MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE LIBERIA

SAPEC / MOA / AfDB / IITA

Training Manual for the

Production of Cassava Products
in Liberia

Wasiu Awoyale
(Smallholder Agricultural Productivity Enhancement & Commercialization
Project Cassava Value Chain Specialist)
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
 Training Manual for the
Production of Cassava Products
in Liberia

Wasiu Awoyale

(Smallholder Agricultural Productivity Enhancement &

Commercialization Project Cassava Value Chain Specialist)
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)

i
ISBN 978-978-8444-93-0

Correct citation: Wasiu Awoyale. 2018. Training Manual for the

Production of Cassava Products in Liberia. International Institute
of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.44pp.

Printed in Nigeria by IITA

Cover photos: a cassava demonstration plot, dry hammer mill,
gari roaster and yellow-fleshed cassava roots at IITA. Photos by
IITA.

ii
Contents
1. Introduction------------------------------------------------------------- 1

2. Production of High Quality Cassava Flour---------------------- 3

Background information----------------------------------------- 3
Training objective------------------------------------------------- 4
Training needs----------------------------------------------------- 4
 Materials---------------------------------------------------------- 4
 Equipment-------------------------------------------------------- 4
Unit operation recommended for HQCF production------ 5

3. Production of Starch------------------------------------------------- 13
Background information----------------------------------------- 13
Training objective------------------------------------------------- 13
Training needs----------------------------------------------------- 14
 Materials---------------------------------------------------------- 14
 Equipment ------------------------------------------------------- 14
Unit operations recommended for Starch production------- 15

4. Production of Gari---------------------------------------------------- 22
Background information----------------------------------------- 22
Training objective------------------------------------------------- 22
Training needs----------------------------------------------------- 22
 Materials---------------------------------------------------------- 22
 Equipment------------------------------------------------------- 23
Unit operations recommended for Gari production----- 23

5. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPS) for the Cassava

Processing Factory-------------------------------------------------- 30
Cleaning------------------------------------------------------------- 30
Machine maintenance-------------------------------------------- 31
Water treatment--------------------------------------------------- 32
Quality control of products-------------------------------------- 33

6. Product development----------------------------------------------- 35
References------------------------------------------------------------- 36

iii
iv
Introduction 1
Cassava is the second staple food crop most consumed
in Liberia after rice. It can grow and do well in almost all
counties in the country and is produced by over 60% of
farming households. Apart from providing food for the teeming
population, cassava is an important contributor to the gross
domestic product (GDP). There is a need to strengthen
and increase the domestic production systems to achieve
food security, improve the standard of living of subsistence
farmers, and contribute to the country’s GDP.

Cassava is a perishable commodity with a shelf life of less

than threedays after harvest. Processing provides a means
of producing shelf stable products;thereby reducing losses,
adding value at a local rural level, and reducing the bulk to be
marketed (Phillips et al. 2004). As urban population expands,
the demand for more convenience and shelf-stable foods
increases. Some cassava foods, such as gari, tapioca, and
attieke, are highly prized by urban populations, and these
have managed to retain their markets. Imported food products
are important urban foods but there is still a high demand
for traditional foods, although they are often considered less
acceptable because of quality and safety concerns (Sanni et
al. 2007).

In Africa, cassava is currently utilized for two main purposes:

human food and industrial use. Estimates for the percentage
of cassava used for industrial utilization range from 5 to 16%
while the remaining isdirectly used for human consumption.
Most of cassava’s industrial utilization is for animal feed.
About 10% of its industrial demand consists of high quality

1
cassava flour used in biscuits and other confectioneries,
dextrin, pre-gelled starch for adhesives, and starch for
pharmaceuticals and [Link] to adequately
develop postharvest and marketing systems for cassava has,
for many years, limited the contribution of the crop in economic
growth and poverty reduction.

In spite of the extensive research activities on cassava,

there seems to be wide variation with no control in the
processing of cassava within and among the countries of the
sub-region. There is therefore the need to have a document
containing standardized procedures in cassava processing
operationstoempower processors and other stakeholders
for product quality and a competitive market. Therefore, this
training manual focus on the production of HQCF, starch, gari,
and fufu powder, as well as the standard operating procedures
(SOPs) in the cassava processing factory, and also serves
as part of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
(IITA) contribution to the development of the cassava sector
in Liberia, through its collaboration with the Liberia Ministry
of Agriculture in the implementation of the Smallholder
Agricultural Productivity Enhancement & Commercialization
(SAPEC) Project.

2
Production of High
Quality Cassava Flour 2
Background information

High quality cassava flour (HQCF) is unfermented, smooth,

odorless, white or creamy and fine flour produced from
wholesome freshly harvested cassava (10–12 months after
planting) roots. As a result of increase in the price of wheat
in the international market and unfavorable exchange rates
in West Africa, HQCF was introduced and is now gradually
gaining popularity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).HQCF has
contributed appreciably to cassava industrial revolution
especially in Nigeria and Ghana (Sanni et al. 2009), with
enormous potentials in the other countries within the sub-
region. The product has been found to be suitable for making
a variety of pastries, whole or in the composite form (cakes,
cookies, doughnuts, and bread), and convenience foods.
It is also an acceptable raw material for the manufacture
of industrial items such as textiles, plywood, and paper
(Dziedzoave et al. 2006). The processing of cassava roots
into HQCF as a primary industrial raw material has the
potential to jump-start rural industrialization, increase market
value of cassava root,and improve famers’ earnings and their
livelihoods.

