a low caste woman. Therefore to prevent a woman from losing
caste and becoming ritually impure. Manu and other law-givers encouraged
hypergamous marriage. A man can marry from his own caste or form those below,
but a woman can marry only in her caste or above.
13.13. PRATILOMA OF HYPOGAMY
Marriage of a woman to a man form a lower caste is not permitted.
13.14. CROSS COUSIN MARRIAGE
Cross cousin marriage as a form of exogamy is explained as a device for
avoiding payment of a high bride price. It is also intended to maintain property in
the household. The implication is that the bride price paid by Rama for his wife
would be returned to his family when Ram’s daughter marries her mother’s brother’s
son. A girl is allowed to marry her maternal uncle’s son. It is believed to strengthen
the solidarity of the group.
13.15. POLYGAMY
Polygamy and polyantry as two forms of marriage are referred to as polygamy in
common parlances, Polygamy is explained as marriage to more than one person. It
is fairly widespread all over the world. Westermark, in his History to Human
Marriage has listed the following causes of polygamy.
13.15.1. Enforced Celibacy
During the period of pregnancy and when the child is breastfed men should not
approach women for sex. This is a long period of enforced celibacy which compels
one for second marriage e.g. uncivilized tribes.
13.15.2. Variety
The desire for variety is also a cause of polygamy Muslims marry more than one
woman according to their religion.
13.15.3. More Children
A son has much utility in agriculture and war among the tribes. In primitive
society the supply of labour force is also limited. A man contracts a second wife to
enhance his social status in primitive society. In some tribes the birth rate is low
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while the rate of infantile mortality is high. In such cases polygamy is a practice to
get more children.
13.15.4. Social Prestige
The leaders of primitive tribes of South Africa practice polygamy in order to
prove their superiority. Monogamy is considered a sign of poverty.
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13.15.5. Economic Necessity

In some tribes the second marriage is contracted to help the first wife when she
is ill. Some marry a second time in order to protect their property. Anotehr reason
is the supply of cheap farm labourers. Imbalance is sex ratio is also considered as a
case of polygamy.
13.16. POLYGAMY
In this form of marriage one man marries many women. It strengthens man’s
dominion over women. In India the pattern has existed right from the Vedic times to
the present. It is regarded as a mark of affluence. The above mentioned causes of
polygamy are also applicable to this form of marriage. Polygamy is advantageous in
the following respects.
(a) Large number of children; In this type of marriage there is the possibility of
more children because man can children by more than one women. The supply of
labour force is also great. Since more people work in the field, the wealth of the
family increase which in turn raises the status of man in society.
(b) Cases of sexual infidelity are few because the husband finds the desired
variety among his wives.
But more disadvantages than advantages are found in polygamy. Therefore it is
not considered good in civilized societies.
Following are the disadvantages of Polygamy
(a) Women are not treated well. Therefore the status of women suffers.
(b) The full development of personality of women is hindered because of
jealousy and hatred among them.
(c) The family suffers from want of finance. Children cannot be brought
up well.
13.17. POLYANDRY
Polyandry is a form of union in which a woman has more than one husband at
a time or in which brothers share wife or wives in common. It is far less prevalent
than polygeny. There are two forms of Polyandry.
1. Adelphic or fraternal polyandry 2. Non-fraternal polyandry.
13.17.1. Adelphic or fraternal polyandry
In this a woman is treated as the wife of all brothers who have sexual relations

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with her. The todas of the Nilgiri Hills observe this form of marriage, Till the bow
and arrow ceremony is performed by the younger brothers the children born to a
woman are treated as children of the eldest brothers the children born to a woman
are treated as children of the eldest brother.
13.17.2. Non-fracternal polyandry
In this one woman has many husbands. The wife goes to spend sometime with
each husband. There need not any close relationship between the husbands.
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A special ritual is performed to elect the social parent of the child. Following are the
causes of polyandry.
1. Excess of men over women.
2. Extreme poverty due to which one man cannot maintain even one wife.
3. Desire to limit population.
4. The economic use of men is limited in society
5. Desire to maintain the strength of the joint family.
13.18. SUMMARY
Marriage is one of the oldest socially recognized institution essential for sexual
urges. Today there is a greater trend towards exogamous marriage. Endogamy is
said to be conservative. It is widely criticised. Exogamy is appreciated as
progressive and more scientific. Exogamy has brought peoples of various castes,
races, religious group, tribal together.
13.19. KEY WORDS
Tribal
Endogamy
Exogamy
Gotra
Celibacy
Fraternal
13.20. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain clarifying marriage.
2. Write short notes on forms of Exogamy
3. Explain types of Exogamy


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LESSON - 14

THE FAMILY
STRUCTURE
14.0. Objectives
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Definition
14.3. Essential characteristics of family
14.3.1. Permanent relation between husband and wife
14.3.2. Permanent sexual relationship
14.3.3. Blood relationship
14.3.4. Blood Relationship
14.3.5. An economic provision for the subsistence of the
member
14.3.6. A common Habitation
14.3.7. Nomenclature
14.4. Distinctive features of the family oragnisation
14.4.1. University
14.4.2. Emotional basis
14.4.3. Formative influence
14.4.4. United size
14.4.5. Nuclear position in the social structure
14.4.6. Responsibilities of the members
14.4.7. social regulation
14.4.8. Its permanent and temporary nature
14.5. Social Importance of the family
14.6. Family on the Agency of social control
14.7. Religion and family
14.8. Family and the economic institution
14.9. The origin of the family
14.9.1. Sex
14.9.2. Reproduction
14.9.3. Economic organization
14.10. Forms of family
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14.10.1. The patrichal family
14.10.2. The Matriarchal Family
14.10.3. Nuclear and extended family
14.10.4. On the basis of residence the family may be classified as
following
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[Link]. Matrilocal family

[Link]. Partilocal family
14.11. On the basis of marriage also some distinction of family have been made.
The major forms among them are
14.11.1. Monogamous family
14.11.2. Polygynous family
14.11.3. Polyandrous family
14.12. Distinctions of family on the basis of ancestry
14.12.1. Types
14.12.2. Patrilineal family
14.13. Other distinctions of family
14.13.1. Matronymic family
14.13.2. Patronymic family
14.13.3. Immediate Family
14.13.4. Conjungal family
14.13.5. Consanguine family
14.14. Functions of the family
14.14.1. Reproduction
14.14.2. Provision of food, Housing and Clothing
14.14.3. Psychological Functions
14.14.4. Satisfaction of sexual needs
14.14.5. Protection and care of the young
14.15. Non Essential functions
14.15.1. Economic Functions
14.15.2. Religious Functions
14.15.3. Educational
14.16. Health
14.17. Social functions
14.17.1. To Achieve Status
14.17.2. Socialization
14.17.3. Social control
14.17.4. Social Heritage
14.17.5. Helps in the Choice of a Life Partner

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14.18. Traditional Functions of the Family
14.18.1. Economic Functions
14.18.2. Agencies Performing the Functions of the Family
14.18.3. Maternity Hospitals
14.18.4. Hospital for women
14.18.5. Baby clinics
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14.18.6. Creches and Children Parks

14.18.7. Baby Sitters
14.18.8. Public Aid
14.19. Changes in the modern family
14.19.1. Economic functions
14.19.2. Reduction in other activities of the family
14.20. Problems facing the family
14.20.1. Problem of adjustment of the husband-wife relationship
14.20.2. Problem of sexual adjustment
14.20.3. Lower Birth Rate
14.21. Disorganization of Modern Family
14.21.1. Lack of Unity Among Family Members
14.21.2. Decrease in Family Control
14.21.3. Strife
14.21.4. Laxiety in martial bonds
14.21.5. Conflict between Parents and Children
14.22. The modern Indian family its future
14.23. Summary
14.24. Key words
14.25. Suggested Questions
14.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Define the family
 Discuss the characteristics of family
 Findout the origin of the family
 Explain the function of the family
14.1. INTRODUCTION
Of all human groups the family is the most important primary group. It is a
small social group consisting of a father, mother and one or more children. The
family does not mean a place or location but rather a web of social relationships
between the family members. It can be regarded and studied as one of the universal
and permanent institutions of mankind. The family is universal because it is found
all levels of cultural development. In this chapter we propose to study this form and
function continues to serve the community.
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14.2. DEFINITION OF FAMILY
The word family has been taken over from the Roman word formulus, meaning
a servant. According to 1. Maclver “Family is a group defined by sex relationship
sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of
children”. 2. “Family is a group of persons united by the ties of marriage blood or
adoption; constituting a single household, interacting and inter communicating with
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each other in their respective social roles of husband and wife, mother and father,
son and daughter, brother and sister creating a common culture”. Burgess and
Loke. 3. “Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or
without children, of a man or woman alone, with children”, Nimk off.
4. Family is a “group of person whose relations to one another are based upon
consanguinity and who are there fore kin to another”.
5. Family is “the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children”
Elliott and Merrill.
14.3. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY
When we examine the definitions of family, we have some idea of the essential
characteristics of family. The important characteristics of family. The important
characteristics of the family are the following:
14.3.1. Permanent relations between husband and wife
The family consists of the husband, wife and their children. Parents love and
tea care of children. The child takes long years to mature.
Thus a permanent relation between man and woman is established. Marital
relations in different countries may be more or less permanent, but the relations
after marriage between man and woman have some degree of permanency in all
cultures. This permanency of marital relations helps to bring up the child and to
the continuance of family. In poly and rous and polygamous societies also, the
husband-wife relationship does possess some degree of permanency.
14.3.2. Permanent Sexual Relationship
One of the aims of marriage is the establishment of permanent sexual
relationships. This helps the establishment of the family. Without marriage there
can be one family even thought there may be several relations between man and
women. When the relations break up as in divorce, desertion, the family
disintegrates, children can be properly cared for the brought up only when there are
permanent conjugal relations. Let us conjugal relations, it is the relationship that
binds man and woman through marriage.
14.3.3. Blood Relationship
Another important feature of the family is the existence of blood relationship
among the members. These blood relationships may be real or imaginary. The
members of the family have a common ancestor. They think they are the
descendants of the same ancestor. A child can be adopted by parents who do not
have children. The relation between adopted children and their parents is accepted

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as legal. There should not be any blood relationship between husband and wife. It
is a necessity.
14.3.4. Blood Relationship
Another important feature of the family is the existence of blood relationship
among the members. These blood relationships may be real or imaginary. The
members of the family have a common ancestor. They think they are the
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descendants of the same ancestor. A child can be adopted by parents who do not
have children. The relation between adopted children and their parents is accepted
as legal. There should not be any blood relationship between husband and wife. It
is a necessity.
14.3.5. An Economic Provision for the subsistence of the Members
Members of a family need money to satisfy their economic needs. The head of
the family carries on a certain profession and earns money to maintain the family.
Thus each one knows the duties and rights to others members. In different cultures
the burden of earning money may fall on different members, but everywhere there is
provision is the family for the subsistence of its members.
14.3.6. A Common Habitation
A family requires a home or householder for its living. The members of a family
live in one resisdence. The task of child bearing cannot be performed without a
home. Among the nomadic people also members of the same family live together at
one place.
14.3.7. Nomenclature
Every family is known by a name which serves to identify my family, it has its
own system or reckoning descent. Descent may be traced through the male line or
through the female line. Usually the wife goes and joins her husband relatives after
marriage. This is called partrilocal family. In matrilocal family the husband goes
and joints his wife’s relatives after marriage.
14.4. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE FAMILY ORGANIZATION
A family has several distinctive feature. It influence the whole life of the people
in numerous ways. Any change in the form and function of the family can also be
seen in the whole social structure. It differs from other groups in the following
respects.
14.4.1. Universality
Family is the most universal group. It the first institution in the history of man.
It is found in all societies and at all stages of social development. Each one of us is
a member of a family.
14.4.2. Emotional Basis
The family is fundamental unit of human society. It is based on our impulses
of mating, procreation, maternal devotion and parental care. It is close-knit group
which fortifies emotions.
14.4.3. Formative Influence
The family exercise the most profound influence over is members. It shapes the
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character of individuals. The child is very much influenced by the family and
accordingly its structure is determine. It exhibits the name character and mental
make-up in adult age which acquires in the family.
14.4.4. Limited Size
It is of necessity a group very limited in size, for it is defined by biological
conditions which it cannot transcend. If it transcends the biological conditions it
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will lose its identity. Therefore it is the smallest o all the formalized organisations
that make up the social structure.
14.4.5. Nuclear Position in the Social Structure
The family is the nucleus of other social organizations. The whole social
structure is built of family units. We find in the simple society and patriarchal
society the social structure is built of family units. Only in the higher complex
civilizations the family ceases to fulfill this function. But even here the local
community and its various class tend remain union of families.
14.4.6. Responsibility of the Members
It makes more continuous and greater demands on it members than any other
association. In the family the child learns the meaning of social responsibility and
the necessity for co-operation. An Maclver describes, in times of crisis men may
work and fight and die for their country, but they toil for their families all their lives.
That is the members work hard and fight and even are ready to die when there is a
war with other country. They do not fail to work for the family welfare all their lives.
The child learns and develops his basis attitudes and ideals in the family. The life of
the family is too deeply rooted in basic impulses. These impulse, lend men into the
increasing responsibilities of the family and sustain them in the fulfillment of tasks,
it is an important agency of socialization of the individual.
14.4.7. Social Regulation
The family is peculiar peculiary guarded both by social customs and by legal
regulations. It is not easy to violate them. The marriage contract is more strictly
defined than other contracts. The partners in partners in marriage cannot easily
dissotive or leave. Marriage contracts differs from society to society but in each the
prevailing from is insisted upon.
14.4.8. Its Permanent and temporary nature
Family as an institution is permanent and universal while as an association it
is temporary and transitional. when the son marries he establishes his own family
which again way give rise to more families. We understand from this that although
the family is one of the most limited groups of the society, it differs from them being
a distinct type of group. It is the smallest kinship group. It begins in the marriage
of a man and a woman. It undergone change when the sons marry. It breaks when
one of the partners die. Therefore the study of family helps us to know many of its
perplexing problems. It also demands our special attention.
14.5. SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE FAMILY
Family is the first social institution in the history of man. Man lived in small
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families an ancient times. It lacked any kind of organisation. It was not a
permanent institution but the helped human being to fulfill biological and
psychological needs. Generally the family consisted of husband, wife and their
children. The practice of settled agriculture gave permanence to the family.
Family is a fundamental unit of society. Its foundations rest upon man’s
biological needs. In the modern age, the functions of the family have been taken
over by other institutions, but there are many biological and psychological needs
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which man cannot satisfy without a family. According to Havelock Ellis, the value of
the mothers milk for the child cannot be obtained in any other way. parental care
love and affection makes the child grow up well. Human emotion are satisfied only
in the family. That “man is a social animal” means that he cannot live without a
family. Therefore family is considered as a fundamental unit of society.
The family has a nuclear position in human society, family members work for
the common good of the family. Division of labour is also based on the family.
Division of labour is also based on the family. The family has lost some of its
importance in a complex society, but the activities of most members are related to
the family. It is usually seen that people work more for the comfort of their wives
and other members than for personal comforts. Thus the family is the nucleus of a
major part of man’s activities.
Well organized families lead to the formation of a good social organization. The
main cause of social disorganization is family disorganization. The character of
individuals is developed only in the family. Family is one of the important agencies
of socialization. It is an enduring association of parents and children. Its basic
functions are 1. The satisfaction of the fundamental needs of the members and
2. the socialization of the child. Family is a social agency for the education and
protection of the race. It is in the family that the child earns such important virtues
as sincerity sympathy, self submission responsibility and loyalty. The family
provides great scope for free expression of thoughts and development of the child’s
entire personality. The home is the first school for the child. Parents should
educate children in the family. They should also participate in all the activities of
their children. The family imparts practical education to children. Children also
learn important elements of culture.
It is clear form the above statements that family is the primary and
fundamental unit. Confusions said that if you want to improve society, improve the
family.
The family shapes the character and personality of the child. The important
function of imparting the culture of society is performed by the family. Therefore it
is considered as an important socializing agency. Family has been changing its
structure and character as there between changes in the economic, religious and
political life of society. In this way, the family marks the individual harmonious with
the culture of society.
14.6. FAMILY AS AN AGENCY OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Social life is described as a web of social relationships. A system of duties and

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rights is organized to maintain these relations in property. This helps to prevent
conflict between the members of society. There are several kinds of control in
society to foster harmonious relations among the members of society are told to obey
and respect the aged, have sympathy for the young and for others. Family exercises
control over sea relationships. Thus it helps to maintain the social order. It also
promotes unity between men and women. The family exercises control over the
unmarried members till they attain marriageable age. It advise the members not to
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form bad habits and commit crimes like drinking, thefts etc. Children are punished
by parents for going against approved behaviour of society. They are rewarded when
they take to laudable effort. They are thus weaned from bad habits and learn to be
good and useful.
Certain values and ideals which are regarded as good and landable are
preserved in society by the family. For example in India religious and spiritual
qualities command respect everywhere. In the Indian family mothers have always
played a great part in the making of great men. It is the most important institution
in man’s moral development.
14.7. RELIGION AND FAMILY
The family as an important social institution is closely related to the religious
institution. It forms the basis for fulfillment of duty. A man must always be
accompanies by a woman in the performance of his duties. Thus a man must marry
if he is to be a complete man. Marriage is also considered as a fort by Hindu
religion. Even now it is in the family that the individual is educated in religious
customs giving elementary religious education to the members of society. But the
family has been losing its hold over the religious matters of its members in recent
years. Religion in a secular society is considered as a private affair in which the
family need not interfere.
14.8. FAMILY AND THE ECONOMIC INSTITUTION
‘Family is the center of economic activities Sharma R.N. It uses the product of
society. In rural India the entire family members are engaged in agricultural
occupation. Men do the hard work of plantation, irrigation and sowing women that
of cutting the crop while children take over light work such as grazing the herds of
animals. It takes of the old, disabled unemployed and helpless.
14.9. THE ORIGIN OF THE FAMILY
Family is a universal institution. It is found at all levels of cultural
development. Therefore we need not vast out time in discussing the theories relating
to the origin of family. According to Maclver, the various factors in the origin of
family. According of Maclver, the various factors in the origin of the family may be
classified under the following heads.
14.9.1. Sex
This is a fundamental or innate tendency in man. The family originated in the
need for permanent means of sex satisfaction and gratification.
14.9.2. Reproduction
The family originated in the strong desire of reproduction and the need for a
permanent co-operation between man and woman for the upbringing of the child.
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14.9.3. Economic organization
From the economic view point, women and children depend upon the male.
Consequently a permanent institution of family was required.
14.10. FORMS OF FAMILY
The form of the family is the result of a combination of life’s many conditions
and man’s diverse needs. Families may be classified variously. Among the various
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forms of the family we can distinguish two broad types, the patriarchal and the
matriarchal or matrilineal.
14.10.1. The Patriarchal Family
“The patriarchal family was prevalent not only in the civilized society of
antiquity but also in the feudal society” – Vidya Bhushan Sachdeva. This types of
family is mostly found in the world. The male is the head of the family. He is
possessed of inclusive powers. He is the owner and administrator of the family
property and rights. All persons living in the family are subordinated to him. He
presides over the religious functions of the family. In short, the father or the eldest
male is the guardian and ruler of the family. The patriarchal family is not only
patrilineal; it is also partriocal. “When the father dies he is succeeded by his eldest
son with the authority and functions enjoyed before by his father. When this
happens, the nuclear families which belong to the joint patriarchal family in some
places remain attached to it whereas in others they break away to form new
patriarchal families – Gisbert.
The historical importance of the patriarchal family is evidenced by the fact that
it is one of the most compact family units under a single head without the
weakening influence of the matrilineal family. It has been considered as the cradle
of all civilizations known to us. It was found known to the Aryans. It attained the
highest degree of the integration only in early home.
The Indian family of the vedic times was similar to that of the Roman and Greek
patriarchal families. The father was its only master. His wife and children has no
property of their own. They could not even freely dispose of property. Like her
Chinese sister, the Indian woman was subject to obedient to her father before
marriage, to her husband during it and to her son in her widowhood. Besides the
preminence of the husband and father in the family remained undisputed.
The following are the chief characteristics of the patriarchal family;
a. The wife after marriage comes to live in the home of the husband.
b. The father owns the family property
c. Descent is reckoned through the father. The children are known by the
name of the family of their father.
14.10.2. The Matriarchal Family
The matriarchal family popularized by Bachofen (1861) and followed by
[Link] and others has never been proved to have existed in society. In the
family the rule and authority of the family and the ownership of property would be in
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the hand of the mother. The reckoning of descent and transmission of name or
rights would go along the female line. That is they go from the mother to the eldest
daughter. Maclver R.M. gives the following as the chief characteristics of the
matriarchal family.
1. Descent is traced through the mother, not the father this the
matrilineal system.
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2. Matrilineal descent is associated with matrilocal residence. The

children are raised in the home of the wife’s relatives. The husband has
a secondary position in the home where his own children live.
3. Authority in the family group belongs not to the husband but to some
male representatives of the wife’s relatives. For instance, the mother’s
brother or father as the authority.
4. The maternal system tends to bring kin group together but it reduces
the solidarity of the conjugal family itself. It is usually associated with
the principle of exogamy.
The maternal family is found in many parts of the earth. E.g. Among the North
American Indians and the peoples of Malabar end a few other parts of India. The
following are some of the causes given by scholars for the prevalence of the type of
family. (1) The Iro Quois Indians have been called a metronymic people for the
Government of the clans was in the hands of women (2) The ignorance of the fact of
paternity among the Trobriand Islanders has been also adduced to favour matriarch
the power which the Khasi wife has over the family property also favours matriarchy.
However, the fact that women in history appear in positions of authority is not a
conclusive evidence of ‘mother right’ and not of ‘mother-rule’.
14.10.3. Nuclear and extended family
The family has been classified into nuclear and extended family according to its
structure. The nuclear family is the most universal social group. It consists of the
husband, wife and their children. The children leave the parental holds as soon as
they are married. A nuclear family is an autonomy family free from the control of
the elders.
An extended family can be considered as a merger of several nuclear families.
It consists of parents, the married sons and daughters who remain in the family with
their wives family is an extended family. As extended family may live in a single
house or it may occupy a cluster of houses within an extended family compound or
the houses may be more widely dispersed than this.
14.10.4. On the basis of residence the family may be classified as following :
[Link]. Matrilocal family
In this type of family the husband goes to live in the house of his wife after
marriage.
[Link]. Partilocal family
In this kind of family, the wife goes and lives in the house of her husband after
marriage.
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14.11. ON THE BASIS OF MARRIAGE ALSO SOME DISTINCTIONS OF FAMILY HAVE
BEEN MADE THE MAJOR FORMS AMONG THEM ARE :
14.11.1. Monogamous family
In this form of family one man marries only one woman and establishes a
family.
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14.11.2. Polygynous family

