NUCLEAR

TRANSMUTATIONS
 Natural transmutation (radioactivity)
Till now we have discussed only transmutations of one
nuclei to another by emmiting radioactive particle that
occur only naturally.

Induced (artificial) transmutation

This change of one element to another through the

bombardment of a nucleus is known as artificial
transmutation.
Induced transmutation doesn’t mean it can not happen naturally
– it means bombarment only
example: production of nitrogen from carbon in atmosphere or
artificially induced in the lab

14
7𝑁 + 10𝑛 → 14
6𝐶 + 11𝑝
● Alpha particle, neutrons, protons, and deuterons …. can
be used to produce artificial nuclear reactions.

● The key to understanding these reactions and making

predictions about the products of such reactions is being
able to balance nuclear equations.

● For the nuclear equation : A → C + D or A + B → C + D

▪ nucleon and proton numbers must balance
on each side of the equation.
▪ conservation of total energy (energy + mass)
must be satisfied

Energy released in nuclear reaction or decay is found the same

way as binding energy: first find mass difference
Δm = LHS – RHS in u
and then E = Δm x 931.5 (MeV)
Balancing Nuclear Equations

In a balanced nuclear equation, the sum of the mass

numbers and the sum of the atomic numbers for the
nuclei of the reactant and the products must be
equal.
MASS NUMBERS
Total = 251 = 251
251Cf 247Cm + 4He
98 96 2

Total = 98 = 98
ATOMIC NUMBERS

4
Guide to Balancing a Nuclear Equation

5
Learning Check

What radioactive isotope is produced when a

neutron bombards 59Co?
59Co + 1n ? + 4He
27 0 2

6
Solution

mass numbers
60 = 60
59Co + 1n 56Mn + 4H e
27 0 25 2

27 = 27
atomic numbers

7
Artificial Transmutation

a. Induced Radioactivity
1. Bombarding a normally stable nucleus
with high-energy particles can lead to
transmutation of one element into
another.
b. Transuranic Elements
1. Elements heavier than uranium (Z=92),
the transuranic elements, do not occur
in nature but can be made through
artificial transmutation.

8
Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie

Were the 1st to produce a radioactive nuclide through artificial transmutation

Credit: Corbis 9
Transuranic elements in the periodic table

Elements higher than Uranium 92

are transuranic elements

10
General Nuclear Equations

11
25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Nuclear Stability and Decay

A positron is a particle with the mass of an

electron but a positive charge.
• Its symbol is 0
e.
+1

• During positron emission, a proton changes to

a neutron, just as in electron capture.
8 8 0
5 B 4 Be + +1 e
15 15 0
8 O 7 N + +1 e
– When a proton is converted to a neutron, the
atomic number decreases by 1 and the number of
neutrons increases by 1.
12 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
 Beta Radiation
0 b Beta particles – fast moving electrons
-1
Originate from decay of neutron
Beta emission changes element
Lowers n/p
In example below, start with carbon, end up
with nitrogen

n/p: 8/6=1.43 7/7 =1.00

 Electron Capture
Like positron emission, also reduces
number of protons (increase n/p)
Nucleus draws in surrounding electron
(usually from lowest energy level)
Electron combines with proton to form
neutron with X-ray emission
1 p + 0 e → 1 n + X-ray
1 -1 0
81 Rb
37 + 0-1e → 8136Kr + X-ray
 Particle Changes
Beta Emission: neutron → proton
1
0 n→ p+ b
1
1
0
−1

Positron Emission: proton → neutron

1 p → 0 n + +1b
1 1 0

Electron Capture: proton → neutron

1 p + -1e → 0 n
1 0 1
 Transmutation
• Transmutation is the process of atoms of unstable
nuclide A changing into atoms of nuclide B.
– This can occur naturally (by radioactive decay) or...
– ...as a result of bombardment reactions
• Example: Bombardment of nitrogen-14 with alpha particles...
oxygen-17 was formed.
 Bombardment Reactions
• The production of synthetic elements (transuranium
elements) and non-natural nuclides of other elements
are the result of bombardment reactions.
Example:
208Bi + 4He --> 210At + ?

14N + 4He --> 17O + ?

10.3 Artificial Transmutation

This painting of an alchemist’s

laboratory was made around
1570. For centuries, these
early scientists, known as
alchemists, tried to use
chemical reactions to make
gold. The alchemists failed in
their attempts to turn lead into
gold.
10.3 Artificial Transmutation

Nuclear Reactions in the Laboratory

How do artificial transmutations occur?

Transmutation is the conversion of atoms of
one element to atoms of another.
Scientists can perform artificial
transmutations by bombarding atomic nuclei
with high-energy particles such as protons,
neutrons, or alpha particles.
10.3 Artificial Transmutation

Nuclear Reactions in the Laboratory

Transmutation involves a nuclear change, not a
chemical change.
• Nuclear decay is an example of a transmutation that
occurs naturally.
• Transmutations can also be artificial.
10.3 Artificial Transmutation

Nuclear Reactions in the Laboratory

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford performed the first
artificial transmutation by exposing nitrogen gas
to alpha particles.
• Some of the alpha particles were absorbed by the
nitrogen nuclei.
• Each newly formed nucleus then ejected a proton,
leaving behind the isotope oxygen-17.
10.3 Artificial Transmutation

Transuranium Elements

How are transuranium elements produced?

