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Lecture 1
Theory Of Automata
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Textbooks
Introduction to Computer Theory
by Daniel Cohen
Grading Scheme
Midterm 30%
Sessional 30%
Final 40%
Introduction – Automata
Theory
Automata theory is the study of abstract machines and
automata, as well as the computational problems that can be
solved using them
Abstract Machine: Is a theoretical model of a computer hardware
or software
Automata: It comes from the Greek word αὐτόματα meaning
"self-acting". So it refers to a self-operating machine.
Automata play a major role in theory of computation, compiler
design, artificial intelligence, parsing and formal verification.
Introduction – Automata
Theory
Automaton:
Its singular of automata.
An automaton is a mathematical object that takes a word as input
and decides either to accept it or reject it.
The set of words accepted by an automaton is called its
language.
Introduction – Formal
language theory
Automata theory is also closely related to formal language
theory.
Formal Language: In mathematics, computer science,
and linguistics, a formal language is
a set of strings of symbols that may be forced by rules that are
specific to it.
An automaton is a finite representation of a formal language
that may be an infinite set.
Introduction – Our focus
Many computation models exist.
Can’t cover them all.
Will concentrate on 3 groups of models:
1. Regular languages & Finite automata
2. Context-free languages & Push-down automata
3. Recursively-enumerable languages & Turing machines
A simple example computer
BATTERY
input: switch
output: light bulb
actions: flip switch
states: on, off
A simple “computer”
BATTERY start off on
input: switch
output: light bulb
actions: f for “flip switch”
states: on, off
A simple “computer”
BATTERY start off on
input: switch
output: light bulb bulb is on if and only if
there was an odd number
actions: f for “flip switch” of flips
states: on, off
Another “computer”
BATTERY
inputs: switches 1 and 2
actions: 1 for “flip switch 1”
actions: 2 for “flip switch 2”
states: on, off
Another “computer”
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1 start off off
1
2 2 2 2
BATTERY
1
2
off on
1
inputs: switches 1 and 2
actions: 1 for “flip switch 1”
actions: 2 for “flip switch 2”
states: on, off
Another “computer”
1
1 start off off
1
2 2 2 2
BATTERY
1
2
off on
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inputs: switches 1 and 2
actions: 1 for “flip switch 1” bulb is on if and only if
actions: 2 for “flip switch 2” both switches were flipped
an odd number of times
states: on, off
Introduction to languages
Kinds of languages:
Talking language
Programming language
Formal Languages
Alphabets
Definition:
A finite non-empty set of symbols (letters), is called an
alphabet. It is denoted by Σ ( Greek letter sigma).
Example:
Σ={a,b}
Σ={0,1} //important as this is the language
//which the computer understands.
Σ={i,j,k}
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NOTE:
A certain version of language ALGOL has 113 letters
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Strings
Definition:
Concatenation of finite symbols from the alphabet is called a
string.
Example:
If Σ= {a,b} then
a, abab, aaabb, ababababababababab
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NOTE:
EMPTY STRING or NULL STRING
Sometimes a string with no symbol at all is used, denoted by
(Small Greek letter Lambda) λ or (Capital Greek letter
Lambda) Λ, is called an empty string or null string.
The capital lambda will mostly be used to denote the empty
string, in further discussion.
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Words
Definition:
Words are strings belonging to some language.
Example:
If Σ= {x} then a language L can be defined as
L={xn : n=1,2,3,…..} or L={x,xx,xxx,….}
Here x,xx,… are the words of L
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NOTE:
All words are strings, but not all strings are words.
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Valid/In-valid alphabets
While defining an alphabet, an alphabet may contain letters
consisting of group of symbols for example Σ1= {B, aB, bab, d}.
Now consider an alphabet
Σ2= {B, Ba, bab, d} and a string BababB.
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This string can be tokenized in two different ways
(Ba), (bab), (B)
(B), (abab), (B)
Which shows that the second group cannot be identified as a
string, defined over
Σ = {a, b}.
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As when this string is scanned by the compiler (Lexical
Analyzer), first symbol B is identified as a letter belonging to Σ,
while for the second letter the lexical analyzer would not be
able to identify, so while defining an alphabet it should be kept
in mind that ambiguity should not be created.
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Remarks:
While defining an alphabet of letters consisting of more than
one symbols, no letter should be started with the letter of the
same alphabet i.e. one letter should not be the prefix of
another. However, a letter may be ended in the letter of same
alphabet i.e. one letter may be the suffix of another.
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Conclusion
Σ1= {B, aB, bab, d}
Σ2= {B, Ba, bab, d}
Σ1 is a valid alphabet while Σ2 is an in-valid alphabet.
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