Governments of some cassava-growing nations are making

efforts to promote competitive production and processing of
cassava into industrial raw materials for import substitution
and foreign exchange earnings. To achieve this, policies and
laws are being put in place to promote market diversification
and expanded utilization of HQCF, and the Republic of Liberia
should not be left out.

3
Training objective

The objective of this training is to empower trainees to

produce HQCF for domestic and commercial use.

Training needs

Materials
a. Fresh cassava roots (10–12 months).
b. Basins for washing and packing washed roots.
c. Clean washing water.
d. Clean stainless steel knives for peeling.
e. Packaging materials for finished product.
f. Clean cloth or used sacks for washing.
g. Clean polyethylene sacks for dewatering.
h. Black polyethylene sheet for sun-drying.

Equipment
i. Slicer/Chipper.
j. Cassava grater.
k. Cassava press.
l. Dryer (flash, cabinet, or rotary).
m. Milling machine/hammer mill.
n. Sealing and stitching machines.
o. Weighing scale.
p. Mechanical sifter.
q. Elevated platform for solar drying.

4
Unit operation recommended for HQCF
production

Harvesting fresh cassava

• Where sun or solar drying is used, avoid harvesting or
processing of cassava to HQCF at periods when it is
likely to rain or the atmosphere is extremely humid. If
mechanical dryers such as flash, cabinet, or rotary dryers
are use, HQCF can be processed anytime.
• Ensure the variety to be harvested is good for HQCF
production. Select well matured (9–12 months) cassava
roots by testing for maturity or through information from
the source, seller, or planting records. Avoid over-aged
and diseased roots as they could be woody or rotten
inside. Woody or rotten roots (e.g., brown streaked roots)
have low starch and/or dry matter contents and adversely
affect quality (microbial, functional, and aesthetic) and
yield of HQCF.
• Harvest by uprooting roots in a manner that minimizes
bruises or breakages to prevent rapid deterioration (loss
of starch through microbial and enzymatic activities, and
discoloration through vascular streaking) of the roots,
which could affect quality of HQCF.
• Transport harvested cassava quickly to the processing
site and processed (within 24 h after harvest) to avoid
deterioration. If processing is likely to be delayed by a few
hours (a condition that should be avoided), leave short
stalks on the roots during harvest and keep unpeeled
roots under cool shade or covered. Do not leave roots in
the sun.

5
Peeling
• Remove woody stalks on the roots. Use wide and broad-
bladed stainless-steel knives for peeling. There are
variations in the method of manual peeling (longitudinally
and transversely) depending on the variety, root size,
season of the year, and traditional practice. Mechanical
peelers could also be used. Whatever method is used
for peeling, there should be no peel fragment after the
peeling process.
• Transfer peeled cassava roots into stainless steel
washing tank, drums, or pans and immerse peeled roots
under water for immediate washing. Do not expose
peeled roots to the air as this may cause discoloration
after prolonged exposure neither should you leave the
peeled roots in water for too long as this may result in
fermentation.

Washing
• Use potable water from a credible source or treat water
from a questionable source before use. Wash roots
thoroughly by hand rubbing the roots in water or by
vigorous agitation and stirring. Rewash peeled roots in
successions of clean water until complete absence of dirt,
sand, sticky mud, fecal matter, or offensive odor.
• Inspect washed roots for any rotten or colored portion and
remove.
• Drain off all waste wash water from cassava roots after
washing before further processing.

Chipping
• Chip/slice the cassava root with either a stainless-steel
knife or chipping machine. The chipping/slicing should be
done thinly to reduce the drying time.

6
• Chipping/slicing is done when either sun drying or a
cabinet dryer will be used for the drying process.
• Disperse sun-dried chipped/sliced cassava roots properly
in order to reduce deterioration and hasten the drying
process.
• Package the dried chips properly and place on a wooden
platform to reduce moisture uptake before milling into
HQCF.
• Ensure that the moisture content of the dried chips for
storage is not higher than 12%

Grating
• Grate cassava immediately after washing using a clean,
mechanized stainless steel cassava grater Avoid manual
grating with an improvised local grater.
• Place clean containers at the outlet chute of the grater to
receive and hold grated cassava mash during grating.
• Start the grater, allow it to achieve operating speed before
pouring clean cassava roots into the hopper and operate
the grater to grate the cassava roots into mash. Do not
put the cassava root into the grater before it is switched
on or immediately it is switched on.
• Wash cassava grater thoroughly with clean water before
and after grating.