In this one man marries many women and live in a family with his wives and
children.
14.11.3. Polyandrous family
In this one woman marries many men and lives in a family with all of them or
with each of them alternatively. The polygynous family and the polyandrous family
are in common parlance called as the Polygamous family.
14.12. DISTINCTIONS OF FAMILY ON THE BASIS OF ANCESTRY
The type of the family can also be classified on the basis of ancestry. The main
types are :
14.12.1. Matrillineal family
The mother is the basis of ancestry in this family. A woman is believed to be
the prime ancestress of the family. Children inherit propert through mother. The
right of each member of the family depend on his relation to the mother.
14.12.2. Patrilineal family
In this family, the ancestor of the family is the man and ancestry continues
through the father. Nowadays this type of family is the most common.
14.13. OTHER DISTINCTIONS OF FAMILY
The following forms of family are based on the dominance of the mother or the
father in the family.
14.13.1. Matronymic family
In these the name if the family or ancestry is the name of the mother such as
Saradha, Sita etc.
14.13.2. Patronymic family
In these the family is named after the father.
14.13.3. Immediate family
This consists only of the mother, father and their children.
14.13.4. Conjugal family
In the conjugal family the husband and wife live together and sexual relations
exist between them.
14.13.5. Consanguine family
In consamguine family live only those who are related in blood such a brother
and sister, father and son etc., E.g., The Nayar families of Malabar.
14.14. FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY
Sociologist have classified the functions of family differently Davis has given the
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following social functions of the family:
1. Reproduction
2. Maintenance
3. Placement and
4. Socialization of the young
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Ogburn and Nimkoff have divided family functions into six categories:
(i) Affectional function, (ii) Economic function, (iii) recreational functional function
(iv) Protective function, (v) Educational function.
Maciever divides the functions of the family is the man into two categories
essential, and non-essential. He includes three functions under the essential
(i) Stable satisfactions on sexual needs; (ii) Production and rearing of children and
(iii) Provision of a home. Under the non essential functions he mentions religious,
educational, economic health and recreation. He also thinks that functions have
now been transferred to socializing agencies in society.
The following are the basic and universal functions of the family (1) Biological
functions: The biological functions are (a) Reproduction and (b) Provision of food,
housing and clothing.
14.14.1. Reproduction
This is the first essential function which the family performs. According to the
Hindu scriptures procreation in the main functions of the family. They say that the
religious activities of man cannot be consummated without son. They also stress
that to repay his ancestral debt he needs a son. Thus the satisfaction of sex instinct
makes for normal personality. In most human societies the child is believed to be
the nucleus of the family. Procreation perpetuates the family.
14.14.2. Provision of food, Housing and Clothing
Food house and dress are indispensable at the existence of human beings.
A major biological function of the family is the provision of these amenities for its
members. The earning members of the family give good and clothing for all the rest.
Every family has a house to live in and the food for the family members is generally
cooked at home.
14.14.3. Psychological Functions
Ogburn considers the feeling of affection as one of the vital functions of the
family to provide opportunities for the establishment of intimate relations. Burgess
and Locke have written Mutual affection is becoming the essential basis of marriage
and the family. The individual receives love, affection sympathy and security in the
family. The relations between husband and wife and strengthened by marital bond.
Profound conjugal, affection is generated in husband and wife by working together
in the family and by sharing each other’s joys and sorrows, without the love of family
an integrated personality development is not possible. The family plays a very vital

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role in the development of the childs personality.
14.14.4. Satisfaction of sexual needs
The fundamental function of the family is to regulate and gratify sexual needs.
Man accepts sexual satisfaction besides reproduction as the aim of family. In the
modern age, the fulfillment of sexual needs in one of the primary functions of the
family. Otherwise an individual cannot lead the life of a normal person.
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14.14.5. Protection and care of the young

The result of sexual satisfaction is procreation. The birth of a child in a family
performs the task of race perpetuation. Family is an institution par excellence for
the production and rearing of children. Though child birth can occur outside the
family, but now where is illegitimacy approved.
14.15. NON ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS
14.15.1. Economic Functions
There are different kinds of non essential functions. It serves as an economic
unit. In the traditional family most of the goods for consumption were made at
home. All the members participated in the activities of the family industry. The
ancient Hindu joint family was considered as a mutual insurance in society. It was
a self sufficient unit. Today it has lost the self sufficiency because it purchases food
from the market. Besides the family members are engaged in different activities
outside the home. The family function has been taken over by other special agencies
in society. There are division of labour and specialization of function between man
and woman. The family members co-operate and help each other in the economic
adjustments of the family. The members purchase movable, as well as, immovable
property for the family. Property is an important economic institution which is
safeguard and maintained by the family. Rules of inheritance help the use and
transmission of family property.
14.15.2. Religious Functions
It is a center for the religious training of children who learn religious ideals and
values from parents. The modern family has become secular in outlook.
14.15.3. Educational Functions
The family is an important educational agency. The child learns the first letters
from parents. Today the child learns the first lessons in a kindergarten. The
modern family has assigned the risk of vocational educational to technical institutes
and colleges.
14.16. HEALTH
Similarly, the functions relating to health which were performed in the old
family, have now been transferred to hospitals and clinics. Child birth takes place
in the family as well as in the maternity ward. Likewise recreation is provided by the
family and by clubs and movies to the family members. Family is considered as the
cradle of civic virtues. It helps him to grow into a good citizen by imparting to him
good virtues such as love, obedience, co-operation, sacrifice and discipline.

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14.17. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS
The social functions of the family are important since the family is the
fundamental and basic unit of society. The following are some of the important
social functions.
14.17.1. To Achieve Status
The status of an individual in society is determined by the family. The modes of
earning wealth of an individual are also usually by the family.
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14.17.2. Socialization
The family imparts education to the individual in all subjects whereby he can
become can ideal member of society. It is the first and the most important
socializing agency. The process of socialization begins at the birth of a child ends at
its death. It continues from cradle to gerave.
14.17.3. Social Control
The family is an informal agency of social control. The individual learn the
prevailing norms of society in the family. It regulates the conduct and behaviour of
individuals. Thus it helps to establish and maintain order in society. It also
promotes the feeling of solidarity among family members.
14.17.4. Social Heritage
The family keeps the social heritage intact and transmits to the next generation.
As a result, the social tradition, customs, folkways, more and ideals are transmitted
continuously from one generation to the next.
14.17.5. Helps in the Choice of a Life Partner
The family helps the individual in his choice of life partner. Although the trend
is to select the life partner personality yet in India even now in most cases the choice
of the bride or bridegroom is still in the hands of other family members.
14.18. TRADITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY
14.18.1. Economic Functions
The work is divided among the members of the family according to their status
and role. The male members are given hard outdoor work. The women are given
light work such as taking care of the domestic chores. Children also assist parents.
Thus the division of labour prevents putting excessive burden on one individual and
ensures the systematic performance of family activities. All members have
responsibility and work collectively. Every family members is given an income with a
view to fulfill his needs. Family property is found in the form of a house, farm,
jewellery, money etc. Two family looks after the property and in case of partition it
also equality distributes it among the members.
14.18.2. Agencies Performing the Functions of the Family
The functions of the traditional family has been undergoing changes due to
westernization, industralization, urbanization and science and technology. As a
result, other special agencies are taking over its functions. They are the following
1. ‘Kindergarten’ 2. Maternity hospitals 3. Baby clinics, 4. Creches, Children park
5. Baby sitters 6. Hotels and restaurants 7. Public aide to the family 8. Club cinema
and other means of recreation.
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14.18.3. Maternity Hospitals
Previously, children were born at home with the help of the midwife. Now in
rich families children are born in maternity hospitals. During pregnancy, the
women often consult doctors and are confined to the hospital after the child has
been delivered. This system is very advantageous. Here the mother and the child
are constantly looked after by a doctor and can get medical and whenever enquired if
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there is difficulty in delivery, house can be a danger to the lives of the mother and
child. Once reason for the increase in the use of maternity hospitals for child birth
is the disintegration of the joint family. The houses in the towns are so small that it
is difficult to accommodate relatives. Therefore the pregnant woman is taken to a
maternity hospital with a view of avoid worries and danger.
14.18.4. Hospital for women
In these days of specialization, there are specialists for every kind of disease.
These are specialists in feminine diseases in all big towns and cities. They treat the
suffering women, formerly this work was performed most incompletely and
dangerously in the family.
14.18.5. Baby clinics
In the modern age, in addition to the treatment of women there are child
specialists. In the past common infantile diseases were treated at home, but how
this is one is children’s clinics. This, however, does not men that this function has
been completely taken away from the family.
14.18.6. Creches and Children Parks
Creches and children parks being developed in towns and cities Employed
woman leave their children at the creches where educated women look after them,
feed and keep them occupied with toys etc. Nurseries and childrens, parts have
been developed for children between three and six years of age. In these, every care
is taken of children.
14.8.7. Baby Sitters
Female are usually employed as baby sisters. Their duty is to take care of
children for which they are paid. These are usually employed when a mother goes
out of the house on an important work.
14.18.8. Public Aid
In olden days the family took care of aged, the unemployed and the invalid.
Nowdays the Government undertakes to assist the old, helpless, unemployed people
and orphaned children. This system is called by different names such as pension.
Insurance and social security. There is a special arrangement for this kind of help
in Russia, Sweden, Germany and Italy.
Thus many institutions help the family in the performance of its duties. Hotels
and restaurants provide food and rest while the picture houses and club provide
recreation. In this way these institution share much of the family’s work. But these

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can never replace the family, they can only supplement its efforts – Sharma R.N.
14.19. CHANGES IN THE MODERN FAMILY
Modern India is also affected by many changes taking place in the West
especially due to industralization with the growth of scientific knowledge and
extension of communications. The Indian family is felling the effects of these
changes also. The main changes are the following.
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14.19.1. Economic functions

The family has lost itself sufficiency. Formerly it was a production,
consumption unit. Now these functions are being performed by factories.
Government aid and other associations. It would be misleading to say that the
family, has lost its economic functions but it is certainly transforming them
considerably. Because of the loss of its economic self-sufficiency the family
structure remains modified and its independence impaired. Moreover, it has some
what relaxed as a closely knit social unit and has opened the door to individualistic
outlook. The husband, wife, son and daughters for different reasons are driven out
of doors for work.
14.19.2. Reduction in other activities
Many home duties which before were discharged by the wife are now being
taken over by external agencies. Sewing cooking nursing the sick, baking, washing
and many other functions are hardly ever performed in numberless homes and ever
babies are no longer born at home, but in the wards of modern hospitals.
The wife’s right to possess and administer her property has been fully
recognized. She can sue and be asked before law. She may divorce her husband
under certain conditions, and in this case she may be entrusted with the custody of
her children. According to the laws of most nations she can elect and be elected for
any office like her husband. All occupations in life are open to her. So Mowrer has
rightly said of the modern woman. She is no longer the drudge and slave of other
days.
The modern family is no longer joint. The joint-family is rapidly being
disorganized. The birth rate if falling and the modern families are becoming smaller
due to the use of contraceptives. The process of disorganization is quite apparent in
the modern family. The number of divorces is on the increase. The control which
the family exercises over the individual is being lessoned. The modern family is no
longer a permanent association. Marriage has been reduced to a mere social
contract.
14.20. PROBLEMS FACING THE FAMILY
In this way the modern family is confronted by many new problems. They are
the following.
14.20.1. Problem of adjustment of the husband-wife relationship
The educated woman wants to be the equal of her husband in every sphere of
life. But the husbands do not accept the claim of equality. Hence a conflict between
the two is inevitable. Thus we find the problem of the mutual adjustment of
husband and wife.
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14.20.2. Problem of sexual adjustment
It is due to the outcome if changes in sex values. This tends to create and
encourage premarital and extra-marital sex relationships. These factors create
sexual disharmony between husband wife and as a result numerous families are
disorganized.
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Another problem that confronts the family is that of marriages being based on
romantic love. After marriage the expectations of husband and wife do not
materialize in the family. Therefore they blame each other and live in conflict. Many
break the ties of marriage leading to divorce as the inevitable consequence or
romantic marriages. Many marriages do not last long. The break: The reason is
that marriage is considered as a mere social contract, besides materalisms
individualism, rationalism and stress on sexual pleasure are cause for broken
marriages. A major problem has been created for the modern family by the decrease
in the control exercised by the family over its members.
14.20.3. Low Birth Rate
The birth rate been falling constantly due to late marriage, the use of
contraceptive and a tendency to consider children a burden. “This tends to
accentuate the instability of family since the absence of children reduces the sense
of responsibility in the husband and wife, besides preventing intimate family
relations” – Sharma R.N.
14.21. DISORGANIZATION OF MODERN FAMILY
The modern family is becoming increasingly disorganized. The system of
disorganization can be seen in the following changes in the family.
14.21.1. Lack of Unity Among Family Members
Men, women and children have their own aims and values, in which they
dislike interference by others. Members do not live together eat together and move
together any more. This tendency can be seen more clearly in urban families. The
house is considered as a hotel and a rest house.
14.21.2. Decrease in Family Control
Nowadays the control of the family over its members is constantly decreasing.
The younger generation do not like to be controlled by parents. The tendency among
the married people is to set up an independent family after marriage. Thus the
disorganization of the family begins.
14.21.3. Strife
Due to the absence of social control in the family the strife within the family is
on the increase. It also weakens the unity among family members. Joint-families
are rapidly becoming disorganized. There are many separate families within one
house. This is an evidence of the disorganization of the family.
14.21.4. Laxiety in marital bonds
The marital tie is said to weaken because marriage at present is considered as a
social contract. Therefore there has been an increase in the number of divorces. An

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importance cause of the weakening of marriage ties is the failure of men to adopt so
a new circumstance created by the education of women. This leads to struggle
between husband and wife. Thus the family tends to become disorganized.
14.21.5. Conflicts between Parents and Children
The control of the old people over young men women is constantly decreasing.
They do not want to be controlled by parents in their behaviour, marriage, society,
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etc., Consequently the misunderstanding between the two parties increase and the
family becomes disorganized.
The psychological security is threatened due to the fight among family
members. The felling of mutual trust is also decreasing in the family as result the
family organization is being shattered. The families are becoming smaller. The
number of divorces is increasing Mutual intimacy and faith are being reduced.
Selfishness has been growing among family members.
Instability modern families is unstable. This is evidenced by the fact that there
is increase in the members of desertions, separations and divorces. The chief causes
of this instability are the following.
1. Less social protection.
Previously conflict between husband and wife was settled by elders, social
mores and tradition. Now due to loss of respect for these modes of social control the
husband and wife destroy each other, educated employee women do not hesitate to
seek divorce.
2. Replacement of domination by co-operation.
The basis of husband wife relationship in the modern family is no longer
domination but co-operation. Formerly, the wife was dominated by the husband
every where. Therefore the family stability survived in spite of husband’s
dictatorship. Now the liberated women do not want to be dominated by the men.
Therefore the stability of the family is at stake. It can be maintained only by
benevolence, sympathy and co-operation. It is not easy to foster these virtues.
Hence the instability of the modern family.
3. Nowadays, men, women and children work in factories which reduces the
unity of the family and increases disorganizations. Modern marriages are based on
the ideas of romantic love. Sometimes after marriage the couple experiences conflict
because of misunderstanding. People pay more attention of their rights than to their
duties. The present day civilization is individualistic, everyone safeguards his owns
interest. He cannot sacrifice his interest for the sake of family welfare. As a result,
conflict the family increase changed sex values tend to fidelity in marital relations
and also to increase chances for family disorganization.
14.22. THE MODERN INDIAN FAMILY ITS FUTURE
Industrialization has contributed much to family disorganization. This has led
some people to doubt whether family will escape the present crisis. Many pose such

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questions as, will the family survive? Will a permanent situation arise in which the
family will no linger be necessary for society? What will be the future of the family?
In fact, there can never be any doubt concerning the continued existence of the
family since it is based on the basic needs f human beings. It should be no
exaggeration to say that the family will exist as long as human society exists. The
natural desire for procreation can take place only in the family outside the family
there is no proper arrangement for the case of the young. The child is considered
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legal when it is born in the family. The system, of marriage and the family give
permanent means for the gratification of the sexual impulse of man and women.
The family satisfies the physiological and psychological needs of man and women.
E.g. The desire to love and to be loved, the sense of psychological security. It is
considered as an agency of social control. It exercises the control of society upon the
individual. The family environment is conductive to the full development of
personality and to become an ideal citizen. Mutual love and affection of family
members guards, against many of the physical difficulties of a complex society. This
is the benefit an individual gets from the institution of family.
The family is a biological unit. Its members have a common dwelling place, the
parents are bound together by institutionalized social relationships. Social relations
regulate the sex behaviour between them, they also determine the system of
nomenclature and reckoning descent. The family is the most intimate group to
which man belongs and the most effective agent in the transmission of the social
heritage. It is the foundation of all social life. It socializes the individual and assist
him in the choice and selection of a life partner. As the children grow and become
independent and the parents become more and more dependent on their children
the meaning and importance of the family change considerably for them. In this
sense it is one of the most changeable institution of society.
14.23. SUMMARY
Family is difficult, if not impossible, to describe all the direct and indirect
benefits of family to the individual and society. It is an inseparable part of human
nature. It is the foundation of the social and political structure. We shall see how
the family is related to the state in our study of the political institution in the
lessons to follow. The family as other social institutions is also affected by many of
the changes. It is the basis of social life. Hence Burgess and Locke have rightly said
“It seems sage to predict that the family will survive, both because of its long history
of adaptability to changing conditions and because of important of its functions of
affection-giving and in personality development.
14.24. KEY WORDS
Patriarchal
Matriarchal
Matricidal
Patricidal
Patricidal
Matrilineal

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14.25. SUGGEST QUESTIONS
1. Write short note on:
Polygamy
Matriarchal family
2. Explain the characteristics of family
3. Family as an Agency of social control: Explain
4. Brief account of function of family is the society. 
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LESSON - 14 (B)