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92
(uranium) are called transuranium elements.
Scientists can synthesize a transuranium
element by the artificial transmutation of a
lighter element.
10.3 Artificial Transmutation

Nuclear Reactions in the Laboratory

All transuranium elements are radioactive, and
they are generally not found in nature.
Neptunium was the first transuranium element
synthesized. In 1940, scientists at the University
of California, Berkeley, bombarded uranium-238
with neutrons, producing uranium-239.
The uranium-239 underwent beta decay to form
neptunium-239.
Nuclear Bombardment Reactions
• Nuclear bombardment reactions are often referred to by an
abbreviated notation.

For example, the reaction

14
7𝑁 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 17
8𝑂 + 11𝐻
is abbreviated
14 17
7 𝑁(𝛼, 𝑝) 8𝑂

Copyright © by Dunder Mifflin Company. All

rights reserved.
Transmutation by α-particles
• α particles possess a charge of 2 units and a mass of 4 units. Thus,
they possess a potential energy barrier that is quite high for
interaction with other nuclei.
• A. (𝜶, 𝒑) reaction B. (𝜶, 𝒏) reaction
1. 147𝑁 𝛼, 𝑝 178𝑂 1. 49𝐵𝑒 𝛼, 𝑛 126𝐶
27 30
2. 27
𝐴𝑙(𝛼, 𝑝) 30 2. 𝐴𝑙(𝛼, 𝑛) 15𝑃
14𝑆𝑖
13
13
Transmutation by protons
• Proton possess a charge of 1 unit and a mass of 1 unit. Thus, they
possess a potential energy barrier that is comparatively less than that
of 𝜶 –particles.
• The projection of a proton can be done with the help of an
accelerator, cyclotron or synchrocyclotron.
• A. (𝒑, 𝒏) reaction B. (𝒑, 𝜶) reaction
7 4
1. 23
11 𝑁𝑎 𝑝, 𝑛 23
12 𝑀𝑔 1. 3 𝐿𝑖 𝑝, 𝛼 2𝐻𝑒

14 11
63 63 2. 7𝑁 𝑝, 𝛼 6𝐶
2. 29𝐶𝑢 𝑝, 𝑛 30𝑍𝑛
Transmutation by protons
• Proton possess a charge of 1 unit and a mass of 1 unit. Thus, they
possess a potential energy barrier that is comparatively less than that
of 𝜶 –particles.
• The projection of a proton can be done with the help of an
accelerator, cyclotron or synchrocyclotron.
• C. (𝒑, γ) reaction D. (𝒑, 𝒅) reaction
1. 126𝐶 𝑝, γ 137𝑁 1. 49𝐵𝑒 𝑝, 𝑑 84𝐵𝑒

27 28
2. 13𝐴𝑙 𝑝, γ 14𝑆𝑖
Transmutation by deuterons
• Deuteron possess a charge of 1 unit and a mass of 2 units.

• A. (𝒅, 𝒑) reaction B. (𝒅, 𝒏) reaction

1. 21𝐷 𝑑, 𝑝 31𝑇 1. 21𝐷 𝑑, 𝑛 32𝐻𝑒
3
2. 114 115 2. 1𝑇 𝑑, 𝑛 42𝐻𝑒
48𝐶𝑑 𝑑, 𝑝 48𝐶𝑑
Transmutation by deuterons
• Deuteron possess a charge of 1 unit and a mass of 2 units.

• C. (𝒅, 𝜶) reaction
1. 63𝐿𝑖 𝑑, 𝛼 42𝐻𝑒

12 10
2. 6𝐶 𝑑, 𝛼 5𝐵
Transmutation by neutrons
• Neutron possess a charge of 0 unit and a mass of 1 unit. As they are
not charged, they do not possess a potential energy barrier and
hence many reactions are possible using neutrons as projectiles.

• A. (𝒏, 𝜶) reaction B. (𝒏, 𝒑) reaction

1. 105𝐵 𝑛, 𝛼 73𝐿𝑖 1. 147𝑁 𝑛, 𝑝 146𝐶
24 24
2. 12𝑀𝑔 𝑛, 𝑝 11𝑁𝑎
Transmutation by neutrons
• Neutron possess a charge of 0 unit and a mass of 1 unit. As they are
not charged, they do not possess a potential energy barrier and
hence many reactions are possible using neutrons as projectiles.

• C. (𝒏, 𝟐𝒏) reaction D. (𝒏, 𝜸) reaction

26
1. 27
13 𝐴𝑙 𝑛, 2𝑛 13𝐴𝑙 1. 23
11 𝑁𝑎 𝑛, 𝛾 24
11𝑁𝑎

115 116
2. 49𝐼𝑛 𝑛, 𝛾 49𝐼𝑛
Transmutation by γ − rays
• A. (𝜸, 𝒏) reaction
1. 21𝐷 𝛾, 𝑛 11𝐻

• B. (𝜸, 𝒑) reaction
1. 49𝐵𝑒 𝛾, 𝑝 83𝐿𝑖

• C. (𝜸, 𝜶) reaction
1. 126𝐶 𝛾, 𝛼 84𝐵𝑒
Distinguish