Dewatering by mechanical press

• The grated cassava mash should be packed into
clean polyethylene/polypropylene tiny woven sacks for
dewatering. Sacks of cassava mash should never be
placed on bare floor or on any dirty surface. They should
be placed on specially prepared wooden platforms off the

7
 ground or in tiled troughs provided with a drain. Workers
should first wash their hands or wear gloves before
packing the cassava mash into sacks for dewatering.
• Dewatering should be done using a mechanical press
and not wood or stones. Many designs of mechanical
dewatering machines are available: single or double
screw presses, sometimes combined with hydraulic
system, are mostly used for de-watering cassava at the
small-scale level.
• Turn the screw of the cassava press anti-clockwise with
the aid of the horizontal press bar to raise the press plate
to a suitable height. Place the bagged cassava mash
(30–40 kg) flat on the cassava press platform. Fold the
mouth of the bag on top or under and or simply tie the
bag. Two to five bags of cassava mash may be loaded
at once depending on the capacity of the press (i.e.,
height, maximum pressure of the hydraulic system) and
the physical strength of the operator in case of the screw/
combined screw-hydraulic press. Wooden racks may be
placed in between sacks to improve dewatering efficiency.
• Apply pressure by clockwise screwing of the plate onto
the bags until the maximum pressure level is attained and
the bags are hard. Load pressure reduces as liquor drains
out of the bags and the bags become softer when tested
with finger.
• Repeat the clockwise turning of the screw press bar lever
or operate the hydraulic press regularly to maintain load
pressure until the mash is well dewatered. That is when
water stops coming out of the bags.
• Remove dewatered cassava press cake (check by finger-
feel for the hardness of press cake as an indication of a
well dewatered press cake before removal). The moisture

8
 content of well dewatered cassava cake ranges between
40 and 45%; often attained after 40 minutes depending on
the press capacity.
• Empty cassava cake into clean pans or bowls for
granulation.

Cake breaking/granulation
• Pressed-cake should be granulated using a granulating
machine (cassava grater might be used). This improves
the uniformity of drying.
• Use clean containers to hold the granulated mash. The
granulated mash should be dried immediately and not
kept for a long time to reduce contamination.

Drying
• The Flash dryer is very important for drying. Many
designs of flash dryers are commercially available
internationally, in Brazil, Ghana, Nigeria, among other
countries. Flash dryers dry at an operating temperature
of 100–250 oC or more. At such high temperatures, the
hot-air-product contact time to achieve complete drying
without destroying the functionality of the granules could
be as short as seven seconds. The drying capacity of a
flash dryer depends on many factors but could be as high
as 10 t/hour.
• Pack dry grits after cooling into clean containers or sacks
for milling into flour.

Milling/Sifting
• Pour dried cassava grits into the hopper of the mill.
• Place a receptacle at the outlet of the machine to receive
the milled flour.

9
• Start the motor/engine and manually feed the milling
chamber with product from the hopper. Stop the machine
after milling.
• You can use a hammer mill with a sieve of appropriate
aperture size to produce HQCF of the required particle
size (250–500 μ). Sifting of flour will be necessary if a
plate or attrition mill is used.
• Sift the flour with a sifter. Avoid overloading the sifter.
• Receive the sifted flour with a clean container and stop
the machine when sifting is complete.

Packaging/labeling
• Pack HQCF in suitable, clean, insect-free, light and
moisture proof packaging materials that safeguard the
hygienic, nutritional, physical, and organoleptic qualities
of the product. The packaging material should not impart
any toxic substance or undesirable odor or flavor to the
product.
• Pack HQCF in polypropylene sacks (25–50 kg) lined with
thin polyethylene bags for bulk sales, or in smaller bags
(paper, polythene) as unit packages for the retail market.
Arrange the unit packages (small bags) into secondary
packages of cardboard boxes before retail.
• Label each packaging material by providing the following
information:

— The common name and/or brand name.

— Name of the manufacturer or packer.

— Batch or code number.

10
— Net mass in metric units.

— Date of manufacture.

— Country of origin.

— Expiry date.

— Regulatory body registration number.

— List of raw materials used.

— Nutritional composition of product.

— Inscribe the following on the package: ‘Store in cool dry

place’.

Storage/marketing
• Use clean vehicles to transport packaged HQCF for
distribution or storage.
• Store HQCF in bulk on pallets in well-ventilated storage
warehouses, free from pest.
• Keep packaged products intended for retail on shelves
during storage.

11
Harvesting cassava roots

Sorting/Weighing/Peeling

Washing

Grating

Dewatering/Press
Slicing/Chipping

Cake breaking/Granulation

Drying

Milling/Sieving/Cooling

HQCF

Figure 1. Flow chart of HQCF production.