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
STRUCTURE
14.B.0. Objectives
14.B.1. Introduction
14.B.2. Advantages or the Merits of the Joint family systems
14.B.2.1. Ensures economic progress
14.B.2.2. Social Insurance
14.B.2.3. Opportunity for Leisure
14.B.2.4. Social Virtues
14.B.2.5. Socialism
14.B.3. Disadvantages or Demerits of the Joint family system
14.B.3.1. Laziness
14.B.3.2. Hindrance in the development of personality
14.B.3.3. Leads to strife
14.B.3.4. Uncontrolled reproduction
14.B.3.5. No scope for privacy
14.B.3.6. Other defects
14.B.4. Disintegration of joint family
14.B.4.1. Industrialization
14.B.4.2. Extension of Communications and Transport
14.B.4.3. Role of new Social Legislations
14.B.4.4. Role of new Social Legislations
14.B.5. Summary
14.B.6. Key words
14.B.7. Suggested Questions
14.B.0. OBJECTIVES
By reading this lesson the student can be able to
 Understand the advantages of the joint family systems.
 Know the disadvantages of the joint family system.
14.B.1. INTRODUCTION
We have seen how important the institutions of family is in the study of
sociology. It is by far the most important primary group in society. Historically it
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consisting primarily of the original contracting parties. But it continues to serve as a
total community for the lives born within it. The family exists only as a process. We
can understand it only through a study of its changes. The changes are found in the
structure and function of family. In India the traditional Hindu Joint Family has
been experiencing changes in its structure. Therefore we shall study the nature of
the joint family, its functions, and its advantages and disadvantages in this chapter.
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The individual family is the most basic social group. It consists ordinarily of a
man and woman permanently united with one more children. Sometimes the
parents of husband and wife live with them also, in some societies even some
servants of husband and wife live with them also, in some societies even some
servants were admitted as members of the household. “This is the simplest form of
family. But it also exists under more complex forms such as polygamous family or
the joint family so common in India” – O. GISBERT.
a. “ A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof,
who ear food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and
who participate in the common worship and are related to each other
as some particular type of kindred” – KARVE.
b. “We call that household a joint family which has greater generation
depth, than under family and the members of which are related to one
another by property income and the mutual rights and Obligations” –
I.P. DESAI.
Joint family is a group of kins of several generations ruled by a head, in which
there is a joint residence, health and property and whose members are bound with
each other by mutual obligations. The chief characteristics of the joint family are: 1.
Large size 2. Common residence 3. Common itchen 4. Joint property 5. Common
worship. 6. Rule of the pater family and 7. Consciousness of mutual obligation
among members.
1. Large size”: The first important feature of the joint family is its large size. A
nuclear family consists of only the husband, the wife and their children. But
a joint family consists of parents, children, grandchildren and other near
relatives along with their women. It is a group in which several basic
families live together.
2. Common residence: The members of joint family usually live under the same
roof. They may also live in separate houses in close proximity to one
another. They eat the same food and wear the same types of clothes.
3. Joint property: The ownership, productions and consumption of wealth
takes place on joint basis. It is a co-operative institution in which there is
joint property. The head of the family is like a trustee, who manages the
property of the family, for the material and spiritual welfare of the family
members. The total earnings of all the family members are pooled together.
4. Common religion and worship: Generally the members of a joint family
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believe in the same religion and worship similar deities. The perform jointly
the religious rites and duties. They participate in the same sorrows and
rejoicings. They share the family burden jointly.
5. Mutual rights and obligations: The members of the joint family have the
same rights and obligations. None except the head of the family has special
privileges. Duties are shared by the members.
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14.B.2. ADVANTAGES OR THE MERITS OF THE JOINT FAMILY SYSTEM

The following are the chief merits of the joint family system:
14.B.2.1. Ensures economic progress:
The joint family system has proved to be a very advantageous institution from
the economic point of view. It enables economic progress of the country, since
everyone in the family is guaranteed a bare subsistence, a first condition of
economic progress. It prevents subdivision and fragmentation of lands. Thus it
ensures an economic holding of lands. All members take part in agriculture. Men do
such work as ploughing, sowing and irrigation. Women assist at the harvest,
children graze the cattle and collect fuel and manure. Thus the co-operation of all
members helps to save money. It satisfies the basic needs of its members. Thus it
helps national progress.
14.B.2.2. Social insurance:
The orphans find a comfortable asylum in the joint family. It gives social
security to the mentally and physically weak. In times of crisis the joint family can,
provide assistance to the children, the old, the widows and the helpless. If an
individual dies, his wife and children are looked after properly in the joint family.
Honour, wealth and property of its members are protected collectively.
14.B.2.3. Opportunity for leisure:
The joint-family is one of the best means of recreation. Children are allowed to
talk freely. They are loved by other members. The fun and frolics of the family
members create a stimulating atmosphere. Thus the joint family performs the role of
a club.
14.B.2.4. Social virtues:
It fosters virtues such as sacrifice affection, co-operation, spirit of selfless broad
mindedness among its members and makes the family a cradle of social virtues.
?The elders take great care to check undesirable and antisocial tendencies of the
young. The young are prevented from these paths and they learn to exercise self-
control.
14.B.2.5. Socialism:
According to Sir Henry Marine the joint family is like a corporation, the trustee
of which is the father, everyone in the joint family works according to the capabilities
but obtains according to his needs. Thus it realize the socialistic ideal. From each
according to his ability, to each according to his needs.
14.B.3. DISADVANTAGES OR DEMERITS OF THE JOINT FAMILY SYSTEM
The following are the main disadvantages of joint family system:
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14.B.3.1. Laziness:
Joint family is the home for idlers and the non-earning members do not want to
earn their in livelihood. Due to common responsibility many people do not have the
mind to work and become lazy. The condition of working members and the lazy
members is the same. Hence laziness is encouraged. When a person can eat
comfortable without exerting himself he is unlikely to indulge in any strenuous
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activity. Mostly in the joint family it happens that some people have to exhaust
themselves while others lead a life of utter lethargy.
14.B.3.2. Hindrance in the development of personality:
The most outstanding defect of the joint-family system is the hindrance in the
development of its members. The head of the family is the absolute ruler. Therefore
there is very little opportunity for the fostering of individual autonomy or self
dependence. The whole environment of the family is not good for the growth of the
individual because he is controlled by the rules and regulation framed by the head of
the family.
14.B.3.3. Leads to strife:
It is the hotbed of quarrels especially among women. If the daughter-in-law is
oppressed or if their husbands choose to speak in their favour, the house become a
center of conflict. Generally there is hatred and jealously between the wives of
brothers. There is continuous strife and fighting over the doings of children. Much of
the time of the adult members is consumed in the solution of party problems.
14.B.3.4. Uncontrolled reproduction:
In the joint family the responsibility for bringing up and educating the children
is shared. Thus no individual considers it necessary to lay stress upon controlling
procreation. The offspring of one member will be treated on the same footing as
others. No distinction is made between the status of the family members. In joint
family by practicing family members. In this way no direct benefits occur to an
individual in the joint family by practising family planning or planning or earning
more.
14.B.3.5. No scope for privacy:
Privacy is denied to the newly wed couple. The bridges of the sons do not get an
opportunity to develop their personality. They serve the entire family like slaves.
They hardly meet their husband in the presence of other family members. Therefore
natural love between husband and wife is prevented from blossoming. The injustice
of mother – in –law is so inhuman and unbearable that women commit suicide.
14.B.3.6. Other defects:
Family strife leads to litigation. Customs and traditions are strictly followed in
the joint family and superstitions supreme because the guiding hand is that of the
oldest member. Due to the strict administration of the old men the younger men do
not gain self confidence and self-dependence, and they fail to adopt new currents of
thought. Thus the disadvantages of the joint-family far out weighs the advantage
which accure from it. Consequently, the joint-family is fast becoming disorganised. It
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is impossible to save the institution of joint-family from disorganization, though its
advantages can with effort be reinstituted in novel from in the small families”
Sharma R.N.
14.B.4. DISINTEGRATION OF JOINT FAMILY
The following are the factors responsible for the disintegration of joint-family
system.
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14.B.4.1. Industrialization:
The joint family is most suited to agricultural families, India is on the way to
industrialization. Agriculture is seasonal. It cannot give work throughout the year.
The caste system is not favourable for the growth of individualism. Another factor is
the establishment of new factories in the cities. Therefore the members of the joint-
family move to the cities which break up the joint family.
14.B.4.2. Extension of Communications and Transport:
The difficulties of communication and travel in ancient times compelled all the
members of the family to live together and carry on the family occupation in
agriculture. Improved means of communication and transport have been extended.
Therefore it is no longer necessary for men to stay within the family. Now they go to
the city and take up any other occupation and establish a anew home.
14.B.4.3. Impact of the west:
India has been greatly influenced in the social outlook by Western thought and
ideology. Our modern laws relating to marriage and divorce have been enacted on
Western patter: Our views especially of the young men and women no sex and family
relations have undergone a change. The influence of individualism has made deep in
roads in the Indian outlook.
14.B.4.4. Role of new Social Legislations:
In India joint family has been very much influenced by certain new social
legislations. They are: The Civil Marriage Act (1872). The Hindu Marriage Act (1955)
and the Hindu Succession Act (1956). These have been some direct bearing on the
characteristic features of joint-family such as joint habitation, joint kitchen, joint
property and the authority of the head. We shall see how the following social
legislations have affected the structure and functions of the joint family.
1. Hindu Married Women’s Rights to Separate Residence and Maintenance Act:
This legislation was enacted in 19946. According to it under specific conditions a
wife can demand alimony while living separately from her husband.
2. Hindu Marriage Act: This law has been enacted in 1995. According to it, any
husband and wife, who have been married either before or after the enactment of
this legislations can under specific conditions, apply to the court for divorce.
3. Hindu Succession Act (1956). According to it the daughter was given equal
rights to the property of the father and the woman, also get the right to dispose of
mortgage and use their property in any manner they pleased. All these acts have
influenced the solidarity of the joint-family system and relationships between

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brothers and sisters, parents and children and husband and wives. Formerly the
women silently suffered many injustices and outrages. Their social status was
extremely low: Sometimes the mother in-law behaved very cruelly and inhumanly.
Yet the joint family did not disintegrate. Now having got the support of law, women
have a strong revolt against oppression which is leading to the disorganization of the
joint family. The law provides for their separate maintenance and residence.
Therefore the women no longer need to submit to oppression in the joint-family due
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to financial consideration. If they are badly treated by husbands they can live
separately and demand alimony. This provision has dealt a severe blow to the joint
families. The Hindu Succession Act has influenced the joint properly adversely. Now
that women have the right to sell their property and the girls too share equally in the
property of the family it is difficult to maintain the family property conjointly.
Therefore the joint families are being disorganized at a rapid rate. Modern social
legislation has put an end to male ascendency. This too has very deeply influenced
the organisation of the joint family. Having got equal rights in all aspects as a result
of the social legislation the women whose husbands care more can how force their
husbands to break off from the joint family and set up on independent
establishment. The parents in-law also realize their power. The husbands too cannot
to have indiscriminately with them. They also have equal rights over the children
like their husbands.
Due to all these causes over the slightest misunderstanding results in a
situation where separation from the family is the only course open to the couple as
they cannot coexist with their relatives. Actually the causes of disorganization of the
joint family are not constitutional, but mainly social, but there is no doubting the
fact that the present legislation has also played its parts in disorganization.
14.B.5. SUMMARY
Changes are found in the structure and function of family. The individual
family is the most basic social group. Joint family is a group of kins of several
generations ruled by a head, in which there is a joint residence, health and property
and whose members are bound with each other by mutual obligations. The most
outstanding defect of the joint family system is the hindrance in the development of
its members. In the joint family the responsibility for bringing up and educating the
children is shared. The Hindu Succession Act has influenced the joint properly
adversely. Now that women have the right to sell their property and the girls too
share equally in the property of the family it is difficult to maintain the family
property jointly.
14.B.6. KEY WORDS
Ensures.
Virtues.
Industrialization.
14.B.7. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Define Joint family.

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2. Explain the Merits and demerits of joint family system.
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LESSON - 15

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION
STRUCTURE
15.0. Objectives
15.1. Introduction
15.2. The Nature and Social Importance of religion
15.3. Definition
15.4. Religions festivals and Ceremonies
15.5. Forms of Religion
15.5.1. Monotheism
15.5.2. Polytheism
15.5.3. Pantheism or Monism
15.5.4. Religion
15.5.5. Superstition
15.5.6. Animism
15.5.7. Fetishism
15.5.8. Totem
15.5.9. Magic
15.6. Social Functions of Religion
15.6.1. Religion and education
15.6.2. Religion and benevolence
15.6.3. Religion and Alms Giving
15.6.4. Religion and Forepearance
15.6.5. Religion and Non Violence
15.6.6. Gandhi . . . . . . . . (in God)
15.7. Evils of Religion
15.7.1. Dogmatism
15.7.2. Exploitation
15.7.3. Laziness and Fatalism
15.7.4. Violence and War
15.7.5. Despise and Hatred
15.8. Morality and Religion : the moral code
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15.9. The Moral Code and the Social Codet
15.10. The Social Role of Morality
15.11. Summary
15.12. Key words
15.13. Suggested Questions
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15.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Analyse the Nature and social importance of religion
 Discuss the forms of religion
 Analyze the social functions of religion
15.1. INTRODUCTION
A scientific study of religion and its growth in societies will help us to
understand the nature of social life. Such a study will reveal the interrelatedness of
social institutions in society. Practically all aspects of our social life is influenced
and pervaded by religion of late because of its dominance in society, a new branch of
sociology i.e. sociology of religion is not rapidly developing.
15.2. THE NATURE AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION
Religion has always embraced in the past, man’s interpretation of the nature of
the supernatural world. It includes the efforts of man to avail himself of the benefits
of the supernatural powers and towards off the evil influences of the supermatural
beings. In other words religion has, so far been man’s effort to adjust himself, to all
the supernatural world in such a manner as to secure maximum benefits and to
minimize disasters.
Religion has also exerted a tremendous influence upon other institution.
Religion and morals have always been closely interrelated. Moral conduct has been
designed to please the gods rather than to serve man directly and efficiently.
Religion has been influencing the economic life of the people for many thousands of
years. Economic institutions and practices were believed to be favoured by the god.
He also believed that he had to placate the goods to be successful in his economic
efforts. Religious dogmas have controlled economic activities and systems from
primitive times to our own.
Politics and government were long based upon religion. The priests blessed and
approved existing forms of Government. Kings were supposed to rule through the
will of goods. They were themselves regarded as semidivine. In our own day we
confer a sort of divine sanction upon our institutions, Revolution, Political
radicalism and social change have usually been cursed by the custodians of religion.
Education has been in the hands of the Priests. Even in our day there are a
great many religious school and religious education is still a predominant item in
modern instructions. Art has developed as a phase of religious mytholody. Early
literature was chiefly religious. The most popular books of all history have been
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sacred literature of the great religious system. Religion has given colour to all of the
great stages of cultural evolution.
15.3. DEFINITION
Religion has been defined as that dynamic belief in the submission to God or to
Gods on whom, man feels dependent. The internal aspect of religion is the body of
ideas, convictions and emotions concerning man’s relations to God, while its
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external aspects is the system of prayers, ceremonies. The institution concerned

with the regulation of these external practices is the religious institutions which is
modern times is called the Temple, Church or Mosque.
A definition based on the characteristics of all religions.
Religion is attitude towards the superhuman powers. These attitudes are
varied as found in worship, devotion love, fear etc. The superhuman powers which
are believed in may be a supreme God, various creatures, good or evil spirit, force or
a purpose.
15.4. RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES
Temples : Once in a year people gather. In such a social gathering we find a
felling of unity among people. The Hindus worship different Gods. They believe
different deities that rule different aspects of life. Therefore there are different
festivals for various deities. Not only festivals promote unity but also they give
pleasure-recreation. Religious tolerance is fostered by music, dance and drama and
katha kalakshepam. People here understand the great virtues, taught by religion.
Thus it acts as a recreational institution.
15.5. FORMS OF RELIGION
15.5.1. Monotheism
If the object of religion is a personal God as in some branches of Hinduism,
Christianity and Islam, that religion is called monotheistic.
15.5.2. Polytheism
If it admits many Gods, it is called polytheistic.
15.5.3. Pantheism or Monism
When no essential distinction I made between God and other things so that
every object is a part of the same divine or absolute, then the religion is called
patheism or monism. This monism should in no way be mistaken with monotheism;
the formula of monotheism is “There is only one God, the other things are his
creatures. Whereas the formula of monism is “Everything if God, all things are part
of Him”.
15.5.4. Religion
Religion as we have defined it, is hardly to be found alone in any society
especially among preliterate peoples or early civilizations. It is usually found
associated with such phenomena as superstition, animism, fetishims and magic.
15.5.5. Superstition
Superstition is the conviction that some thing will happen owing to cause
utterly disproportionate to the event; as for instance the belief that business
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transacted on Friday will be unsuccessful because it is an unlucky day or number
thirteen believed to be unlucky or that seeing ox as the first object of the day will
bring success.
15.5.6. Animism
It is the belief in the soul. It also refers to the belief in the spirits of the dead
that are supposed to be dwelling in certain places or things and have a life of their
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own so that they can communicate with men. When the spirits are not supposed to
be those of dead men, but have their own nature inhabiting trees, plants, lakes and
animating them it is called animation.
15.5.7. Fetishism
It refers to an object called fetish. It is of ten associated with magic. According
to this belief certain objects are regarded to be possessed of powers to help man out
of various difficulties. It may even help him to achieve his desires. It may be a
stone, shell, skull an amulet or a feather. The fetish is adored or insulted according
as to whether it fulfils or does not fulfill its possessor’s wishes. This power is called
mana; but sometimes it may decrease or desert the fetish.
15.5.8. Totem
Totemism is associated with a form of supernaturalism. It is usually an object
towards which the behave in a special manner by taking its name. The object may
be an animal or a planet. Killing or eating a totemic object is a taboo. It should not
be sacrificed. It is mostly a social pheonmenon often combined with superstition
and magical practice.
15.5.9. Magic
Magic is a system of manipulation by which an effect is sought through the
action of unseen powers and regardless of physical causality. Magic is imbued with
the mystery of the world. It involves force. The function of a magician and a priest
are often combined in one person. The technique of both magic as well as religion is
ritualistic.
15.6. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
Religion has been a powerful agency of social control and performed many
important social functions of which the main are following.
1. Social Service Through Religion : Religion manifested itself in man’s social
tendency. Finding the presence of God in every individual the devotes sacrificed
their life for the divine power who is inherent in the society. Many saints liked the
wounds of the lepers because God is manifested in the form of a leper. That is why
they served the poor to get bliss. In the Gita the worshipper of God has been
ordered to engage in the service of all living beings. Love and service are given
considerable importance in the Christian religion. Christ served the poor throughout
his life which culminated in his fructification. Islamic religion has promoted the
tendency of brotherhood. Buddhism has preached non violence, compassion and
sympathy. Likewise in tribal religions, the people who have the same toten as object
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of worship were well organised. That is it fostered a feeling of unity among them.
Thus it help to maintain a stable social order. Religion has always generated sense
of belonging in society.
15.6.1. Religion and education
Religion has served mankind through education. In almost all countries in the
world, the spread of education has an important place in all religions campaigns and
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activities of religious institution. The custodians of the church, mosque, temple and
monasteries have long been engaged in spreading education. Religion also gave
much encouragement to higher education e.g. Nalanda and Taxila. Men of different
communities made serious efforts to diffuse education among the members o their
community.
15.6.2. Religion and Benevolence
There has been a tradition of medical service in society in the name of religion.
These reason for this kind of medical service is that the religious person treats
helpless and the sick as a part of his worship. An important aspect of the daily life
of saints in service.
15.6.3. Religion and Alms Giving
Religion is accompanied by alms giving. The great religions of the world such a
Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and Islam have accepted the importance and
value of alms giving. In Hindu religious, an individual who consumes without giving
alms is thieving. In one’s Islam, it is a religious institution to give a part of income
as alms. The purpose of charity is to help the poor members of society. It prevents
inequality in society and maintains the balance. Even today one comes across
people engaged in such activities as distributing clothes. A few go to the extent of
giving everything in the name of religion.
15.6.4. Religion and Fore pearance
All religions have stressed the importance of sacrifice and forebearance. Jesus
Christ said that if a person begs yo0u for your clock, give him your coat as well and
if slaps on one cheek, show the other. This religious tolerance is in evidence from
Christ to Gandhi. Tolerance as a social virtue will promote understanding among
groups and remove group conflict. Thus religion helps social progress.
15.6.5. Religion and Non Violence
The founders of the world’s great religions have preached loe and non-violence.
Jains and Buddhists treat non-violence as the supreme deity. Mohammad himself
suffered many kinds of cruelty. So also Christ and Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi
followed the two cardinal principles namely truth and non-violence in free India.
Religion also fosters the sense of world brotherhood. To a saint everyone has
been made my God and all worship him in different forms and names. Thus religion
generates a sense of the world as a family Christ, Gandhi Buddha Mohammad not to
mention other religious sages, have all preached world brotherhood. Religion
teaches the lesson and sacrifices, serving removing selfishness and material