12
Production of Starch 3
Background information

Starch is fine flour produced from wholesome freshly

harvested cassava root. Starch is one of the most abundant
substances in nature, a renewable and almost unlimited
resource. Starch is produced from grain or root crops. It is
mainly used as food, but is also readily converted chemically,
physically, and biologically into many useful products.
Starch processed from cassava root (cassava starch) is an
important domestic and industrial raw material used in the
manufacture of various products including food, adhesive,
thickening agents, paper, and pharmaceuticals. It has many
remarkable characteristics including high paste viscosity,
high paste clarity, and high freeze-thaw stability, which are
advantageous to many industries. These characteristics of
cassava starch have made it progress from domestic uses
to highly specialized industrial uses. Recent dwindling in oil
revenue and difficulties in getting foreign exchange for corn
starch has made users of corn starch to look to cassava
starch as a substitute. However, the quality of the starch must
be acceptable for the end-users. The taste and odor of starch
should be characteristic of the product. It should be white or
cream in color, odorless, bland or sweet in taste, and free
from adulterants, insect infestation, sand, peel fragments,
dust, and any other impurities.

Training objective

The objective of this training is to empower trainees to

produce both food grade and non-food grade starch for
domestic and commercial use.

13
Training needs

Materials
• Fresh cassava roots (10–12 months).
• Basins for washing and packing washed roots.
• Clean washing water.
• Clean stainless-steel knives for peeling.
• Packaging materials for finished product.
• Clean cloth or used sacks for washing.
• Clean polyethylene sacks for dewatering.
• Black polyethylene sheet for sun-drying.

Equipment
• Cassava grater.
• Cassava press.
• Dryer (Flash, cabinet, or rotary).
• Milling machine/hammer mill.
• Sealing and stitching machines.
• Weighing scale.
• Mechanical sifter.
• Elevated platform for solar drying.

14
Unit operations recommended for Starch
production

Harvesting fresh cassava

• Where sun or solar drying is used, avoid harvesting or
processing of cassava to starch at periods when it is likely
to rain or the atmosphere is extremely humid. Starch can
be processed at any time using mechanical dryers.
• Ensure the variety to be harvested is good for starch
production. Select well matured (9–12 months) cassava
roots by testing for maturity or through information from
the source, seller, or planting records. Avoid over-aged
and diseased roots as they could be woody or rotten
inside. Woody or rotten roots (e.g., brown streaked roots)
have low starch and/or dry matter content which adversely
affect quality (microbial, functional, and aesthetic) and
yield of starch.
• Harvest the roots by uprooting them in a manner that
minimizes bruises or breakages in order to prevent
rapid deterioration (loss of starch through microbial and
enzymatic activities, and discoloration through vascular
streaking) of the roots, which could affect the quality of
the starch.
• The harvested cassava root should be transported quickly
to the processing site and processed (within 24 h after
harvest) to avoid deterioration. If processing is likely to
be delayed by a few hours (a condition that should be
avoided), leave short stalks on the roots during harvest
and keep unpeeled roots under a cool shade or covered.
Do not leave the roots in the sun.

15
Peeling
• Remove the woody stalks on the roots. Use wide and
broad-bladed stainless-steel knives/peelers for peeling.
There are variations in the method of manual peeling
(longitudinally and transversely) depending on the variety,
root size, season of the year, and traditional practice.
Mechanical peelers could also be used. Whatever method
is used, there should be no peel fragments after the
peeling process.
• Transfer the peeled cassava roots into the washing tank,
drums, or pans and immerse the peeled roots under water
for immediate washing. Do not expose the peeled roots
to the air as this may cause discoloration after prolonged
exposure, which could affect product quality.

Washing
• Use potable water from a credible source or treat water
from a questionable source before use. Wash the roots
thoroughly by hand rubbing the roots in the washing
water or by vigorous agitation and stirring. Rewash the
peeled roots in successions of clean water until there is a
complete absence of dirt, sand, sticky mud, fecal matter,
or offensive odor.
• Inspect the washed roots for any rotten or colored portion
and remove before grating.
• Drain off all waste wash water from the cassava roots
after washing.

Grating
• Grate the cassava root immediately after washing using a
clean mechanized stainless-steel cassava grater.
• Place clean containers at the outlet chute of the grater to
receive and hold the grated cassava mash/pulp during
and after grating.
16
• Start the petrol/diesel engine or electric motor of the
grater, allow it to achieve operating speed before pouring
clean cassava roots into the hopper and operate the
grater to grate the cassava roots into a mash.
• Wash the cassava grater thoroughly with clean water after
and before grating.

Homogenization
• This process involves the mixing of water with grated
cassava mash in an agitated container/drum. Water is
run continuously into the homogenizer while the mixed
content is pumped into the extractor.
• The extractor could be a screen separator or a sieving
machine.
• In the absence of a homogenizer, the grated cassava
mash could be mixed properly with clean water using the
hands before wet sieving or starch extraction.

Extraction
• This is the process of separating the starch granules from
fibrous and other extraneous materials. The separation of
starch is achieved using a vibro-sieve, screen separator,
or muslin cloth.
• In separating starch granules from cellulose fiber, the
mash is mixed with an appreciable amount of water
during screening.
• For total separation this mixing is on a continuous basis
until the end of the extraction process.

Sedimentation
• The term sedimentation as used here includes the series
of operations for separating the pure starch from the
water mixture after extraction.

17
• The quantity of starch produced depends to a great extent
on proper performance of this operation. This operation
can be done in tanks or a settling floor table. A settling
table is a shallow concrete channel of about 30 cm deep
of various lengths and widths depending on factory
capacity.
• The table is slightly inclined (1 cm/m) for free flow along
the table. The inner part of the table is covered with tiles.
Holes with stoppers are fitted into the walls of the table.
• During the sedimentation process, the table filled with
starch milk is allowed to settle overnight (about 20 h
for complete settling) after which the water and other
contaminants are discarded. The settling must not be
allowed to overstay (to prevent fermentation).

Dewatering
• Many designs of mechanical dewatering machines are
available. They include single or double screw presses,
sometimes combined with a hydraulic system, and are
mostly used for dewatering cassava at the small-scale
level.
• Turn the screw of the cassava press anti-clockwise with
the aid of the horizontal press bar to raise the press plate
to a suitable height. Place the polypropylene bag of wet
starch (30–40 kg) flat on the cassava press platform.
Fold the mouth of the bag on top or under or simply tie
the bag. Two to five bags of wet starch may be loaded
at once depending on the capacity of the press (i.e.,
height, maximum pressure of the hydraulic system) and
the physical strength of the operator in case of the screw/
combined screw-hydraulic press. Wooden racks may be
placed in between bags to improve dewatering efficiency.

18
• Apply pressure by clockwise screwing of the plate onto
the bags until the maximum pressure level is attained and
the bags are hard. Load pressure reduces as liquor drains
out of the bags and the bags become softer when tested
with a finger.
• Repeat the clockwise turning of the lever of the screw
press bar or operate the hydraulic press regularly
to maintain the load pressure until wet starch is well
dewatered.
• Remove the dewatered starch cake (check by finger-feel
for the hardness of press cake as an indication of a well
dewatered cake before removal). The moisture content of
well dewatered starch cake ranges between 35 and 40%;
often attained after 10–40 minutes.
• Empty the cake into clean pans or bowls for granulation.

19
 Cassava Roots

Sorting/Weighing/Peeling

Washing

Grating

Homogenization

Starch Extraction

Sedimentation

Dewatering/Press

Drying

Starch

Figure 2. Flow chart for production of starch

20
Cake breaking/granulation
• The cake should be granulated using a mechanical grater
or granulator. This improves drying uniformity.
• Use clean containers to hold the granulated semi dried
starch before proper drying.

Drying
• Flash, cabinet, or rotary dryers are used for drying starch.
Many designs of flash dryers are commercially available
internationally, in Brazil, Ghana, Nigeria, for example. Flash
dryers dry at an operating temperature of 100–250 oC. At
such high temperatures, the hot-air-product contact time to
achieve complete drying without destroying the functionality
of the granules could be as short as seven seconds. The
drying capacity of flash dryers depends on many factors but
could be as high as10 t/hour.
• Package dry starch after cooling into clean containers or
sacks.
• Packaging/labeling and storage/marketing of starch are
similar to that of HQCF.

Note: The production of fufu powder is similar to that of starch

except that submerged fermentation of the cassava root is done
after peeling without grating.

21
Production of Gari 4
Background information

Gari is a partially gelatinized or toasted cassava product with

a slightly fermented flavor and sour taste. In West Africa, it is
the most consumed and traded of all food products made from
cassava roots. It is consumed either soaked in cold water or
stirred in boiling water to make a stiff paste known as “eba”
and consumed with preferred soup. Gari can be yellow (if
produced from yellow-fleshed cassava root or fortified with red
palm oil) or white. The wide consumption of gari is attributed
to its relatively long shelf life and its easy preparation as a
meal. However, there are variations in the gari produced
within the subregion in terms of physical, chemical, and
sensory qualities.

Training objective

The objective of this training is to empower trainees

to produce high quality and safe gari for domestic and
commercial use

Training needs

Materials
• Fresh cassava roots (10–12months).
• Basins for washing and packing washed roots.
• Clean washing water.
• Clean stainless-steel knives for peeling.
• Packaging materials for finished product.

22
• Clean cloth or used sacks for washing.
• Clean polyethylene sacks for dewatering.
• Sieve/sifter.
• Fuel for toasting/roasting/garifying; (fire wood, charcoal,
or cooking gas).
• Packaging materials for finished product.

Equipment
• Cassava grater.
• Cassava press.
• Cassava grater.
• Gari toaster/roaster/garifier.
• Mechanical sifter (for medium to large-scale processing).
• Fermenting trough.
• Sealing and stitching machines.
• Weighing scale.