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tendencies.
15.6.6. Gandhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (in God)
Gandhi described religion as a force that keeps one true in the face of the
greatest adversity. It is the sheet anchor of one’s hopes in this world and even after.
It binds one to one’s God to Truth as to nothing else. According to
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan human mature finds its fulfillment in God.
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Religion manifests itself in society in many ways. It shapes domestic, economic

and political institutions as much as, ore more than they would. The influence of
religion becomes also manifest in certain movements as the rise of capitalism as well
as the life of culture. So much so, the writers like Arnod J. Toyabee, believe, that
religion is the central element in the life civilization whose very existence of the
western body social. Great revolutionaries and social reform movements were also
inspired and influenced by religion. All this tends to show that the characteristics
social role of religion namely the love and service of man for the love and glory of
God is an all pervading force which affects society in a multiplicity of ways.
15.7. EVILS OF RELIGION
But all these good activities in the name of religion in society do not imply that
immoral acts have not been done under a religious pretext, society has also been
harmed as it had been assisted by religion and consequently some people want to
eradicate religion from society. We shall no consider the evils and undesirable
trends in society that are associated with religion.
15.7.1. Dogmatism
Religions has been the basis of dogmatism. Religious people do not have the
courage to break ancient traditions and customs because they are afraid of Good
and the next world. Thus it has become the most serious obstacle to widow
remarriage and to the abolition of child marriage and custom of sati. Religion has
handicapped social progress.
15.7.2. Exploitation
We find in the history of mankind women have been mercilessly exploited in the
name of religion. The priests have taken away their rights and made her the slave of
man. The principle and beliefs in Karma prevented the poor and injured from
revolting against exploitation.
15.7.3. Laziness and Fatalism
Religion encouraged the belief in fate and people because addicted to laziness.
Even today thousands of men in different religions live a parasitic life. They are a
burden to society.
15.7.4. Violence and War
Bloody wars have been fought for centuries both in the East and West on
religious grounds called the Holy wars e.g. the crusades. many men were burnt
alive in the name of religion. Religious fanatics treated the members of other
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religious cruelly in the name of religion.
15.7.5. Despise and Hatred
It breeds contempt and hatred for other religious groups. In this way is created
group conflict and communal riots in our country. for example, in the Hindu
Muslim communicated riots hundreds of persons died and lost their valuable and
property. The inhuman activities such as beating, whipping, severing the breast of
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women throwing children into the fire, and turning out people from their countries
can also be heared and seen. As a consequences of this, people are compelled to
roam and beg.
Therefore many begin to doubt the utility of religion society. It has not
contributed anything new to the life of an individual. It has always been a
destructive force in the history of mankind. It has been definitely a conservative
force. It inhibits the freedom of thought and action. It is an institution which exists
for the sole benefit of the prists. It is a deliberate creation of the priest. It
encourages secularism. Therefore people begin to doubt God whose very existence
has not been proved.
15.8. MORALITY AND RELIGION : THE MORAL CODE
The Nation of morality : Morality and religion are usually recognized, not only
among the most influential forces of social control, but also among the most effective
guides of human behaviour. Justice, honesty, fairness, incorruptibility, right and
freedom, mercy etc, are purely moral concepts. They possess a great driving force.
They are connected in the human mind. They are also found in religious and social
convictions. They are quite capable of changing the course of society. There is
hardly any political and social movement on which some of their values are not at
play.
The term morality or the moral code is sometimes taken fro those rules of
behaviour which are accepted in a community. In this sense it is equivalent to the
mores of the society. It is purely social and coincides with custom, fashion and
convention. Its sanction comes also from society and is as manifold as are the social
ways.
In a more accurate sense, the moral code is that body of rule of principles
concerned with good and evil as manifested to us by conscience.
Religion and Morality: Religion and morality formulate laws of conduct in
society like absention from theft, acting honestly etc. These laws are obeyed by
internal urges or pressure. In religion this internal pressure is the fear of God and
in morality it is the pressure of conscience.
Differences Between Religion and Morality: To be religious is not a duty.
Religion is instinctive. The forms of religion change but it is spontaneous and
dominated by emotions. One important difference is that morality differences is that

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morality does not require any external sanction. Its sanction is internal. The
violation of its laws is treated as wrong whereas the violation of the laws of religion is
sin. Some supernatural force is accredited with the formulation of these religious
laws to them are attached the notions of heaven and hell. It is believed that the
individual guilty of violating them suffers numerous cruelties. Religious laws
exercise indirect control over social relations because of their foundation in the fear
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of a super social power. On the other hand moral laws are based on inner
conscience. Moral laws are based on national judgment while religion is
predominantly emotional judgment while religion is predominantly emotional and
non rational.
15.9. THE MORAL CODE AND THE SOCIAL CODET
Many scholars try to identify the moral code and the social code by reducing
thereby the moral code to a phenomenon similar to custom convention or the mores.
In this view things would be good or bad, if they are so considered by society or
public opinion. Men distinguish between the breach of social convention and that of
the moral code. The shame that we have when we know that we have broken a rule
of etiquette in a social gathering is different from the felling that one has after having
spoilt a friend’s character or forged a signature. The breaking of moral conventions
brings about dissatisfaction where as the breaking of social conventions may
sometimes produce mirth and satisfaction. We do not respect a moral rule because
it has become socialized but we respect social rules when they become moralized.
The different way in which we submit to a just and unjust law, to a purely social
custom or an ethical practice shows the difference between the two. The sanction of
the social code is more external and material while that of the moral code is internal
and spiritual. Human institutions and conventions are mainly the ways in which
the moral convictions of mankind are carried into practice; while the ways and
institutions change the fundamental principles of the moral code remain the same.
15.10. THE SOCIAL ROLE OF MORALITY
Though morality is distinct from sociality it is very much concerned with
sociality. Sociality in itself is morally natural concept and may point out very little
about the desirability of certain situations where sociality is involved. Thieves may
be very social individuals; but they are far from being sociable; their capacity to co-
operate towards the happiness of social life from the region of practical into the
sphere of love and hope.
It is the synthesis of social and moral values which communicates to social life,
its dynamic elements. Morality is not only concerned with social life but extends
also to a wide range of objects outside it. The most intimate acts of individual, his
ideas and feelings his aspirations in life and philosophy of action, his relations with
the natural and supernatural all his and much more fall within the ambit of

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morality. Thus this covers the whole of the conscious life of man and is therefore
more inclusive than sociality.
Then individual’s morality begins and ends as group morality but at the same
time it remains potentially universal. It is this potential universality of man’s
morality that offers solid hopes for a better future. The increasing command of man
over nature has placed at his disposal material power which may equally be used for
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his welfare or for his annihilation. It is at this juncture where the moral resources of
mankind are most needed in order to direct this power to the service of man.
Science in itself is incapable of indicating the proper use of the physical power that
itself has made available; it is only a highly refined sense of duty towards mankind
that is capable of controlling this energy and addressing it not only towards the
enrichment of his moral, artistic and intellectual life whose full perfection can only
be attained in a supernatural state.
15.11. SUMMARY
Religion has also exerted a tremendous influence upon other institution.
Religion and morals have always been closely interrelated. Religion is attitude
towards the superhuman powers. All religions have stressed the importance of
sacrifice and forebearance. Religion and morality formulate laws of conduct in
society like abstention from theft, acting honestly etc. the term morality or the
moral code is sometimes taken for these rules of behaviour which are accepted in a
community.
15.12. KEY WORDS
Animism
Fetishism
Totem
Magic
Pantheism
15.13. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. What you meant by Religion.
2. Explain the religions festivals and Ceremining.
3. Brief account of forms of religion.
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LESSON - 16

ECONOMIC INSTITUTION
STRUCTURE
16.0. Objectives
16.1. Institution
16.2. Economic Activities are social
16.3. Preliminary concepts
16.3.1. Utility
16.3.2. Wealth
16.3.3. Capital Goods
16.3.4. Price
16.3.5. Costs
16.3.6. Profit
16.4. The Development of Economic Institutions
16.4.1. Economic Life and Material Culture
16.4.2. Early Agriculture
16.4.3. Family with a digging stick is called hoe culture
16.4.4. Domestication of Animals
16.4.5. The Growth of Handicrafts
16.5. The Economic Institution in Capitalism
16.5.1. Private Property
16.5.2. large Scale Production
16.5.3. Money and Credit
16.5.4. Business Organisation
16.5.5. Profit
16.5.6. Wage
16.5.7. Competition
16.5.8. Price Mechanism
16.6. Social Consequence of Capitalism
16.6.1. High Standard of living
16.6.2. Economic growth and social progress
16.6.3. Exchange of culture and civilization
16.6.4. Increase in the sense of co-operation
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16.6.5. Economic Freedom
16.7. Disadvantages of Capitalism
16.7.1. Class Struggle
16.7.2. Economic Inequality
16.7.3. Unemployment
16.7.4. Social Disorganization
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16.8. Impact of Capitalism no modern culture

16.8.1. Spread of Education
16.8.2. Increase in Scientific Research
16.8.3. Advantages of industrialism
16.8.4. Progress in Literature, Music and Art
16.8.5. Greed for Wealth
16.8.6. Wealth the Sole Criterion
16.8.7. Materialism and Atheism
16.8.8. Artificiality
16.8.9. Emphasis on sex
16.8.10. Frivolity
16.9. Socialism
16.9.1. State Ownership
16.9.2. Equality of opportunity
16.9.3. Maximum Distribution
16.10. Communism
16.10.1. Economic Interpretation of History
16.10.2. Class Struggle
16.10.3. Theory of Surplus Value
16.10.4. Dictatorship
16.10.5. Stateless Society
16.10.6. Inevitability of Labour
16.11. Distinction between socialism and Communism
16.12. Distinction between capitalism Communism
16.12.1. Right to Property
16.12.2. Distribution of property
16.12.3. Social stratification
16.12.4. Competition
16.12.5. Insurance and Credit
16.12.6. Control of Price Mechanism
16.12.7. Other Institutions
16.13. Industry and the social system
16.14. Agriculture
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16.15. Summary
16.16. Key words
16.17. Suggested Questions
16.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Find out the relationship between socialism and communism.
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 Find out the relationship between capitalism and communism.

 Discuss the impact of capitalism on modern culture.
16.1. INTRODUCTION
Ogburn and Nimkoff define the economic institution as the activities of man in
relation to food and property. Economic institutions and associations are shaped by
the economic structure prevalent in the country. The economic system may be
capitalistic, socialistic or communalistic. We shall describe the economic system as
that complex of interrelated institutions through which the economic activity of man
is expressed. The economic activity of man can be explained as man’s efforts to
satisfy his basic needs as well as his desires for comforts and luxuries. Food, shelter
and clothing are the basic needs of human beings. This kind of activity means that
the objects to be acquired are useful and scarce. They can be secured by adjusting
means to ends. The objects thus obtained are called economic gods. E.g. Money.
16.2. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ARE SOCIAL
Economic needs and activities are fundamental in society. Modern men spend
their hours mostly in making a living. The kinds of our daily work has much to do
with our happiness and welfare. The nature of our working life is determined by our
economic institutions. Sociology studies the economic institutions as a part of
society.
Economic institutions are closely interwoven with the other institutions of
people. E.g. Among the Hopi Indians, planting corn is followed by religious and
recreational ritual. The basic needs of human beings are satisfied only in the family.
It was once the main economic institution until the development of trade and
manufacture. They created factories and transformed many villages into cities. The
changes in the various social institutions can be properly understood only if we take
stock of the economic institution.
Nowadays, economic activities are so numerious and extensive that, they
cannot be controlled or helped by the family. It has been replaced as an economic
institution by different kinds of organisations such as corporation owned plants.
The main problem of our daily work has much to do with our happiness and welfare.
The nature of our working life is determined by our economic institutions. Sociology
studies the economic institutions as a parts of society. We are interested in how
economic institutions can be controlled when they use power. We are also
interested in how they may be made to achieve greater production and how they may
be helped in time of disturbance.

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16.3. PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS
16.3.1. Utility
It is the capacity that goods or services possess to satisfy human needs.
16.3.2. Wealth
The amount of economic goods or services which one has at his disposal is
called wealth.
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The goods are above described are generally called economic goods in
opposition to free goods such as air and sun light.
16.3.3. Capital Goods
Economic goods may be divided into capital (or producers) goods and
consumer’s goods. The former are those used to further production, as far instance,
machinery, raw materials etc., the latter are those goods which are immediately
applied to consumption as bread and clothes.
16.3.4. Price
The price of a thing its the amount of money obtained in exchange for it.
16.3.5. Costs
Costs are the expenses of production. E.g. Raw materials, wage interest.
16.3.6. Profit
What remains of the price of a thing once we have deducted its cost is called
profit.
The way in which man makes use of his environment in order to satisfy his
needs gives rise to a great variety of economic systems. The following are some of
the economic systems : the collecting economy, the simple transformative economy
and the complex transformation economy on industralism.
16.4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
16.4.1. Economic Life and Material Culture
Economic life is not only related to community standards it is also function of
tools and inventions. Two great discoveries that is, the domestication of animals
and agriculture, gradually replaced the hunting life with new economic forms.
Hunting people had already domesticated the dog which helped in the hunt and
transportation. With planting and domestication came other discoveries and
mechanical inventions. The course of economic organisatin is closely dependent
upon the new inventions in material culture.
16.4.2. Early Agriculture
Agriculture tended to emphasise the private ownership of land. The crops are
the property of the individuals working there. In some cases, planting or harvesting
may be done co-operatively, so that the food belongs to number of families
collectively.
16.4.3. Family with a digging stick is called hoe culture
Family with a digging stick is called hoe culture. It is not a profitable one.
Sometimes crops are lost due to the wild animals or storm, etc. With the stable life
of agriculture there seem to have been associated other inventions. Pottery making
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is partially related to agriculture and seldom found among hunters. The weaving of
hair or cotton or wool is often found among agricultural groups. With agriculture,
housing is more highly developed, since habitation is more settled and invention has
made some progress.
With cloth, pottery, baskets and crops, property begins to accumulate and to
become of considerable significance. The cottage industry such as pottery and
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baskets, leads to specialization. The foundations of exchange are thus laid, under
agriculture there is greater change of trade.
16.4.4. Domestication of Animals
Domesticated animals help to maintain the continued presence of food. Larger
herds mean there is more wealth for exchange and trade. Only men domesticate
cattle and therefore they assume a more dominant position people life is more like
that of hunters than that of settled agriculturists. They live in shelters because they
can be quickly constructed.
16.4.5. The Growth of Handicrafts :
Domestication of animals helped to invent the plough pulled by animals in
many countries. At this stage of plough culture property had become quite highly
developed. There was individual ownership of farm land, equipment and products.
By using the power of domesticated animals and by planting in rows, a more certain
food supply was possible and the population became still more dense. In favourable
places surplus agricultural produce helped exchange of produce. Great distances
were traveled in boats and horses. It helped to carry on trade, to other places.
During this time great progress was made in many of the arts such as pottery and
spinning wheel.
The development of handicrafts means the growth of property. Men compete
with each other to possess property. Different kinds of handicrafts require great
labour supply. Therefore there is the desire to extend the division of labour beyond
sex and age.
The economic set up may be capitalistic socialistic or communistic. We shall
now discuss the economic institutions in capitalism and understand the role of
economic associations and institutions in society.
16.5. THE ECONOMIC INSTITUTION IN CAPITALISM
Messner defines capitalism as that form of social economy in which capital
interest i.e., the profit motive, is the primary driving force of the process. The major
economic institution of capitalism are private property large scale production, money
and credit, business organisation, profit wages competition, price mechanism etc.
16.5.1. Private Property
The institution of private property constitute the basis to economic structure in
capitalistic societies. Private property is the terra firma of capitalism. Every person
has the right to maintain property and increase it to any extent. The right to private
property is considered a sacred right in which no one can interfere. Accordingly

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many businessmen in the capitalist states own property worth crores originally no
one could come into possession of such vast sums of money due to agricultural
dominated business. Industrial revolution, popularized big machines, by means of
which a person, with a small number of assistants can have agriculture on a big
farm. But the basis of capitalistic private property in modern industry which
because of machines gives more importance to capital than to labour and the
capitalists start making unlimited profits and exploiting the labourers. Even in
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capitalistic countries of late, there are trade unions to safeguard the interest of the
labourers. Now we cannot hire and fire a labourer as in the 19th century.
16.5.2. Large Scale Production
In this way, it is large scale production which helped the recent development in
the institution of private property. Factories where thousands of labourers work are
result of the use of big machines and use of electric or steam power. Improved
means of transport and communication encouraged international trade. This again
made it possible to send goods to any part of the world. Countries come closer to
each other and fulfil the needs of each other. The new discoveries every day led to an
increase in the quantity of production and factories producing new commodities
were set up. Thus large scale production is an important institution of capitalism.
16.5.3. Money and Credit:
With the success of large scale production in the development of capitalism the
institution of credit has become important. People borrowed money from the banks.
Business and industry developed. Thus despite a lack of capital the people in the
capitalist order increased private property on the basis of credit.
16.5.4. Business Organisation:
Another important feature of capitalism is big business organisations and
corporation. In these the capital of numerous shareholders is pooled and industrial
concerns set up. This reduces the risk of shareholders and personal calamity of any
one of them does not affect the company. Big business and industrial organizations
may reduce competition and increase profit.
16.5.5. Profit:
The investors have enjoyed an increase in their profits due to large-scale
production. Economic activities like production exchange and consumption have
increased in large proportions. The capitalist invests money only, the labourers carry
on production. Salesmen and traders bring the good into the market and only then
do they reach the consumer. Thus salesmen and traders make huge profits. In this
system with the increase in the importance of capital, capitalist exploit labourers as
they pocket the major share of profit. Rightly as Marx has proved, capitalism cannot
even exist in the absence of the institution of profit.
16.5.6. Wage:
In this way, using the law supply and demand the capitalist’s interest was to
pay minimum wages to the absence and to take maximum work out of him.