Unit operations recommended for Gari

production

Harvesting fresh cassava

• Where the sun or solar drying is used, avoid harvesting or
processing of cassava to starch at periods when it is likely
to rain or the atmosphere is extremely humid. Starch can
be processed at any time if mechanical dryers are used.
• Ensure that the variety to be harvested is good for starch
production. Select well matured (9–12 months) cassava
roots by testing for maturity or through information from
the source, seller, or planting records. Avoid over-aged
and diseased roots as they could be woody or rotten

23
 inside. Woody or rotten roots (e.g., brown streaked roots)
have low starch and/or dry matter content and adversely
affect the quality (microbial, functional, and aesthetic) and
yield of starch.
• Harvest the roots by uprooting in a manner that minimizes
bruises or breakages to prevent rapid deterioration (loss
of starch through microbial and enzymatic activities, and
discoloration through vascular streaking) of the roots,
which could affect the quality of the starch.
• Harvested cassava root should be transported quickly
to the processing site and processed (within 24 h after
harvest) to avoid deterioration. If processing is likely to
be delayed by a few hours (a condition that should be
avoided), leave short stalks on the roots during harvesting
and keep unpeeled roots under the cool shade or
covered. Do not leave roots in the sun.

Peeling
• Remove woody stalks on the roots. Use wide and broad-
bladed stainless steel knife/peeler for peeling. The
method of manual peeling can vary (longitudinally and
transversely) depending on the variety, root size, season
of the year, and traditional practice. Mechanical peelers
can also be used. Whatever method is used, there should
be no peel fragments after the peeling process.
• Transfer the peeled cassava roots into a washing tank,
drums, or pans and immerse peeled roots under water for
immediate washing. Do not expose peeled roots to the air
as this may cause discoloration after prolonged exposure,
which could affect product quality.

24
Washing
• Use potable water from a credible source or treat water
from a questionable source before use. Wash roots
thoroughly by hand rubbing the roots in washing water or
by vigorous agitation and stirring. Rewash peeled roots
in successions of clean water until there is a complete
absence of dirt, sand, sticky mud, fecal matter, or
offensive odor.
• Inspect washed roots for any rotten or colored portion and
remove such before grating.
• Drain off all waste wash water from cassava roots after
washing.

Grating
• Grate cassava root immediately after washing using a
clean mechanized stainless-steel cassava grater.
• Place clean containers at the outlet chute of the grater to
receive and hold grated cassava mash/pulp during and
after grating.
• Start petrol/diesel engine or electric motor of the grater,
allow it to achieve operating speed before pouring clean
cassava roots into the hopper, and operate the grater to
grate the cassava roots into mash.
• Wash cassava grater thoroughly with clean water after
and before grating.

Fermenting
• Put grated cassava mash into a clean polyethylene sack
and tie. Allow to stand in a fermenting trough for 2–4
days.
• Arrange sacks in such a way that there is no contact with
sand or dirt that can contaminate the mash. Allow free
sipping of water from the sacks.
25
• There are variations in the fermentation period within
and among countries. However, fermentation should
not be less than two days (to allow development of the
characteristic sour taste of gari). Fermentation of less
than two days is discouraged.

Dewatering
• Many designs of mechanical dewatering machines are
available. Single or double screw presses, sometimes
combined with a hydraulic system, are mostly used for
dewatering cassava at the small-scale level.
• Turn the screw of the cassava press anti-clockwise with
the aid of the horizontal press bar to raise the press plate
to a suitable height. Place the polypropylene bag of wet
mash (30–40 kg) flat on the cassava press platform. Fold
the mouth of the bag on top or under or simply tie the
bag. Two to five bags of cassava mash may be loaded
at once depending on the capacity of the press (i.e.,
height, maximum pressure of the hydraulic system) and
the physical strength of the operator in case of the screw/
combined screw-hydraulic press. Wooden racks may be
placed in between bags to improve dewatering efficiency.
• Apply pressure by clockwise screwing of the plate onto
the bags until the maximum pressure level is attained and
the bags are hard. Load pressure reduces as liquor drains
out of the bags and the bags become softer when tested
with a finger.
• Repeat the clockwise turning of the screw press bar of the
lever or operate the hydraulic press regularly to maintain
the load pressure until the wet starch is well dewatered.
• Remove dewatered cake (check by finger-feel for
the hardness of press cake as an indication of a well

26
 dewatered cake before removal). The moisture content of
well dewatered starch cake ranges between 40 and 45%;
often attained after 10–40 minutes.
• Empty the cake into clean pans or bowls for granulation.
• If dewatering is not complete, there will be lumps during
toasting which reduces the quality and yield of gari.
• Do not use sacks for too long to prevent bursting during
pressing. In some cases of light sacks or over-use of
sacks, it is advisable to double the sacks.
• Keep the press and the pressing area very clean with a
good drainage system for safe disposal of the effluent to
avoid environmental pollution and public health hazards.

Cake breaking/granulation
• Break the cake using clean hands followed by sifting
with non-rusting sifter into a clean basin. Sifters made of
stainless steel material are preferable.
• Use clean containers to hold the granulated semi-dried
grits before proper drying.

Roasting/toasting
• Toast and stir constantly in a large, shallow stainless-steel
pan over fire, with a piece of gourd or a wooden paddle
until the gari is dried through hand feel. This may take
20–30 min depending on the heat source and quantity of
sifted cake.
• The finished product (gari) is usually recognized from
the color change from white to cream (for non-palm oil
fortified gari or yellow fleshed cassava gari) and crispy
hand feel of the grains/particles.

27
• Toasting can also be done mechanically using an
automated garifier or other improved garifier made of
stainless steel material and with firewood or charcoal as
the heat source.

Cooling
• Collect the toasted gari into a clean basin and spread on
a raised platform lined with clean polyethylene material or
a white cloth to cool to room temperature.
• Packaging/labeling and storage/marketing of gari are like
that of HQCF.

28
 Cassava Roots

Sorting/Weighing/Peeling

Washing

Grating

Fermenting (3–4 days)

Dewatering/Pressing

Cake breaking

Sifting

Roasting/toasting

Cooling/packaging

Gari

Figure 3. Flow chart of gari production.

29
Standard Operating
Procedures (SOPS) for the
Cassava Processing Factory 5
Cleaning

The following SOPs should be strictly adhered to in the

cleaning of equipment, machines, and processing points in
the cassava processing factory:
• The processing environment (peeling and dry section)
should be properly swept and kept tidy before and after
each production operation.
• The knives, plastic containers, and processing bags
should be washed with clean water-odorless liquid soap
mixture and allowed to drain before and after use.
• The wash basin should be kept tidy by washing with clean
water-odorless liquid soap mixture and allowed to drain
before and after use.
• Machines in the wet section should be cleaned by
flushing all the corners and inside with water using a hose
connected to a water tap.
• The muslin clothes used for wet fufu sieving should be
washed with clean water-odorless liquid soap mixture and
allowed to drain before and after use.
• The cassava fermenting drums should be washed with
clean water-odorless liquid soap mixture and allowed to
drain before and after use.
• Machines in the dry section should be kept clean and
tidy by dusting using dry dusters before and after each
processing operation.
• The packaging section should be kept clean and tidy by
sweeping before and after each processing operation.

30
• Products should be properly arranged on a raised wooden
platform in the store to enhance easy cleaning.
• Machines in the packaging section should be properly
cleaned by dusting with clean clothes/rags. The moving
parts of these machine should be lubricated with specified
lubricating oil as at when due.
• All machines and equipment on the processing floor
should be properly arranged to enhance efficient cleaning
operations.
• The pressers and pressing area should be kept clean with
a good drainage system for safe disposal of effluent to
avoid environmental pollution and public health hazards.
• Different sizes of micron filters should be placed between
the pipe from the water source and that of the processing
factory. This water filtration setup should be properly
washed with chlorine-clean water mixture every week
to avoid inflow of dirt and contamination of water for
production.

Machine maintenance
• Wash wet processing machines or equipment with water
and odorless detergent and later sterilize with sanitized
sterilant such as a chlorine solution (bleach) at the end of
every day’s operation.
• Clean and dry other machine/equipment at the end of
every day’s operation.
• Wash and mop the factory floor before and at the end of
every day’s operation.
• Scrub hands thoroughly before starting work and regularly
throughout the day’s operation.
• Always use overalls, factory boots, and other factory
protective wear (like nose, mouth, and ear covers).

31
• Lubricate machine moving parts regularly before and after
use.
• Do not use necktie, chains, and rings when working in the
factory.
• Buttons of factory wears should not be loose when
operating machines.
• Place a protective covering on rotating pulley.
• Place fire extinguishers and first-aid-boxes in strategic
points in the processing factory.
• Machines should only be operated by qualified personnel.
• Teach all machine operators how to troubleshoot
machines.
• Switch off all machines from the main supply after
processing.
• Never use bare hands on the grater while in operation.

Water treatment
• The following SOPs should be strictly adhered to in the
treatment of water used for processing:
• Connect micron filters of 5, 1, and 0.5 microns in series
from the water source to the processing factory.
• Water should flow through the pipe (flowing through
5-micron size filter) from the water source via three
different size micron filters of another 5, 1 and 0.5
microns, respectively, connected to the pipe in series.
This should be done to ensure the removal of dirt and
other extraneous particles from the water before use.
• Water should be made to flow from the last filter (0.5
micron) via the pipe through ultra-violet light connected

32
 between the last filter and the flow of water out of the tap
for use. This is to ensure sterilization of the water from the
water source.
• Use the filtered and sterilized water for processing
operations.
• Wash the micron filters every week with chlorine-clean
water mixture to avoid inflow of dirt and contamination.
• Wash the storage tank properly every week with chlorine-
clean water mixture to ensure clean water supply into the
factory for production.

Quality control of products

• Process only cassava roots without bruise, cut, decayed
part, or insect infestation.
• Use stainless steel knives/peelers and not rusting knives/
peelers for the complete removal of cassava peel.
• Ferment for 3‒4 days depending on the weather condition
using clean water for fufu and solid state for gari. This
reduces the cyanide in the cassava root.
• Use clean water for processing. In fufu production, use
clean unperforated muslin cloth for the sieving and not
plastic baskets to prevent the mixing of other extraneous
materials.
• Bag the grated cassava mash with clean dewatering
polyethylene sacks and press with a stainless-steel
presser.
• Dry at the required temperature depending on the
products to prevent burning or discoloration
• Cool the products to room temperature before fortification,
packaging, and subsequent storage.