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16.5.7. Competition:
Thus competition is the inevitable result of a capitalist economy. There is
extreme competition and rivalry between mill owner, and mill owner salesman and
salesman. In order to increase the price of goods, thousands of tons of food grains
are destroyed, artificial demand is created. Advertisements are in the heart of things.
In this cut throat competition the interest of nation and humanity are discarded in
the face of personal and vested interests.
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16.5.8. Price Mechanism:

Thus in capitalism the price of a commodity is determined not by its cost of
production or utility but by the law of demand and supply. People concentrate their
production upon commodities which are in greater demand and short supply in
order to make large profits. But an increase in production again increases the
supply.
16.6. SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF CAPITALISM
Some of the consequences of capitalism are good, while others bad harmful.
Following are some of the good consequences.
16.6.1. High Standard of living:
Capitalism increased the production of luxury articles. Necessities were easily
available. This raised the standard of living as shown by the average standard of
living in U.S.A.
16.6.2. Economic growth and social progress:
Capitalism led to economic growth and social progress. But the ideal of
progress with justice cannot be realized in capitalism. Due to economic freedom
people worked hard to earn wealth because it is the sigh of one’s social status in
society. A tendency towards more efforts replaced fatalism. Unemployment
decreased and the result of a constant increase in business and industry was the
economic progress of the country.
16.6.3. Exchange of culture and civilization:
Capitalism was instrumental in increasing large scale production and business.
This in turn increased international trade and means of transport and
communication. People of different cultures and civilization were exchanged.
16.6.4. Increase in the sense of co-operation:
Capitalism caused an increase in specialization in business and industry. This
called for the need of increased co-operation because it became impossible for one to
progress without another. There is saying that only by co-operation can mankind
progress Co-operation helped to reduce the differences based on race, creed
nationality and caste.
16.6.5. Economic Freedom:
Supporters of capitalism understand its most momentous result of economic
freedom. Even an ordinary person can become a millionaire by dint of personal effort
and progress as in life as far he may think Sharma R.N.
In spite of the above mentioned advantages of capitalism, it has proved a curse
to humanity instead of a blessing. Its bad consequences for outweigh the good ones.
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The disadvantages of capitalism are the following.
16.7. DISADVANTAGES OF CAPITALISM
16.7.1. Class Struggle:
Class struggle is the worst social consequence of capitalism. It created a big
gulf between person and person on the basis of economic situation or financial
status. In order to realist the economic interests of capitalists and middle class
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people the labourers were exploited to the extreme. If the capitalists do not resort to
exploit the workers then how can they a mass wealth> Thus the capitalists and
labourers are involved in an increasing struggle and conflict. Social life is disturbed
by strikes and lockouts and agitations. Practically any newspaper chosen at random
will carry a number of new stories about these conflicts. Sometimes they are settled,
but in a real sense they are never settled, because ours is a dynamic economy.
Obviously, capitalism increases the immorality in the lives of groups and
individuals.
16.7.2. Economic Inequality:
An intense economic inequality between different classes of society can be seen
in a capitalist order. As a consequence, a wide difference in their living and
opportunities for progress is obvious. In capitalism the rich became richer and the
poor poorer. In this way the gulf of economic inequality is widening. Inequality in
society is a great obstacle to the moral development of the individual.
16.7.3. Unemployment:
A capitalist tries to make the maximum, use of mechanical appliances in the
industry thus reducing the demand of labour. The introduction of a new machine
sometimes spells the unemployed of fifty to a hundred people. An unemployed
person cannot realise his own development nor can be pursue his moral ideals.
16.7.4. Social Disorganisation:
The capitalist order established big factories in which many labourers work at
minimum wages. These people live in dirty slums. They are not provided houses by
the capital it is. But medical facilities are available to the workers because of the
capitalists fear that the workers disease may affect them. Poverty induces crime and
prostitution. An increase in poverty helps to make the life of people degenerate.
Social life cannot remain organised in the face of poverty, extreme class differences,
unemployment and extreme economic inequality. Its structure may seen imposing,
glorious from outside but its foundations are continually being weakened. Freedom
in capitalism gives rise to exploitation. Proper order and synthesis are mere fancies
in the absence of economic equality. Actually capitalism is bad both for the exploited
as well as the exploites. It brings the moral degeneration of both-Sharma
R.N.
16.8. IMPACT OF CAPITALISM ON MODERN CULTURE
The capitalist system had its greatest impact on modern culture in the following
spheres;
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16.8.1. Spread of Education:
Due to capitalism, books, radio and other media of education have spread on
wide scale and the spread of education among the common people has become
considerably easier. With the rapid development in transport and communications
people come to know the views of foreign countries. Thus education has become a
possibility for the most secluded spots.
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16.8.2. Increase in Scientific Research:

Capitalisms greatly assisted scientific research. In capitalistic countries,
National Institutes of all types of scientific research have been established and
encouraged. The big industries have their own laboratories. Capitalists have
invariably been a source of encouragement to research in business and industry.
This has enriched the culture of society.
16.8.3. Advantages of industrialism:
Actually, the advantages of industrialism are more or less the advantages of
capitalism because the capitalists have concentrated their attention on big machines
and large scale production. In other words their main aims are new big machines
and large scale production of commodities, Architecture has come in for some
surprising developments. The techniques of constructing buildings, canals, factories,
bridges, dams etc, have progressed very rapidly. Capitalism has had a big hand in
the development of modern civilization.
16.8.4. Progress in Literature, Music and Art:
Literature music and art progress only when the country is rich. They flourish
merely on the patronage of capitalists. The progress of science and large scale
production of radio, television and newspaper, magazines and books, have put the
enjoyment of literature music and art within easy reach of millions.
But a careful observation and analysis will show that, the above mentioned
favourable influences in the development of culture and civilisation are the result
not of the capitalist system but rather of wealth, industrial revolution and scientific
progress. If theses things are available all these results may be seen in even in every
communist nation. Communist countries do not lag behind capitalistic countries in
scientific research, spread of education, and advantages of industrialism, Freedom
in literature, music and art is not given in communist countries. On the other hand
capitalism has had some undesirable influence upon modern culture. Sharma R.N.
16.8.5. Greed for Wealth:
People are mad after wealth in capitalism. They become greedy. It has elevated
wealth to the pedestal of a deity. Wealth is its God, its ideal and its sovereign.
Wealth has become the object of human life. This greed for wealth has become a
universal tendency, and it has been increasing Wealth is no longer a means having
become an end in itself and the idea of morality or immorality does not enter into the
means of earning it. This greed for wealth is generating extreme moral degeneration.
16.8.6. Wealth the Sole Criterion:
In a Capitalistic system everything has become to be measured by wealth. All
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values of human life such as art, literature, music, love, sympathy, benevoence, pity,
affection etc, are evaluated in terms of silver coins. Every person wants to get his
maximum value.
16.8.7. Materialism and Antheism:
Materialism refers to the movable and immovable goods possessed by
individuals. Capitalism promotes only materialism. Many forget spiritual and their
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only concern is material possessions. When people starve due to famine the
millionaires do not hesitate to throw food grains into the sen in order to raise the
price of foodgrains. This attachment to wealth make the rich people to strangle
humanity. Religion and spiritually have become things of the past. This worship of
wealth is an indication of the moral degeneration of man.
16.8.8. Artificiality:
Capitalism has transformed modern culture into something extremely artificial.
Modern tourists do not enjoy nature but feels proud in collecting photography of it.
The drawing rooms of the so called cultured people are decorated only to exhibit
their wealth not for comfort. Boys and girls clothed in modern trends are absorbed
in fashion. Life for the modern man is artificial. Obviously the hope of and integral
development of man has turned into despair.
16.8.9. Emphasis on sex:
Capitalist culture places extreme emphasis on sex as, it does on wealth.
Matrimonial bunds have degenerated into a mere agreement for the satisfaction of
the sex urge of man and woman. Family disorganisation is on the increase.
Premarital and extra-marital sexual relations, infidelity, illegal children, abortions
and divorces are increasing in numbers. Literature based on sexual passions,
pictures meant to arouse sexual desires and similar artistic pieces are the order of
the day. In such circumstances ideals and spiritual values cannot flourish.
16.8.10. Frivolity:
Freedom has been transformed into frivolity. Everywhere in literature, art,
society, family, education, conduct, thought people are breaking through all bonds.
Real freedom is not in jack of control, but in self-control, in moral life, Sharma R.N.
16.9. SOCIALISM
Socialism is the economic organisation in society in which the society has the
right over all physical means which are controlled by representatives of society who
are responsible to society and all the members of society have a right to obtain the
profits of the result of such a production conducted on a socialist basis.
Encyclopaedia, Britannical defines socialism as that policy or theory which aims at
securing by the action of the central democratic authority a better distribution and
in due subordination there to a better production of wealth than now prevails. The
following are the main institution of Socialism.
16.9.1. State Ownership:
In socialism, the State owns the entire wealth of the country, that is land,
industry means of transport and communication, banks etc. It is the State which
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arranges social amenities and services like education, sanitation, health recreation
etc.
16.9.2. Equality of opportunity:
Equality of opportunity:
Socialism gives everyone equal opportunities for development and progress. No
distinction is based on sex, caste, race of class among people.
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16.9.3. Maximum Distribution of National Income:

The national income is distributed among the maximum number in socialist
countries. This does not permit extreme inequality in income of people.
16.10. COMMUNISM
The major principles of communism are given hereunder:
16.10.1. Economic Interpretation of History:
Communism is based on the economic interpretation of history. According to it,
the society undergoes fundamental changes along with the transformation in the
means of production and distribution.
16.10.2. Class Struggle:
According to Karl Marx, the society has always been comprised of two classes.
The exploiters and the exploited there has always been conflict between the two
classes. The objective of communism is to destroy the capitalist order of the
bourgeoise and to establish a Communist State of the proletariate.
16.10.3. Theory of Surplus Value :
The difference between the cost of a commodity and its selling price is the
surplus value. According to Marx, it is the labourer who has the right over surplus
because it is his labour which is the cause of his increase. The capitalists generally
appropriates this share belonging to the labourer. Thus their property is augmented
by exploiting the labourer and it is exploitation which communism wants to end.
16.10.4. Dictatorship:
Communism does not believe in democratic method. It wants to establish by
revolution the dictatorship of the proletariate.
16.10.5. Stateless Society:
Communism considers the State as a transient institution. Engels has written,
“In proportion as anarchyin social production vanishes the political authority of the
State also dies away.
16.10.6. Inevitability of Labour:
Inevitability of Labour:
In a communist order, every person must, of necessity labour. From each
according to his ability to each according to his needs is the principle, we shall see
the distinctions between socialism and communism.
16.11. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM.

SOCIALISM COMMUNISM

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1. “Equal ownership of people over the
means of production and distribution
1. Equal consumption of all objects
besides equal ownership
2. No opposition to private income and 2. Opposition to private income and
private property. private property.
3. Reward of labour according to the 3. Reward according to utility of labour
needs of the individuals. and effort.
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4. Slow evolutionary change in Society 4. The establishment of dictatorship of

the proletariate by revolution and
force
5. Faith in democracy 5. Against democracy Sharma R.N.

16.12. DISTINCTION BETWEEN CAPITALISM COMMUNISM

Capitalism and communism differs in respect to owner of institutions like right
of property, distribution of property communications, education, health, transport,
insurance, credit and the organisation of the price mechanism etc. Because of these
differences, these complexes have acquired different characteristics in the two
orders.
16.12.1. Right to Property :
In capitalistic order property is private and an individual’s right over it is
recognised. In communism, private property cannot increase beyond a fixed limit
and the State owns all the property in the country. State controls are merely
productive objects and agencies of productions but even the objects of consumption.
Land, factories, means of transport etc, are all controlled by and belong to the State
and all are nationalised. The entire property of a Communist country is treated as
public property.
16.12.2. Distribution of property :
Under communism every individual has to work to the best of his ability and he
is given wealth according to his needs, from public wealth. The system does not
admit of the exploitation of the workers. He is paid wages according to his labour
and needs. He does not have to resort to quarrel for wages. In Communism public
property is equitably distributed and effort is directed to use it for national welfare,
on the other hand the distribution of property under Capaitalism is extremely
inequitable. There certainly is a difference between the income of the people even in
communist society but not so wide as to make one a beggar and another millionaire
whereas in capitalism the difference between the income and financial status of
individual and classes is extremely wide. There is no limit to which in individual can
increase his private property. The state does not intervene in any away because the
control of the Government is in the hands of the rich or their representatives. In this
way while the individual has complete freedom of all kinds and opportunities to
improve and prosper in this system there is also at the same time grave exploitation
of the poor helpless workers. The rich become richer and the poor poorer. The
attention of the capitalist producer is directed towards his own personal interest and
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not towards the national interest and for this he does not even hesitate injuring the
interests of the nation.
16.12.3. Social Stratification:
Due to this reason, the standards of living and the amenities of life which
classes, possess are of a widely differing nature in capitalism, and this tends to
increase the class struggle and harm the interest of the nation. That is the great
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threat to national unity. In communism, the difference between the ruler and the
ruled kis no doubt perceptible but not to the extent that there are economic classes
of million and beggars who sleep on the roads and slum dwellers. It is not a fact that
a person has no economic freedom under communist system. In this system, too a
person can increase his personal property to some extent but the cannot exploit
anybody. On the other hand in capaitalism there is no restriction on the means
towards amassing wealth.
[Link]. Competition:
In this way the effort towards money making in the economic field, under the
capitalist order lead to cut throat competition. Every person wants to earn the
maximum sum of money. Business organisations are created to this end. In the
communist system along with business organisation and monopoly one is not
confronted with unemployment poverty and hunger. Every person must be
employed and he must labour. Besides work he gets wealth enough to meet his
needs. In Communism there is competition in working and the people who produce
the most win recognition and awards from the State. In Competition.
16.12.5. Insurance and Credit
Insurance and Credit, institutions are controlled by individuals under
capitalism whose objective is the personal benefit of the people who run these
institutions. Communism also has these institutions, but the state has the authority
over them and they aim at public benefit. The public gets the opportunity to make
the maximum use of them.
16.12.6. Control of Price Mechanism:
In capitalism the basis of price mechanism is the law of supply and demand. It
is not controlled in any way with the result that capitalist by virtue of monopoly and
business organisation fix any price for commodities which suit them. Ina this way
the public in general is exploited while the wealthy keep on getting wealthier. The
communist state controls the price and retains them within a certain limit. This
tends to elevated the standard of living and eliminate any possibilities of
exploitation.
16.12.7. Other institutions:
In fact one can broadly state that in communism the government is in control of
Most of the institutions while in capitalism most institutions are individually
maintained. Thus under capitalism such institution as transport advertisement,
education, health etc. are controlled by individuals or business concerns. On the
other hand under communism these are nationalized and controlled the government
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in public interest.
From the above mentioned description capitalism and communism it is evident
that communism creates better conditions for the development of the individual. But
the sovereignty of state authority sometimes deals a serious blow to the freedom of
the individual and intervenes in his moral development. Thus the best alternative is
socialism. It has neither the violence nor dictatorship of communism. Only in
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socialism the circumstances and environment conducive to the integral development

of man can be created Sharma R.N.
16.13. INDUSTRY AND THE SOCIAL SYSTEM
We shall now consider the two important elements such as industry and
agriculture in our economic system since they are very closely related to our social
life. Industrialism is one of the results of the industrial revolution. The term
industrial Revolution was coined by Arnold Toyabee. It describes the swift and far
reaching changes in our economic and technological orders. The industrial
Revolution ushered in the present age of industrialism in which we are living. The
most important feature of industrial system is the application of mechanical power
to work machines. Another peculiar feature of this system is the adaptation of new
inventions in industry. It increased the production of industry and helped traders to
accumulate capital. This capitalism came into being. The factory system replaced the
domestic at the same time it brought new problems which were going to shake the
social order to its foundations.
One of the beneficial effects of industrial system was considerable extension in
arts sciences and general literacy. With the march of industrialism and the
development of science health conditions improved considerably. For all its
accomplishment the system brought many evils in its wake. There were periodic
economic crises: waste of land raw materials, excessive concentration of capital in
few bands, and the growth of monopoly with its inherent skills, unemployment,
starvation in the midst of plenty, conspicuous waste and consumption side by side
with dire poverty have been the evils of this system. Finally we must also point out
here the increasing awareness that the economic system is a function of the social
system and as such is meant to be subservient to common good. The subordination
of the economic to the social has been recognized in every society from the most
primitive to the most modern.
16.14. AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. India lives in her villages.
Agriculture is the predominant occupation in rural India. The problems of industry
are given more importance than agricultural problems because its problems are
more modern. The problems of industry have been more widely studied than these
agriculture. This is particularly true of India as A.R. Desai remarks. “ The literature
on the rural society is insufficient for adequate understanding and development of
Indian society in the past and as it exists today”. The problems of agriculture may be
of the agriculturists themselves. Therefore tiller should own the land. There has
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been land ceiling acts in our country to make the tiller as the owner of land. Thus
this incentive is permanently stimulated in a peasant. He gets a psychological
satisfaction that he is the master of the land. His occupation in the land is the
source of his status and recognition that it the foundation and support of his
economic and social life. If he becomes a member of a farming and credit co-
operative society it offers him he advantage of co-operation, for the development of
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his social and cultural interests, it goes without saying that the agriculture of a
country, which is the basis and support of its economic life should be so connected
and harmonized with the industrial system that improvement in one would imply
improvements in the other and both should work as two parts of one and the same
system. In a well organised economy there is no opposition between the town and
the country, industry and agriculture there is only difference of function and
habitation. Co-operation has been flourishing in India the Zamindar, Problem is
solved in favour of the cultivator by legislation and Bhoodan Yagna. There is still a
long way to go in the field of agriculture: but they are encouraging signs of eventual
success in the field.
According to an Indian expert S. Thirumalai: What is of vital importance is the
creation of a rural environment that would generate a spontaneous urge among the
rural population for a higher level of living in terms of food, clothing, housing
educational facilities and cultural opportunities. This inner urge of rural community
harnessed to co-operative efforts and a dynamic state policy would go a long way in
lifting up Indian agriculture from stagnation and backwardness.
16.15. SUMMARY
Economic institution and associations are shaped by the economic structure
prevalent in the country. The economic system may be capitalistic socialistic or
communalistic. The major economic institution of capitalism are private property
large scale production, money and credit, business organisation, profit wages
competition, price mechanism. Capitalism increased the production of luxury
articles. Capitalism led to economic growth and social progress. Communism is
based on the economic interpretation of history. The society undergoes fundamental
changes along with the transformation in the means of production and distribution.
16.16. KEY WORDS
Utility
Capitalism
Communism
Socialism
Greed
Frivolity
16.17. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Explain the development of Economic Institution?
2. Define Capitalism.
3. Brief an account of Impact of capitalism in modern culture.
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LESSON - 17

POLITICAL INSTITUTION
STRUCTURE
17.0. Objectives
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Government in simple material culture.
17.3. The limited need for Government: In simple Cultures.
17.4. The Political State.
17.5. The Origin of the state.
17.6. Government in Modern Times.
17.7. Territory
17.8. Complexity of Natural Life.
17.9. Change.
17.10. Characteristics of Modern Government keeping Order.
17.11. Bureaucracy
17.12. Recent Trends in Governmental Functions
17.13. The Social Service State.
17.14. The Production State.
17.15. The War State.
17.16. Government Democracy or Dictatorship.
17.17. Difference Between State and Society.
17.18. Limits of State Rights.
17.18.1. Fundamental Rights.
17.18.2. Rights of Social Organisations.
17.18.3. Rights Due to Social Traditions Customs & Conventions.
17.18.4. Constitution of the State.
17.18.5. International Conditions.
17.19. Functions of a Modern State.
17.20. Compulsory Functions of the State.
17.20.1. Defence against Foreign Attack.
17.20.2. Internal Peace and Security.
17.20.3. Protection of the Rights of Citizens.
17.20.4. Justice.
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17.21. Voluntary Function of the state.
17.21.1. Provision of Education.
17.21.2. Maintenance of Health .
17.21.3. Protection.
17.21.4. Agreement of Public welfare service.
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17.21.5. Social and economic Improvement.

17.21.6. Encouragement of Trade and Industry.
17.21.7. Organisation of Labour.
17.21.8. Proper use of natural resources of the country.
17.21.9. Arrangement of Recreation
17.22. Distinction between State and Government
17.23. Welfare state
17.24. Summary
17.25. Key words
17.26. Suggested Questions
17.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Reveal the characteristics of modern Government
 Find out the functions of modern state.
 Evaluate the relationship between state and society.
17.1. INTRODUCTION
Government is one of the major factor in our contemporary life. One birth must
be registered with the government at once. Government takes care of sanitation.
Education is provided for us by the Government. We pay taxes to the Government
for the money we earn in society. State polities and law affect the price of
recreational activities e.g., gambling and horse racing. Government provides medical
care for us. It protects us from external aggression and from danger within the
community. We fight for the state when it is in danger. It helps to take care of the
aged. When we die our death must be registered with the Government. Thus in
every day of our life we came in contact directly or indirectly with the Government.
17.2. GOVERNMENT IN SIMPLE MATERIAL CULTURE
Government is very simple and hardly seen among the people of simplest
material cultures. They live in isolated families. They do not have connection with
any other external group. The family is their only social life. But the fact is that all
primitive societies include social relation and institution which extend beyound the
family. Such people are flor example, the Andama Islanders and Eskimos. They
have no specially constituted Government as the have no established rulers.
Whenever there is a need for group action, a temporary leader may be selected.
Small bands and small communities to have a headman. Generally the position of
the headman is not hereditary. He come a headman only, because of his abilities
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and special skills.
17.3. THE LIMITED NEED FOR GOVERNMENT, IN SIMPLE CULTURES
The size of the groups is so small that there is disorder among peoples of simple
cultures. So the need for government is not felt very much by them. Their
communities are small in comparison to modern communities. They do not have
enough food to maintain a big population. E.g. The food gathers and hunters. The
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size of the community ranges from 15 to 200 persons. Under the circumstances,
each person knows every other person well, Cossip and public opinion act as
sources of social pressure. Things are very different in a modern large community
which is characteristised by impersonal contacts.
A second factor which makes a formal government unnecessary for simpler
culture is its stationery character. Social conditions are not the same for long period
of time.
Therefore they cannot learn from experience. Like our libraries, the elders
become storehouses of this knowledge.
Finally, a third factor is the scarcity of property. Today we see most of the
crimes are against property. In a simple society, the personal property of each
individual is known to every other individual; besides trade and travel are not well
developed. Hence a thief cannot do much with stolen goods.
In modern times, government is considered as an important agency of control.
It may use physical force to establish order and peace in society. There is little
formal government in simple cultures. But, there are many procedures for control
such as public opinion, blame, ridicule shame and gossip. These hostile opinions of
others force the individual to follow the conventions. Those who follow approved
behaviour will receive praise and applause from others.
Institutions other than State are also interested in society, as for instance, in
our society, the family, the school and the religion. We know that the family is the
foundation of society and a necessary condition for the development of the social life
of man. The school is said to socialise the individual. Religion makes man human.
In primitive society, the role of the family is especially important in governing small
units within the community. Thus there are matriarchal and patriarchal families.
They wield authority.
17.4. THE POLITICAL STATE
We shall now study the origin of the state in our society. The following are
some of the important definitions of the State.
1. “A state is an organization which rules by means of a Supreme Government
over a definite territory” – R.M. Maclver.
2. J.W. Garner gives a comprehensive definition of the state as ‘a community of
persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of the
territory, independent or nearly by external control and possessing an organized

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government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience’.
3. Laski has said that it is ‘a territorial society divided into government and
subjects claiming with its allotted physical area a supermach over all other
institutions. The State maintains order through a government and not all
governments are synonyms with State, for there is private government. However,
government is so important a feature of the State that the two words are often used
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interchangeably. Also the State involves the concept of a territory whose boundaries
are drawn. The state has an over-all Government which is sovereign and supreme in
authority over other governing agencies and other groups. Thus the following
characteristics are essential for any organization to have the status to the state :
(a) population (b) Territory (c) Government (d) Sovereignty.
17.5. THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE
Before the State took definite form over a well-marked territory there were
rudimentary beginnings. According to Prof. Gisbert the question of the State is
similar examine there apply also to the state. Because generation ago there was a
tendency to identify the state with society. In the simplest of societies of out times
we see the element of the state in a rudimentary form. Now and then it appears
temporarily in society. The state emerges gradually in society when its population
increases the ways of food change become more effective, and wealth begins to
accumulate. The state to fulfill two kinds of aims (1) Negative and (2) Positive. The
negative aims relate to defence, food productions and the satisfaction of primary
needs. The positive aims concern the realization of better system of product on and
of a more efficient from of public administration. Therefore, the State is not a means
for the protection of society but also for its improvement and progress. This is what
Aristotle meant when he said “that the State exists for the bare needs of life and
continues to exist for the sake of the good life”. In view of this, often the family and
the State are considered as the most necessary institutions of society. It is a
necessity to a complex society. Man is by nature first familiar, secondly, social and
thirdly political.
17.6. GOVERNMENT IN MODERN TIMES
The structure of Government in modern time differs in three ways from that of
earlier times.
1. Very large area is governed
2. The complexity of social conditions in the large area and
3. The society is characteristised by rapid social change.
17.7. TERRITORY
The areas of China, India the United States and Brazil are all large. It is a
difficult problem to govern such large territories. But in modern times there are
many contact inventions, such as the boats, rail roads or telephones and radio,
without which such large areas could not be governed” – Ogburn.
17.8. COMPLEXITY OF NATURAL LIFE
The society of a large State is characterised by heterogeneity. India is a secular
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country. People of different language race, country are much greater that for a
homogenous people. These difficulties are seen in communal conflicts and group
tensions which disrupt the unit of our country.
17.9. CHANGE
Fifty years ago the automobiles in India were negligible in numbers. During
period India has been transforming from an agricultural to an industrial nation.
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These rapid changes make the government to face new situations continuously. We
pass a labour law at one session of Parliament and discard it for another at the next
session. In the distant past control was by custom. There is less reliance on custom
when there are more changes in society. Therefore Governments find it difficult to
keep up with changes. Since it is difficult of governments to foresee changes or even
to adjust to them lags tend to accumulator. Let us consider next the three
characteristics of modern Governments.
17.10. CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN GOVERNMENT KEEPING ORDER
Government still has the function of maintaining order over its territory. The
problem of keeping order is somewhat greater for local Government than formerly
because of the growth of cities. The crime rate of the city is higher than villages.
There are many thefts and law suits over property because the property has
increased. Therefore the police force acts as a machinery for handling the problems.
‘Even so enough police to maintain order in large cities seems an impossibility’ -
Ogburn and Nimkoff. Political disorder is also a problem in many states particularly
in the States of West Bengal and Assam, Kerala, where political revolution are
frequent. Disorderly demonstrations also can be seen.
17.11. BUREAUCRACY
The existence of a large number of Governmental employees is called
bureaucracy. The administrative unit under which they work is called a bureau.
The system of similar employment in large private business is named a private
bureaucracy. Since a bureaucracy is explained as a Government by bureaus
bureaucrats are thoughts of at white collar workers. Bureaucracy has been growing
steadily in public and private offices industries and business. Those who work in
these units are said to create a new social class. They are assumed to have vested
interest in the growth of the Government. Impersonal social relations characteristics
bureaucratic organisations. Government and industry administer power through the
machinery provided by the Bureaucracy. Bureaucratic organisation also extends to
political parties.
17.12. RECENT TRENDS IN GOVERNMENTAL FUNCTIONS
Governments have been increasing the number of their functions in the recent
past. There increase are not all additions of totally new functions though there are
new administrative units. These new functions of government include a multitude of
activities which are of three kinds. Social service production and war.

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17.13. THE SOCIAL SERVICE STATE
Most of the activities of Government are designed to serve citizens and various
institution of society. Thus agricultural price supports help the farmers: a high tariff
protects small industries; the help to the old age and orphans and the regulation of
money and credit is a help to every one. The social services which the state may give
seem almost infinite. Here we recognise the principle of service by a friendly
Government.
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The social service state helps the sick unemployed the aged and the destitute.
State gives financial and to business. It also gives subsidies to certain industries,
economic and military aid to foreign countries benefit Indian industries indirectly. It
should be noted that the city Government were the first to develop social services.
The disposal of garbage and prevention of contagious disease in cities in the task of
the Government. Playgrounds for children, and recreational facilities are built and
maintained by the city with the help of the Government.
17.14. THE PRODUCTION STATE
Socialists argue that Government should extend their functions to the
production of economic goods. India is a predominantly agricultural country. Here
the problem is how to get the money to build the factories and transportational
systems. The question of state in production involves the merger of government
institution and economic institutions. It also affects, the standard of living and the
distribution of wealth and power.
7.15. THE WAR STATE
The War State has three chief characteristics a vast extension of the executive
functions, action with speed and unity. During a war in modern times government
influence our entire social life, when during peace-time this influence continues.
War preparedness means a state ready for war. Lasswell call this a garrison state
War, preparedness has profound implications for democracy. The executive power of
the Government is to be extended; the demand for speed and unity means the
sacrifice of such democratic procedure as deliberation debate and popular control.
7.16. GOVERNMENT DEMOCRACY OR DICTATORSHIP
“Some social trends in modern times, such as big government and rapid
change, make governing difficult for democracanies and are invitation to more
towards rule without consulting people which we call dictatorship. Some trends
facilitate democracy. Such for instance are the rapid communication inventions.
The public sample poll is also an invention of great potential usefulness in quickly
familiarizing the leaders, with what the people think. But this social invention is in
its infancy and may be expected to evolve. It shows up at times the ignorance of the
people” – Ogburn Nimkoff.
17.7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATE AND SOCIETY
In the foregoing paragraphs we have studies the characteristics of Government
and the State. Let us see the differences between the state and society. We shall
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define society as the complex of organized associations and institutions within the
community. Thus society is considered as an organization which represents both
associations and institutions. Society is a role of social relationship. It is a necessity
for proper development of man. Because of its evolutionary character we call society
a dynamic institution. It has no constitution and legal system. But it is bound by
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social constitution and certain social customs. Some of the differences between
State and Society are given hereunder.
1. The modern state has to perform almost all functions which are directly or
indirectly related to social life. But the scope of the activity is limited, e.g., the state
cannot interfere in the religious life of the people. The entire gamut of social life is
the scope of society. Society makes man. He cannot grow without society.
2. State has come earlier than state. Primitive man lived in society then when
there was no state or when there was no political organization to regulate his life.
3. State has a territory. Its laws are applicable only within the territory. It
cannot operate its laws beyond the territory. On the other hand a society has extra
territorial limits. E.g. The Red Cross Society, State performs only political functions
whereas the society helps the all sided development of the individual including his
mental, moral and physical advancement.
17.18. LIMITS OF STATE RIGHTS
State cannot have absolute authority. If complete authority is given to the state
it is considered as a serious below to the moral freedom of the individual. Even the
state cannot think of controlling the thoughts and feelings of a person because it will
put an end to his individuality. Ultimately all social institutions are merely the
means to an integral development of man and the state is no exception.
In fact, even the legal view point sets some limits upon statutory rights,
R.N. Sharma, gives the following factors which limit the rights of the state.
17.18.1. Fundamental Rights
The citizens of every state are given certain fundamental rights. These
fundamental rights are immune to any state control.
17.18.2. Rights of Social Organization
There are many social organizations within a state which have their own rights
and which are essential to social life. Normally, the state does not violate the rights
of these social organizations.
17.18.3. Rights Due to Social Traditions Customs & Conventions
Normally the state does not interfere with the social customs, traditions,
conventions and the rights ensuring from them.
17.18.4. Constitution of the State
The constitution of the state too limits the rights of the state. The rights of the
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citizens in a democracy dictatorship and various other constitutions are different
from each other.
17.18.5. International Conditions
In asserting its authority, the state has to pay due attention to other states and
international bodies. Any overlooking of this aspect can even endanger its existence.
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Thus men a state use its right it keeps in view not only the rights and duties of its
own citizens and their social institutions but by other states as well.
In brief, the fundamental rights of citizens, social customs traditions and
conventions, rights of social organizations and nature of the state and international
institutions limit the rights of the state, otherwise the state is sovereign in its limited
area. Thus even from the legal or practical view point the rights of the state are not
unlimited.
17.19. FUNCTIONS OF A MODERN STATE
The functions of a modern state may be divided into two kinds compulsory and
voluntary.
17.20. COMPULSORY FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE
The functions of a state are as comprehensive as its rights. R.M. Sharma gives
the following compulsory functions of the state.
17.20.1. Defence against Foreign Attack
The most urgent function of a state is the defence of the country against foreign
attack. It has to make adequate preparation in the form of armed forces and
armaments.
17.20.2. Internal Peace and Security
The state polity at home is a important as its foreign policy. It is the prime duty
of the state to maintain internal peace and security. An increase in communal riots,
thefts cases of decoity and rebellion can endanger the existence of the state itself.
The state maintains peace and order through police and its armed forces (Army,
Navy and Air force).
17.20.3. Protection of the Rights of Citizens
In every state the citizen possess certain rights to life, property, liberty and
freedom of thought etc., It is incumbent upon the state to protect these rights for
which is has to formulate essential laws, arrange for proper administration and
enforcement and organize the courts of justice.
17.20.4. Justice
In this way justice is the compulsory function of the state, this provides for
obedience of laws in the state, maintains order and protects the rights of everyone.
17.21. VOLUNTARY FUNCTION OF THE STATE
17.21.1. Provision of Education
In the modern age all states consider it their duty to make adequate
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arrangements for the education of the citizens. A state of uneducated citizens can
never progress. Thus the state makes arrangements for primary schools and
colleges and universities so that higher education in sciences, agriculture and the
humanities may become possible. Arrangements are made for establishing research
centers, libraries, zoos, store houses and art classes etc. Efforts are made to provide
free primary education. Capable students are awarded scholarships by the state.
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But the state should avoid unnecessary interference in the affairs of the educational
institutions.
17.21.2. Maintenance of Health along with education
Maintenance of Health along with education, modern states try to provide for
the protection of health. Provision is made for sanitation, hospitals, free medicine,
vaccination and essential energizing food for the poor. More Medical colleges are
opened to end the death of capable doctors. Government research centers and
training schools for nurses are opened.
17.21.3. Protection of the old, poor and invalid
Protection of the old, poor and invalid. Modern states have also begin making
arrangements for the old, unemployed and invalid citizens. They are given financial
aid. The old people are taken care of orphanages and homes for destitute are
opened.
17.21.4. Agreement of Public Welfare Services
The state organizes the railways, postal a and telegraphic facilities, wireless etc.
It is the duty of the state of make arrangements for means for transportation such
as buses, railway, aeroplanes, ships, etc.
17.21.5. Social and Economic Improvement
Another of the state’s duty is effecting social and economic improvements. The
state lays down laws against harmful customs and makes necessary for their
enforcement.
17.21.6. Encouragement of Trade and Industry
It is also the duty of the state to encourage trade and industry and to develop it
as well. Almost everywhere in the world. It is the state which standardized the
scales of measurement and weighing. The country cannot benefit by international
trade if it does not make proper laws for import and export. The state should
establish factories of the key industries in order to implement and initiate other
industries in the country. The state should also encourage cottage industries.
17.21.7. Organization of labour
The state should direct its effort to the improvement of conditions of labourers
and lay down rules to obviate the probability of their exploitation. It is the
responsibility of the state to make efforts towards labour welfare.
17.21.8. Proper use of Natural Resources of the Country
As country can become powerful because of land, forests, rivers minerals and
agricultural products. Maximum benefit should be extracted from them. On this
subject, the state should direct the necessary precautionary measures, research and
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search for new minerals and lay down laws for the utilization of forests, mines, land
etc.
17.21.9. Arrangement of Recreation
In order to maintain movelty and excitment in the life of public the state should
provide means for recreation. For this film industry, dramatic societies etc should
be encouraged.
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17.22. DISTINCTION BETWEEN STATE AND GOVERNMENT

The term ‘state’ and ‘Government’ are quite often confused in day to day use.
This confusion arises because government represents the will of the state and also
that the government is one of the most important organs of the state. The important
differences between state and government are given here under by Mukhi H.R.

STATE GOVERNMENT

It is all comprehensive and has three Government is just one limb of the
organs namely the executive, legislature state and a such it is not all
and judiciary comprehensive

It is something abstract and thus cannot It can be seen because it consists of

be seen. It can only be imagined. E.g. persons. We can seen the Council
Bharat Mata of Ministers at work

Changes in the state come very Changes in a Government come

infrequently and the boundaries of a state rather quite frequently. Normal life
may not change for years and centuries of a Government in a State is
together usually four to five years.

The state consists of all the people who The Government consists of only
live in its territory. few persons e.g., our Government
consists of only 50-60 ministers
and a few thousands of public
servants.

State has no form A Government can be of any form

i.e., it can be unitary federal, or
parliamentary or presidential.

17.23. WELFARE STATE

The welfare state has come into prominence and its policies are being followed
in modern times. The welfare state may be explained as a state which takes upon
itself to provide social services of the nation to bring under public ownership
important industries placing certain controls on private enterprise and to organize
democratic planning on a national same. In our country civil aviation, life insurance
and some banks are also nationalized as well as the many river and valley projects
under construction. Steel factories are also now owned and managed by the state.
The objectives of the welfare state related mostly to the economic field and

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consist in the redistribution and readjustment of incomes to bridge the gap between
the haves and the have-nots. It tries to prevent through taxation excessive
inequalities of income and increase national production. These objectives are found
in the tentative outline of the second Five Year Plan of India namely, (a) “A sizable
increase in national income so as to raise the level of living in the country (b) Rapid
Fuller employment, (d) social Justice” – Gispert P. The welfare state has been
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described as a ‘Compromise between the two extremes of communism on the one

hand and unbridied individualism on the other”. The welfare state provides
economic security for the working classes. They are protected in old age, sickness
and chronic unemployment by the state, it tries to provide full employment.
17.24. SUMMARY
Government is one of the major factor in our contemporary life. Government is
very simple and hardly seen among the people of simplest material culture.
Governments have been increasing the number of their functions in the recent past.
These increase are not all additions of totally new functions though there are new
administrative units. Most of the activities of Government are designed to serve
citizens and various institutions of society. Sociologists argue that Government
should extend their functions to the production of economic goods.
17.25. KEY WORDS
Gambling
Rudimentry
Bureauarcy
Dictatorship
Legislation
Judiciary
Civil aviation
17.26. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Define Government
2. Difference between state and society
3. Brief account of compulsory function of state?
4. Distinction between state and Government.


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LESSON - 18

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

STRUCTURE
18.0. Objectives
18.1. Introduction
18.2. The vital importance of education today
18.3. Definition
18.4. The ends of education or its functions
18.5. The variable function of education
18.6. Basic Education
18.7. Social Education
18.8. Social Purpose
18.9. The place of the Teacher in Education
18.10. State and Education
18.11. The Educational functions of a state
18.12. Summary
18.13. Key words
18.14. Suggested Questions
18.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Define education
 Find out importance of education today.
 Discuss the functions of education in a state.
18.1. INTRODUCTION
It is often said that the only should solutions of our social problem is to be
found in education. Social problems are varied : they are poverty, unemployment,
dowry etc. This is probably true, but it will require a different system of education
from that which we now have. The world finds itself in a serious social, economic
and political crisis. We must go ahead. All same persons want civilization to move
ahead rather than collapse. Education can provided the only safe leadership
towards progress and prosperity. For an orderly social advance, we must rely more
and more upon the educational direction of the social process. The social problems
of to-day have become so complicated that only well educated {public} social workers
can deal with them effectively. The present system of education is inadequate to
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supply the leadership that is necessary in the present crisis. It did not save the
world from war and depression.
18.2. THE VITAL IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION TODAY
We must remove useless antiquite from the curriculum, stress the realities of
the 20th century, and offer protection to members of the teaching profession who
speak out courage and honestly the facts as they are.
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The social studies present the only cogent information that can help us to
bridge the gap between machines and social institutions. More time should be given
to the social studies; also their content must be made more vital and be linked up
with the immediate problems of our day. Education is our best safeguard against
fascism and capitalism. It is the foremost bulwark of communism. If it is cowardly
and time serving. It will only contribute to the general inevitability of general misery
and chaos. In an ear of social decline and barbarism, there is little place for
education. E.g., The History of the Dark Ages. Most persons think of education as
being synonyms with the school. This leads to false notions and unreasonable
hopes. It is doubtful, whether the school is even the chief educational agency in
modern society. The teaching learning process is a continuous process. It results in
the socialization of the person literally from the cradle to the grave. Only a small
part of the total education of a person is spent in school. A person learns
continuously through a wide variety of media outside school, from movies, radio,
television, temple, political speeches, newspapers, magazines books informal
association with others persons and from various other sources.
As an institution, on the other hand, education is chiefly the function of the
schools sponsored by society. Education impaired by other agencies such as the
movies, the play group etc., are incidental to other function. In the broadest sense
educations is synonymous with the socialization of the person, in its more strict
sense education as an institution consists of the programmes of the formal
education organization of the society, and the effects of these of programmes on the
persons influenced by the organization” – Cuber.
18.3. DEFINITION
The term education comes from the Latin word ‘educare’ which literally means
to bring up. The genuine idea of education in our culture is not merely to lead the
pupil in the acquisition of knowledge and experience but also to bring him up or
develop in him those habits and attitudes with which he may successfully face the
future. Plato held that the end of education was to develop in the body and in the
soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable of or to develop in
short “a sound mind in a sound body”, according to the conception of Aristotle, to
educate meant to develop man’s faculties, especially his mind so that he may be able
to enjoy the contemplation of the supreme truth, goodness and beauty in which
perfect happiness essentially consists.
But in practice we see that education consists in ‘an attempt on the part of the
adult members of human society to shape the development of the coming generation
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in accordance with its own ideals of life – James Welton. Moreover, of all living
beings man is the one who needs more than anyone else the help or his parents,
whereas the young animals can do without them. The young of the lower animals
knows how to care of itself, the young infant has to learn how to live freely.
That is why education in one way or another is the initiation of the young in the
ways and life of their elders which is a universal feature of human society, in
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modern times the family remains the most powerful agency of education. Education
as an institution makes its early appearance even in simpler societies in the form of
initiation rites. The use of tutors, or teachers, is a comparatively recent development
in society.
Education is formally concerned with the transmission of the social heritage to
new generations. It is also a conservative agency as most institutions are : but that
does not prevent it from training the inventor or the social reformer. Modern
inventions of social and economic reforms have come from men engaged in our
educational centers. At any rate the influence that is one way or another education
exerts on society and society on education entitles to say that one of the most direct
ways of discovering the goals and ideals of a society is to study its educational
system.
18.4. THE ENDS OF EDUCATION OR ITS FUNCTIONS
Education of the young is a universal process found in all human societies.
Everywhere man fees it necessary to bring up his young by reaching there with the
culture of his society. This is done either through the family or through organized
education or religion. The universal function of education ‘consists of the
conditioning of the plastic and growing human beings so that he will be able to
society should do in order to remain infact. Children are taught the folkways and
mores which enable society to exist. Thus the cultural heritage of society is
preserved which is indispensable to the community of any society.
Adults help the young in imparting education which is necessary for the
survival of society. The tasks of education are entrusted to special agencies and
institutions. We shall discuss the specific aims of these agencies and the ideals
guiding them. A man is first educated by his family in ordinary life. Nature itself
provides the foundations for a type of stable and spontaneous education e.g.
carvings for protection and mutual love between children and parents. Besides, the
family is a primary group. Here the child’s behaviour is controlled through
education. When the behaviour is regulated and controlled, the child grows into a
responsible adult member. Good values are inculcated in him by the family. This,
also helps to understand the sense of belonginess to society. Thus the process of
socialization takes root properly in life of an individual. He can develop a well
integrated personality which helps him to adjust his life with other members.
Thereby he promotes harmonious, social relations in society. Lack of proper
adjustment and harmonious, stable social relations are the root causes of so many
social ills of society such as suicide and crime.
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As regards the education of any man as a member of a nation or society he
must be not only acquainted with its history and tradition but also identified with
good aspirations hopes and ways of life. In this connection it is worth mentioning
the Mudaliar Report on Secondary Education 91952) : Citizenship in a democracy is
a very exacting and challenging responsibilities for which every citizen has to be
carefully trained. It involves many intellectual, social and moral qualities which
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cannot be expected to grow of their own independent judgment on all kinds of