33
• Fortification of the flour could be done with Vitamin
A premix (containing Vitamin A, Thiamin, Riboflavin,
Nicotinamide, and Iron) at the ratio of 0.25 g Vitamin A/
kg of product using a stainless-steel cone blender before
packaging into air-tight, moisture free polyethylene bags.
• Store products in a cool, dry, well-ventilated, insect and
rodent free store, on a raised wooden platform. This will
prevent moisture uptake.
• Properly channel all waste water into a covered septic
tank to prevent product contamination.

34
Product Development 6
The following cassava products will be developed and
introduced to the processors:
• Custard powder: This will be developed using the
extracted food grade starch. Other ingredients that will
be added are sodium chloride, vanilla flavor, and yellow
colorant. All the ingredients will be blended with the
starch using a stainless steel blender, after which it will be
allowed to cool to room temperature before packaging.
• Fortified tapioca grits: This will also be developed
from the extracted starch. After the starch extraction and
dewatering, the cake will be granulated and toasted as
done in gari production. Soybean or sesame seed flour
will be used as a fortifier to increase the protein content of
the tapioca grits.
• Cascon (a rice analog): Different ratios of HQCF/
cassava starch will be blended with corn flour/starch,
mixed together with water to form dough, and passed
through a hot extruder of tiny die sizes to give the size of
a rice grain. This will then be dried, cooled, and packaged.

35
References
Dziedzoave, N.T., A.B. Abass, W.K.A. Amoa-Awua, and M.
Sablah. 2006. Quality management manual for the production
of high quality cassava flour, edited by G.O. Adegoke and L.
Brimer. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan.
68 pp.

Phillips, T., D.S. Taylor, L.O. Sanni, and M. Akoroda 2004. A

cassava industrial revolution in Nigeria. The potential for a
new industrial crop, IFAD/FAO, Rome. 43 pp.

Sanni, L., B. Alenkhe, R. Edosio, M. Patino, and A. Dixon.

2007. Technology transfer in developing countries: capitalizing
on equipment development. Journal of Food, Agriculture &
Environment 5(2)): 88–91.

Sanni, L.O., O.O. Onadipe, P. Ilona, M.D. Mussagy, A. Abass,

and A.G.O. Dixon. 2009. Successes and challenges of
cassava enterprise in West Africa. Pages 9-11 in A case Study
of Nigeria, Benin and Sierra Leone. International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Sanni, L.O., B. Maziya-Dixon, J. Akanya, C.I. Okoro, Y. Alaya,

C.V. Egwuonwu, R.U. Okechukwu, C. Ezedinma, M. Akoroda,
J. Lemchi, E. Okoro, G. Tarawali, J. Mkumbira, M. Patino,
G. Ssemakula and A. Dixon. 2005. Standards for cassava
products and guidelines for export. IITA Ibadan, Nigeria. 69
pp.

Sanni, L.O., C. Ezedinma, R.U. Okechukwu, M. Patino, M.O.

Akoroda, B. Maziya-Dixon, J. Lemchi, [Link], E. Okoro, G.
Tarawali, T. Awodeyi, B. Bamkefa, N. Nnaji, F. Ogde and
A.G.O. Dixon. 2006. Catalogue of postharvest equipment for
Cassava Processing.114pp.

36
 Appendices
[Link] chemical properties and metallic contaminant
level of some cassavaproducts

Cassava Cassava
chips Cassava flour starch Gari
Chemical properties

S/
No. Parameters Requirement Requirement Requirement Requirement
1 Moisture 10% 10% 12% 7%
2 Ash 3% 1% 1% 2%

3 Crude fiber 3% 2% 0% 2%
4 TTA 1% 1% 1% 1%
5 HCN 10ppm 10ppm 10ppm 20ppm
6 Starch 75% 65-75% 95% 75%
7 pH 5.0–6.9 5.0–6.10 5.0–7.0 3.5–4.8
Metallic contaminant limits
1 Copper 20ppm 20ppm 4.3ppm NA
2 Lead 1ppm 1ppm 1ppm NA
3 Tin 15ppm 15ppm NA NA
4 Zinc 50ppm 50ppm 19ppm NA
5 Iron 22ppm 22ppm 22ppm NA
6 Mercury 0.1ppm 0.1ppm NA NA
7 Arsenic 0.1ppm 0.1ppm NA NA
8 Aluminum NA NA 26ppm NA
9 Molybdenum NA NA 17ppm NA
10 Sodium NA NA 74ppm NA
11 Manganese NA NA 12ppm NA
Source: Sanni et al. (2005)

37
Appendix [Link] Cassava Processing Machines/Equipment

Mechanical peeler

Chipping machine

38
Grating & chipping machine combined

Presser

39
Modernized gari roaster

Hammer mill

40
 Flash dryer

Sanni et al. (2006)

Modified solar dryer

41
 Sanni et al. (2006)
Rotary dryer

Sanni et al. (2006)

Packaging machine

42
43
44