complicated social economic and political issues and to a large extent decide his own
course of action.
18.5. THE VARIABLE FUNCTION OF EDUCATION
There is considerable choice as to the form, content and purpose which a
society may include in its education efforts. Education may be formal or informal, it
may be dominated by the family, by the Government by organized or by some
combination of these Education may be extended to both sexes or limited to one.
The sexes may be segregated or they may be educated together. The culture of
society may condone or encourage universal education. Education may be
concerned with training people for vocations or it may be the purpose of education to
mould people along a single basic pattern or it may be considered desirable to
encourage individuality a individual differences. The education system may exist for
the purpose of indoctrinating or for encouraging free thinking along certain lines. In
short there is almost no end to the differences which can be found in the
educational system and philosophies.
One of the most important problems in the field of education, is to find a say in
which to harmonize in a system of education, humanistic studies, scientific studies
and technical training. We shall first deal with technical education. India is a
developing country. The neglect of science and technology can be considered to be
an important factor responsible for her low level of progress. Yet, India is on the
move agains with the promise of a new renaissance in the making. The economic
well being of a nation depends upon its man-power. A nation’s wealth is in its
people. People we have highly developed skills and abilities and also a general and
flexible education to enable themselves to adopt rapidly to the changing
circumstances will bring such riches to the nation which cannot be brought forward
by any other means. Therefore technical education is a must for India.
Technical or vocational education is the training given to men or children in
order to enable them to perform with skill a utilitarian task. Such is for instance,
the training in weaving, iron smelting, pruning of trees, etc., it applies to industrial
as well as agricultural pursuits. The two important things about this type of
training are that it is necessary for modern society, and that properly imparted, it
has also an educational value.
In our country, the higher education was more academic or literary in nature.
It still continues to turn out a high proportion of liberal arts students and all too few

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engineers techno crafts, experts and workers worth the name. Even the organization
of technical education is not need-oriented. As a result, we find that this education
affects the prosperity of the nation. Therefore the country at the present junctury
requires to give a greater scientific and technical bias to her educational
programmes. No doubt, the government has taken the initiative in this respect, but
more concentrated efforts are needed, if the country has to march towards
prosperity.
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Technical education by itself cannot take place of a liberal education. The

efforts made in this regard are far from encouraging. The reason seems to be that
the technique underlying vocational training is different from the one underlying
cultural or liberal training. The former is special, while the latter is general, and the
effects of specialization may be deleterious to young people.
18.6. BASIC EDUCATION
Such difficulties are also felt in the application in India of the Wardha Scheme
now called Basic Education System. Its aims is to impart general education to
school education through a vocation or handicraft. Researches reveal the following
trends in this education first the rapid improvement, in craft made by students in
the lower classes is not maintained after a few years of schooling. Secondly, the
relation between craft ability and personality development patterns is very low. This
is one of the main reasons why in many places the Wardha idea has been watered
down, and the principle of teaching all subjects through a handicraft has been
modified beyond recognition. The present tendency in the basic and vocational
schools is to reach a liberal or general education course together with crafts.
Moreover the imparting of vocational training, especially at high school, is an
appropriate way of meeting the needs of an expanding industrial society and of
educating the citizens according to democratic principles. Humanistic and scientific
studies must be co-ordinated in college education; similarly technical or
polytechnics are considered as advanced disspecialized institutions for the
professional or other vocational pursuits.
18.7. SOCIAL EDUCATION
Definition : Maulana Azad the first educational minister of India gave a new
nomenclature to adult education as social education. He said by “Social education
we mean education for the complete man. It will give him literacy, so that the
knowledge of the world may become accessible to him. It will teach him how to
organize himself with his environment and make the best use of physical conditions
to which he is subject. It is intended to teach him improved crafts and modes of
productions so that he can achieve economic betterment. It also aims at teaching
him rudiments of hygiene both for the individual and community so that our
domestic life may be healthy and prosperous. The last, but not the least, this
education should give him training in citizenships so that he obtains some insight
into the affairs of the world and can help his government to take decisions which will
make for peace and progress. According to Prof. Humanyan Kabir “social education
may be defined as a course of study directed towards the production of
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consciousness of citizenships among them. It is not content with the introduction of
literacy among the grow up illiterates but aims at the production of an educated
mind, among its masses. As a natural corollary it inculcates in them a sense of
rights and duties of citizenship both as individual and members of a community”.
On the basis of the “social education in a controlled experience which increases the
ability of the individual is in their participation is social activities”.
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We shall see the aims served by social education in society. It has already been
said that modernization also includes social awakening the social development. This
role is best played by social education. Mohanlal Saxena Committee (1949)
formulated the following aims of social education.
1. To awaken the citizens towards their rights and duties and to develop in
them a feeling of social service.
2. To develop in them a love towards democracy and to give them training
for administrative work in the administrative machinery of a democratic
Government.
3. To develop in them a feeling of pride for Indian Culture through an
education of History and Geography.
4. To acquaint them with problems facing the country and the world.
5. To acquaint them with moral values through group discussions and
study.
6. To provide them facilities for learning, reading writing, and simple
arithmetic and to encourage them to develop their knowledge.
7. To give proper training in handicrafts so that they can utilize their
leisure for economic uplift.
8. To keep up with the learning process through libraries, discussion,
groups and education committees.
9. To inculate the feeling of co-operation in them.
18.8. SOCIAL PURPOSES
We shall now indicate how social education helps social purposes.
1. It promotes social cohesion
2. It seeks to conserve and improve National resources
3. It builds up co-operative groups and institution
4. it inculcates social ideology
Social education is thus the foundation on which alone free India can build up
a welfare state which recognize the claims of both individual freedom and social
security.
18.9. THE PLACE OF THE TEACHER IN EDUCATION
We know that the teacher is the soul or vital part of the educational system.

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Educational scheme cannot succeed without a competent body of teachers. The
teachers must also be well-trained for the task of imparting education. Their co-
operation to the life and welfare of society is of paramount importance as they are
expected to achieve the following ends, for which higher education stands.
(1) transmission of the intellectual and ethical heritage of humanity to the young;
(2) enrichment of this heritage and extension of the boundaries of knowledge
(3) Development of personality – Radha Krishnan Report. The teacher is expected to
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live in accordance with a high standard of moral integrity. In fact, few are the
persons who join the teaching profession attracted by high salary in an enquiry
conducted among teachers in Punjab it was found, that the economic incentive
ranked very low in the scale. It was the lack of future rise, a defective system of
education and unsympathetic attitude of officers which deferred many to take
teaching – Gisbert.
The immediate causes of this, are the scarcity of government grants the low fee
that students pay and the high expense which have to be incurred But the remote
causes are more important from the sociological view point. Parents want good
teachers and suitable educational institutions for their children, but not even
prosperous nations are ready to pay for them. Rich people think of allocating their
surplus money to any productive (economic) purpose except education. Money is
the measure of all things. The lawyer, then politician, the engineer are usually well
paid because their role in society is acknowledged as beneficial, but curiously
enough this dies not seem to apply to teachers. It is irony of fate that the midst of a
democratic society. It is still possible to have great admiration for those aristocratic
times, when king and people, nobleman and bishop and anyone who had the means,
considered a privilege to open a school or college, bequeathing to it a generous
endowment. Perhaps the face that governments in the past used to maintain
educational institutions has induced the persuasion that individual should not
trouble about it; once more state help is killing self-help.
The results of this situation are every where present. One results is that many
persons otherwise capable as teachers, do not joint the teaching profession. when
they can procure better pay in business or in skilled work. The best teachers are
frequently offered in other professions a more remunerative salary; with the result
that a kind of negative selection take place. Therefore the best teachers do not join
the teaching profession or once they have joined it, soon leave it, “Another
consequence is that the average teacher tries to supplement his insufficient pay by
private tuitions and outside work, which besides impairing the proper discharge of
his duties favours the existence of that type of teacher-politicians’ who get for
themselves and their friends influential and lucrative position” - Radhakrishnan
Report Volume, 1, P. 70 “We can add to this, that as the schools and colleges
themselves are pressed by economic difficulties they admit more students than they
can hold, cater for quantity instead of quality, and the rooms and had halls become
over crowed to the determent of efficiency. Unless things are considerably improved
in this respect, education cannot prosper” – Gisbert P.
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18.10. STATE AND EDUCATION
The educational system is very influential in the life society. It helps for rapid
social progress. Therefore the government has always taken a special interest in
unit. When a nation becomes communist, it first tries to bring the educational
system under its rule. It also tries transforms the teachers into paid agents of its
rule. This trend can also be bound in democratic countries. State governments are
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not impartial in maintaining the schools. They give a preferential treatment to the
schools run by private management. Therefore the public could not understand that
education is a social function. The teachers should be considered as the
representative of the parent, their main functions is to educate the children.
18.11. THE EDUCATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF A STATE
The State is considered as the supreme co-ordinating power. It has a right to
supervise the education of the community. It can help the school by giving finance.
It can introduce new schemes in education. Thus it can promote the advance to
education. Educational institution must be given full freedom. The state should not
dictate conditions and terms to schools and colleges. It should not show
discrimination against any type of schools and colleges. The permission to have
charters to universities, is one of the best guarantees for ensuring a living and
adaptable system of education.
We should make an attempt to wipe out illiteracy with all the resource of
knowledge, enthusiasm and devotion. Education should to be open to all especially
to the rising generation, the opportunities and facilities of getting a suitable
education should be provided. We need the contributions of everyone to build up a
strong. The system of education must be such that, the contribution of the best and
most fitted citizens are available. The most promising young men without the
distinction of class, or race or religion must be specially trained. They can
contribute to the welfare of society to the best of their ability. They can also give
good leadership, which is so urgently needed. They can renew the life blood of the
nation. Society cannot stagnate and there as to be stability and progress. This is
not only the task of the State of Government but the concern of all citizens and
institutions of free India. These are the views on State and education expressed by
P. Gisbert S.J. in his book ‘Fundamentals of Sociology”.
18.12. SUMMARY
Education is one of the basis activities of all human societies. A man without
education is one who has eyes without sight. A man without education was taken
blind intellectually. Education was consider third eyes modern world is full of
problems an educated men solved problem better than an uneducated men. An
educated man even it he is very rich cannot live comfortable in this miserable world.
18.13. KEY WORDS
Humanistic
Deleterious
Acquaint
18.14. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
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1. Write the variable functions of education.
2. Define social education
3. Explain the important aims of social education?
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LESSON - 19

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
19.0. Objectives
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Definition
19.3. Structure and function
19.4. Order in function
19.5. Order in structure
19.6. Structure in society is organization
19.7. The Nature of social structure
19.8. Types of social structure
19.9. Summary
19.10. Key words
19.11. Suggested Questions
19.0. OBJECTIVES
This lesson aims to
 Define social structure.
 Discuss the various types of social structure.
19.1. INTRODUCTION
Social structure is the basic concept for the proper understanding of society.
There are as many definitions to social structure as there are sociologists. There is
in unanimity of opinion on its definition. Herbert Spencer was the first thinker to
explain the structure of society. Some definitions of social structure are given
hereunder.
19.2. DEFINITION
1. Social structure is the term applied to the particular arrangement of the
interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns, as well as statuses and roles
which each person assumes in the group-Talcott Parsons.
2. Social structure is concerned with the principal forms of social organisation.
i.e., types of groups, associations and institutions and the complex of these which
constitutes societies. Ginsberg.
3. The various modes of grouping together comprises the complex pattern of
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social structure. In the analysis of the social structure, the role of diverse attitudes
and interests if the social being is revealed – Maclver.
4. The components of social structure are human beings the structure itself
being an arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally defined and
regulated.
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From the above definitions we can conclude that social structure is an abstract
phenomenon. In points to the external aspects of society. Groups, institutions,
associations and organisations are the units of social structure. Society has pattern
of organisation. It is composed of structure resulting from the association of men
with each other. When individuals contact with other people in society they
establish a structural form. It may be a group, institution or an organisations.
Social structure helps the social to function in a harmonious way. Society functions
through the units of social structure. The parts of social structure are institutions
associations, groups, organisations and community. The parts of the social
structure are the same every where but, the forms of social structure differ from
place to place as the form of human body.
We shall now describes the character of social structure as it is found under
the conditions of modern western civilization. The social structure itself it unstable
and changeful, it has a definite character. Many of its major elements have not
changed, and they persist. We shall see how institutions and associations are
maintained and regulated. We shall also see the forces that bind the structure
together.
Social structure of society has been established with great difficulty by every
society. Individuals, groups institution as well as associations are expected to
perform certain specific functions. Society wants to preserve the structural system.
A good social structure is characteristised by regularity and permanency. Roles are
always more stable than the role occupant in this system.
“The concept social structure is concerned with the social order in society,
indeed order is the rule in the social world as truly as it is the rule in the social
world as truly as it is in the physical world” – Ogburn and Nimkoff.
19.3. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Structure is subordinate to function when the interest is in the social life.
Order in society denotes the groupings of persons and the arrangements of their
behaviour. We have already studied different kinds of social groups and
communities with such arrangements, as in the explanation of folkways and social
controls.
“Orderliness has two fundamental aspects, one is the structure and other is the
functions performed by the structure. In society a group of persons is the structure,
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what the group does is the function. Both have form” – Ogburn and Nimkoof.
We are only concerned with function. We are particularly interested in the
behaviour of groups. Therefore the social sciences are sometimes called the
behavioural sciences.
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19.4. ORDER IN FUNCTION

“The basic unit of the functioning of the social structure is the act. Thus we
speak of social action and social interaction. Such social are repeated among
masses of people and when the repetition is found often they become customs. If
the acts of individual are repeated they become habits. “Customs are social habits
and through repetition become the basis of an order of social behaviour” – Ogburn
and Nimkoff.
There are different names for customs such as the folkways which refer to
certain minor customs. The ‘Etiquette’ is used for certain customs. Manners,
conventions, morals, traditions and ceremonies are the other names of customs.
Customs expect conformity. Norms are followed to maintain order in society. They
also produce equilibrium in society.
19.5. ORDER IN STRUCTURE
We shall discuss orderliness of structure. There are many different terms
which are used to characterize this orderliness. They are groups, society or
community. Each of them refers to some sort of orderly arrangement.
19.6. STRUCTURE IN SOCIETY IS ORGANIZATION
“Perhaps the most widely used descriptive term of social structure is social
organisation, which means an arrangement of persons or parts. There are many
different kinds of social organisations such as the family, a political party, a
community. In all these cases there is an arrangement of persons or parts that
compose the organisation. Such is true even of an informal play group. This
arrangement is sometimes called a pattern. There many kinds of organizations,
such as a political or economic or religious organization. The social structure of a
society functions through these organizations” – Ogburn and Nimkoff.
19.7. THE NATURE OF SOCIAL STRUCTRUE
1. Social structure is an abstract and intangible phenomenon.
2. As individuals are the units of associations and institutions so these
associations and institutions are the units of social structure.
3. These institutions and associations are interrelated in a particular
arrangement and thus create the pattern of social structure.
4. It refers to the external aspect of society which is relatively stable as
compared to the functional or internal aspect of society.

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5. Social structure is a living structure which is created and maintained for a
time and changes – Vidha Bhushan Sachdeva.
19.8. TYPES OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Talcott Parsons has explained four important types of social structure. He has
classified the different types of social structure according to the social structure
according to the social values. The social values are as follows : (a) Universalistic
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(b) Particularistic (c) Achieved and (d) Ascribed Social Values. Universalistic social
values are those that are found in all societies are applicable to everybody.
Particularistic social values are the features of particular society and these differ
from society to society. E.g. Caste, when the status is achieved by hard work it
means that such societies give importance to achieved social values. When the
status are hereditary, society gives importance to ascribed social statuses.
19.9. SUMMARY
Social structure has to be functional. The parts that constitute it two have
specific functions. The assumption is that these function like a natural
organization. The parts should work with sufficient degree of harmony. It aims at
eliminating conflict. In societies, some system must exist of for the integration of
ultimate values, for the ritualistic expressions and for the emotional adjustment
required due to disappointment, death and disaster.
19.10. KEY WORDS
Civilization
Etiquette
Universalistic
Particularistic
19.11. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Define social structure.
2. Explain types of social structure.
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LESSON - 20

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
STRUCTURE
20.0. Objectives
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Definition of Social Stratification
20.3. Kinds of Stratification
20.4. The class System
20.5. Its Nature
20.6. Development of Class
20.7. The criterion of classes
20.8. Citizen of Birth
20.9. Criterion of Wealth
20.10. The functions of class
20.11. Class consciousness
20.12. The Caste System
20.12.1. The concept of caste
20.13. Elements of caste system
20.13.1. Endogamy and Hereditary
20.13.2. Social and religious Hierarchy
20.13.3. Hereditary occupation
20.13.4. Taboos
20.13.5. Authority
20.14. The Origin of Caste System
20.15. Merits of the Caste System
20.15.1. Social Security
20.15.2. Communal Virtues
20.15.3. Education
20.16. Demerits
20.16.1. Mobility of Labour is prevented
20.16.2. Untouchability
20.16.3. Obstacle to the Growth of National Consciousness
20.17. Recent Trends in the Caste System
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20.18. Distinction Between class and Caste
20.19. Slavery and Serfdom
20.20. Summary
20.21. Key words
20.22. Suggested Questions
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20.0. OBJECTIVES
By reading this lesson the student can be able to
 Define social stratification
 Discuss the kinds of stratification
 Find out the functions of class
 Analyze the merits and demerits of caste system
20.1. INTNRODUCTION
Persons are given different social status in all human societies. Men are
essentially equal, but differ from one another in many non-essential qualities that
belong to the physical, moral or intellectual orders. Rahim and Rama for instance,
are both equally men; but besides differing in name they may differ in skin colour,
stature, moral convictions and abilities, Prestiges esteem, honour and power are to
be found unequally divided among individuals in different age groups between the
sexes and among people of different occupation, education and lineage. Stability in
the groups so formed is an important prerequisite for social stratification. It is not
sufficient if we have stability in the groups. They must also be connected with each
other by relations of superiority and subordination. These relations must be
accepted and recognised by society. Thus groups and people are classified into
different catagories. They have a hierarchy of rank. This is usually called a class
system or social stratification. Social stratification therefore is the division of society
in permanent groups linked with each other by the relationships of superiority and
subordination. These relationships usually determine the position of a groups in
subordination. These relationships usually determine the position of a groups in
society.
20.2. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
1. The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less
enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification – ogburn Nimkoff.
2. Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lower
social units – Raymond W. Murrey.
3. Social stratification is regarded as a pattern of super imposed categories of
differential privilege – Cuber and Kenkel.
It is important to note that the caste into which one is born that figures in
Indian social stratification is not a basis of stratification in all societies. Among
Americans, for example, wealth and income are important factors. In other societies
education or occupation irrespective of income received are the basis on which
various positions are determined. Race is sometimes the determining factor. In
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short, valuation is of the essence and whatever society has chosen to value highly
may be the basis for giving differential status.
Cast is of course not the sole determinant of social position even in India,
although it is still a predominant feature of the stratification system. Wealth,
income, education and occupation irrespective of income received are the basis on
which various positions are determined. Race is sometimes the determining factor.
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In short, valuation is of the essence and whatever society has chosen to value highly
may be the basis for giving differential status.
Cast is of course not the sole determinant of social position even in India,
although it is still a predominant feature of the stratification system. Wealth,
income, education and occupation also influence social position. There are many
rich persons with high income who are not accepted by persons of higher status
groups, because they ask the necessary requisites of education and the right
occupations. Professional people for example are not among the most highly paid
groups in India. But, usually are quite acceptable in higher class society because we
have other high status, prestige providing attributes. In most local communities,
family background and length of presidence are also factors affecting the person’s
class position.
20.3. KINDS OF STRATIFICATION
We shall study the horizontal organ of the society in contrast with the vertical
organisation, which is made up of such division that would cut across the social
strata. The vertical divisions of society is a popular and well understood social
phenomenon. E.G., the guilds in the Middle Ages. It had the master’s journeymen
and apprentices in its association. Similarly there are such vertical groups as
teachers association doctor guilds or engineer’s associations in our contemporary
social life. In this way there are two kinds of stratification of society namely the
vertical and the horizontal. The horizontal divisions of society into various groups
are more consistent, pervaded and more deeply rooted in the social structure of the
society. Therefore in the following pages we shall discuss the important elements of
social stratification as class, caste, slavery and seldom.
20.4. THE CLASS SYSTEM
Class and caste are two phenomena of social stratification which share many
features in common not only in the origin but also in development and function.
“Both are agents of social mobility and selection in as much as they decide largely
the position that a man occupies in a society. If and when writes Hiller, “hierarchical
positions become assigned to relatively permanent segments of a society, the social
relations so produced are known either as a class or caste system. This is why both
system are usually studied in connection with each other – Gisbert.P.
According to Ginsbert, a social class in “one of two or more broad groups of
individuals who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior
and inferior positions’ Ogburn and Nimkoff write where societies are composed of

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social classes, the social structure, generally resembles a truncated pyramid, with
the lowest social class at the base and other social classes arranged above it in a
hierarchy of rank and distinction. The fundamental attribute of a social class is thus
its social position of relative superiority or inferiority to other social classes. The
arrangement is much like army with its officers non commissioned officers and
privates.
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20.5. ITS NATURE

A social class is a group of persons who have a definite status in society that
determines the relation to other groups. The relative position of the class in the
social scale arises from the degree of prestige attached to the status. Thus the ruling
classes have a higher prestige than the domestic servants. There are certain
qualities with which we evaluate the prestige and status of a class. They are
knowledge, purity of race religion wealth, bravery and similar qualities which
facilitate their admission to the next higher class.
A social class, especially a high class, is differentiated from others by certain
institutionalized relationships and customary modes of behaviour. These ways are
taken to be characteristic of the class and they are related with such things as dress
or the fashionable quarters in which one lives, the types of conveyance that one
uses, the friends that one has, one’s way of recreation, expenditures. The breach of
class a conventions will be resented to by society. The members of a subordinates
group may also recent, interference with their own ways by those of a superior class.
The element of stability inherent in class gives something very important to the
characteristics of the individuals composing it. The members of each social class
constitute of an group. They recognise one another as equals and distinguish
between themselves and the members of other classes in a variety of ways. They
usually associate with the members of their own class and live together. They
usually associate with the members of their own class and live together. They have
their own distinctive ways of life. Thus they develop a feeling of class consciousness.
It is centered round the possession of certain qualities which the members will tend
to perpetuate. They will place obstacles in the way of those who wish to claim the
same height “It is a truism of history that the upper classes have seldom given up
their privileges voluntarily unless a major force, the prospect of a higher gain, or a
revolution have compelled them to do so.
20.6. DEVELOPMENT OF CLASS
The ways in which social classes have developed vary from society to society.
When a quality shared by a large section of the community is held in higher esteem
than another, class distinctions arise. Cooley gives the following three important
conditions which favour the growth of social classes. These are 1. Marked differences
in the constituent parts of the population 2. Little communication and
enlightenment and 3. A slow rate of social change when the population is composed
of different races. This racial heterogeneity facilitates the growth of social classes as
there comes into existence racial barriers. Thus, in the United States of America, the
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Negroes form a separate social class.
Social classes are not to be found in the earliest stages of civilisation. The rise
of slavery system, guild system and bourgeoise paved the way for the growth of
classes in society. The savage tribes fought with each other, defeated were enslaved.
Thus a class of slaves came into being. Modern classes are a development from the
class structure of the middle ages, when feudal lords were at the top and the serfs at
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the bottom of the society. Urban people organised themselves into guilds which
formed the foundation of economic structure of the Middle Ages. After the industrial
in society. A change in our social classes came only after the change of economy. In
our country the middle class is found to play a more and more decisive role in
national development. It includes the intelligential of society such as the teachers,
engineers, the doctors and the office goers. Lack of inter communication, stagnation
and an increase in population are some factors which favour the growth of class in
society.
20.7. THE CRITERION OF CLASSES
We shall see the various principles involved in the modes of social classification,
some of the important characteristics are birth, wealth, occupation, race, religion,
education. Some time two or more of these characteristics combine to determine the
status of individuals.
20.8. CRITERION OF BIRTH
In India the birth of a person in a particular caste determines his class position.
Therefore, the class structure becomes rigid; social mobility is impossible because
an individual cannot change his caste position.
20.9. CRITERION OF WEALTH
In modern times the caste system has been disintegrating due to some factors
which we shall study in the following topic. Because of industrial revolution, the
rapid growth of science and technology the spread of modern education and together
with urbanization, the status of person tend to be decided by wealth and not by
birth. Thus there are three classes such as upper class, middle class and lower class
is our society. But wealth is not the only significant factor of social stratification in
modern communities. Class position is also determined by several other factors such
as race, age, sex, lineage, religion, occupation and education.
20.10. THE FUNCTIONS OF CLASS
Some are of the view the social classes are absolutely necessary in a modern
society. Our society is more and more getting complex and complicated. Therefore it
is rather difficult to find people without class distinctions. W.T. Warner has aptly
said :when a society is complex, there are large number of individuals in it, pursuing
divorce and complete tasks functioning in a multiplicity of ways, individual positions
and behaviours are evaluated and ranked”. Unless people are stratified on the basis
of qualification, and experience, it will be very difficult for a competent agency to find
suitable persons for manning jobs.
20.11. CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS
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What is class consciousness? The feeling of class consciousness is almost
universal in society. It is feeling and a sentiment which establish the relation of man
towards the members of their own and other classes. It consists in the realization of
a similarity of attitude and behaviour with members of their classes”- Ginsberg.
According to Mannheim, “class consciousness is the awareness of similarity of
similarity of the social changes, the arising of notion about similarity of interest, the
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growth of a emotional the connected with this similarity of experiences and of a

common striving towards a common social goal”. Class consciousness helps in the
transformation of the people into common group activity. It makes them understand
their common interest. Class consciousness is on the increase as more and more
classes are merging in society. There are certain conditions which are essential to
promote class consciousness. They are rivalry and conflict, common traditions,
experiences and values of life. Besides social mobility is most effective conditions for
class consciousness. It plays an important role in economic life.
20.12. THE CASTE SYSTEM
20.12.1. The concept of Caste
The caste system is a special type of social stratification found in India. Its
elements and well developed systems are found in various parts of the world-E.g.
Polynesia and Burma. It even exists among the most advanced societies of the world.
The world caste is derived from the Spanish “castra” meaning breed, strain or a
complex of hereditary qualities. It was first applied by the Portuguese to the
particular Indian Institution known by the name of “jati” there are many definition of
caste. The most appropriate is given by E.A.H. Blunt. He describes it as an
endogamous group, or collection of endogamous groups, bearing a common name,
membership of which is hereditary, imposing on its members certain a restriction in
the matter of social intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation or
claiming a common origin; and generally regarded as forming a single homogenous
community.
A case is merely a rigid social class into which members are born and from
which they can withdraw or escape only with extreme difficulty – Lundbrug.
When a class is some what hereditary, we may call its caste –[Link].
When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without
any hope of changing it, then class takes the extreme form of caste Maclver.
Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility, up and down the status
adder, atleast ideally may not occur-Green.
20.13. ELEMENTS OF CASTE SYSTEM
The following are the most important elements of the caste system.
20.13.1. Endogamy and Hereditary
A person born in a caste live in it for life; dies in it except in cases or mixed
marriage remains also in it. A special case of mixed marriage is the hypergamous
marriage in which the younger sons of Nambudri Brahmins of Malabar marry

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Kshatriya and Nayar women. Here children do not belong to the father’s caste.
Those and individual gives rigidity to the caste status. Every caste is divided into
sub-caste which are also endogamous groups. They are function as castes. The
principles of endogamy is so strict that is regarded as the essence of the system.
The most ordinary rule of exogamy is the “Sapinda” rule by which two persons re
forbidden to marry who have a common ancestor not more than six generation
removes from the father and four from the mother. The violation of the rule of
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exogamy or marrying outside the caste would mean ostracism and loss of caste –
Gisbert P.
20.13.2. Social and Religious Hierarchy
This feature of the caste system is most important from the point of view social
stratification. The caste structure of society is a hierarchy. It is a system of
subordination held together by the relations of superiority and inferiority at the top
of which are the brahmins. The PURUSHASUKTA says that society was divided into
four order is accordance with varna, which later on came to mean caste. Thus the
four varnas or castes are brahminthe kshariya, the vaisya and the sudra. The
Brahmins or teacher priests came from the mouth of the creator; the kshatriya
warrior-ruler, from his arms; the vaisyas or common people from his things; and the
sudras are servile class from his feet. This scheme is similar to that advocated by
plato for an ideal society. The supremacy of the Brahmins continued and
strengthened in spite of the challenge of its high position by the kshatriyas. Thus,
the social position of a given caste is determined by its relation to the Brahmins.
The highest caste is that from whom only a Brahmin will accept pakka food. The
next is that caste from whom the three twice born castes may accept pakka food.
The high caste people should not accept any food or drink from the outcaste. They
may not even be touched without contamination. Hence they have the name of
untouchables.
The Brahmins enjoy a number of social and religious privileges due to their
superiority due to their superiority and subordination of other castes. The low
castes. The low caste people have a number of social disabilities. According to the
code of Manu, the Brahmins are visible deithes, the lords or creation, the living
embodiment of the external laws and are entitled to anything in the world while the
other live on their charity” (quoted by Gisbert from Huttin J.K. caste in India).
The untouchables and even the unseables were only until some years ago
subject to the following difficulties; they could not use the Public road nor the public
wells they were forbidden to enter the Hindu temples, and to attend public schools.
The food of the low caste man, his sight or even shadow communicates impurity to
the high-caste man. He cannot be contracted without following a set of taboos.
These have habit up psychological barriers between caste and castes.
20.13.3. Hereditary Occupation
Caste members are expected to follow hereditary occupation, they cannot
change to other occupation. Members of a castetry to dubar the others from
following its occupation. No every profession, with few exceptions is opened to
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people of different castes, e.g. the brahmins are engaged in other occupations such
as lawers, cultivators and industrialist. Similarly the kshatriyas, vaisyas are now
engaged in different occupations.
20.13.4. Taboos
Another element of caste is its taboos by which the high castes try to maintain
their purity. Each caste develops its own culture. Thus there are restrictions on
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feeding and social intercourse. The food taboo prescribes the kinds of food that a
man way eat or apstain from. There are also taboos concerning eating, cooking
drinking and the use of vessels.
20.13.5. Authority
The authority of castes is vested in a board called the Panchayat which is
composed of five members. It compels obedience from its members. It is
traditionally concerned with all matters relating to the code and the discipline of the
caste, including religion. It acts as a court of law to give judgment and impose
penalty in such cases as adulterly, violation of marriage law, refusal to maintain a
wife, immorality and concubinage, breaches of caste taboos, the practice an
unauthorized occupation, the killing of a cow, insulting a Brahmin or any action
that brings discredit to case or threaten its solidarity and welfare. With the
introduction of law courts and the village panchayats the authority of the caste
panchayats has been considerably weakened. In spite of this, the modern caste still
maintains ways of controlling the behaviour of its members.
20.14. THE ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM
India is generally known as the classic land of castes and creeds. The caste
system is believed to be of immemorial antiquity. European writers knew about the
racial difference between high caste and low caste, and linked their findings to race.
According to Weale, the Aryan races devised the iron system of castes to prevent the
undue mixing of a dominant race with an inferior race. Brinton, W.J. Thomas,
Dudle Buxton, Risely and Gillin believed that caste in India originated in the racial
differentiation between people, Caste according to Max Weber, signifies the
enhancement and the transformation of social distance into a religious or more
strictly a magical principle. Tozzer thinks that in North India caste came to be based
on occupation with no contact allowed among the different castes. KROEBER
believes that religion, culture, occupation or race that sets off a group may have led
to emergence of a caste in India. Among Indian writers [Link], N.K. Dutt and
G.S. Ghurye have linked caste with the racial factor – Majumdar and Madan.
A number of other factors are also held responsible for the development of the
caste system. Some of those are mentioned hereunder.
1. Hereditary occupation
2. Lack of rigid unitary control over the state
3. Beliefs in reincarnation in the doctrine of Karma
4. Geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula
5. Foreign invasion
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20.15. MERITS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
20.15.1. Social Security
It provides security to the individual. He is assured of employment, shelter,
protection and marriage.
20.15.2. Communal Virtues
It has fostered the spirit of co-operation and fellow feeling among members.
They develop social virtues such as honesty and loyalty and faithfulness.
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20.15.3. Education
A caste provides free training and education to its members in the traditional
skills.
It is the caste system which has provided the way for assimilating outside
groups like the tribes for instance. Social solidarity has been maintained without
many conflicts due to the strict observance of caste forms and customs. In view of
good functions of caste scholars like Hutton have pleaded that caste is a good
institution and should be reformed, not rooted out.
20.16. DEMERITS
20.16.1. Mobility of Labour is prevented
The labour force cannot more form place to place since the individual should
follow the hereditary occupation. Thus labour as one of the important factors of
production cannot contribute to the economic progress of the country.
20.16.2. Untouchability
People are reduced to the state of slavery due to the practice of untouchability.
There are also other social evils such as child marriage, dowry and purda.
20.16.3. Obstacle to the Growth of National Consciousness
It has prevented the growth of solidarily and brotherhood in society by
separating one class (From another, it has led to the disintegration of the Hindu
society. It fosters only the caste loyalty, instead of national loyalty. Thus it has
provided to be an obstacle to the growth of national unity in the country.
20.17. RECENT TRENDS IN THE CASTE SYSTEM
The caste system has undergone remarkable changes modifications during the
last thirty three years the removal untouchability will always be associated with the
name of Mahama Gandhi. Untouchability, says the constitution of India, is
abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. But it still lingers and will
lingers for a time because of long past. In general, it is fast disappearing. The
temples have been thrown open to the hitherto untouchable classes, public halls,
recreational centres, schools, colleges and universities. They socially an
educationally backward classes are receiving special attention by the Government as
stated in the Constitution.
There are also immaterial factors which have brought changes in the caste
structure such as the following. The work of social reformers and the Indian leaders
the increase of education among the people; the growth of equalitarian ideas
awakening of the national spirit and the disintegration of the join family.
Among the external factors which have caused transformation of the caste
system we may mention that the spread of communications and the resulting

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increase of personal contacts. These help to change the attitudes of people which
separate caste from caste. Individuals understand one another better; therefore
their prejudices and suspicious are more likely to vanish. Industrialization has
caused a notable change in the social structure of modern India. Old hereditary
occupations are disappearing and new occupations are being created where in
people of different classes work without observing caste rules.
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The function of caste have been taken over by other bodies. The caste
panchayats are losing their hold over its members. The brahmin has been losing his
monopoly in religious ceremonies, as other castes have their own priests. Widows
can remarry, child marriages are forbidden, and the Purda system has been
disappearing. We cannot say that caste has been abolished due to above mentioned
factors. As long endogamy and caste solidarity persist, the institution of caste will
remain. We can eradicate the evils of caste system only through a slow process of
evolution, fostered by the progressive forces of modern India.
20.18. DISTINCTION BETWEEN CLASS AND CASTE
The following table will help us to understand the distinction between class &
caste.
CLASS CASTE
The membership, status, standard of Membership of caste is based on
life, etc, are based on objective facts birth.
There is open satisfaction in class, There is closed stratification in caste,
meaning that a person can change his meaning that a person cannot rise
class. above his caste.
The members of a class are conscious There is no need for any subjective
consciousness in members of caste.
Class system does not hinder democracy Caste system does hinder democracy
An individual bat comparatively greater In caste system there are
freedom in a class comparatively more strict
restrictions in marriage et6c.
There is comparatively less social A comparatively greater social
distance in classes distance is kept between the castes.
R.N. SHARMA
20.19. SLAVERY AND SERFDOM
L.T. Hobhouse gives the following distinction between the serf the slave, the
latter is a man whom law and custom regard as the property of another. In extreme
cases he is wholly without rights, a pure chattel in other cases he may be protected
it certain respect but so may an ox or an ass. If on the other hand, he has by his
position certain counter vailing rights, E.g., to inherit the property from which he
cannot be dislodfed, he becomes, though still liable to labour under his matter’s
directions, still subjects perhaps to punishments and still in an inferior legal
position no longer a slave, but a serf.
“Serfdom may be regarded as a sort of mitigated slavery” – Gisbert P. The
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institution of slavery is often the result of war in which the women and the children
of the defected become utterly dependent on their conquerors like so much property.
A permanent division between master and slave thus arises which divides the
society into two sections; the master the slave. “The institution of slavery grows in
many different ways especially in breeding within the slave class itself; by capture in
warfare and raids; and by other more variable events as penalty for crimes, or
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compension for indebtedness, purchase etc.” – Gisbert P.A. Slave is deprived of all
human rights even the right to live. According top Hobhouse this is the most
revoluting stage in the history of human development, the legal position of the slave
is worse than the serf. The two are form the point of view psychology the effect of
the desire dominate over one’s fellowmen and prosper at their expense. Slavery is
move concerned with man serfdom with his services, slavery and serfdom no longer
exist in a civilized world, because of much international bodies as Leagure of Nations
and the United Nations Organisations.
“Here a final question presents itself, it is possible to prevent social
stratification and thus have a classless society? The answer seems to be obvious. If
history teachers anything in this regard it is that social differences among the men
are a common feature of every society. As these differences, spread over large
numbers they give rise to various interests, the degrees of prestige social
stratification, becomes in one way or another unavoidable.
The highest goal to which we must aspire is to a class division in which men
will occupy the most prominent position not by privilege and imposition but by
personal merit. The equality which should exist in society is not of status but of
opportunity”. A law must be passed not in favour of a particular class but for the
sake of society – in every society there must be available an efficient machinery of
social selection through which the most capable individual may have easy access to
the upper strata. Social mobility and stratification can only be justified if in the final
resort society or the individuals stand to gain” – Gisbert P.
20.20. SUMMARY
Persons are given different social status in all human societies. Men are
essentially equal, but differ from one another in many non-essential qualities that
belong to the physical, moral or intellectual orders. The caste system is a special
type of social stratification found in India. Caste members are expected to follow
hereditary occupation, they cannot change to other occupation. Another element of
caste is its taboos by which the high castes try to maintain their purity.
20.21. KEY WORDS
Stratification
Truncated pyramid
Guild
Purushasukta
Adultery
Serfdom
Slavery
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20.22. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. Define stratification.
2. Explain the different causes for the changes in the social stratification.