BIOLOGY

CLASS 10

ABHYASA DEEPIKA

STATE COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH & TRAINING

Telangana, Hyderabad.
 EDUCATION MINISTER
GOVERNMENT OF TELANGANA

MESSAGE
Keeping in view of the special conditions prevailing in this academic
year, worksheets and digital classes are made available with the objective to
facilitate the transaction of lessons in different subjects through alternate
modes. Now that the SSC Board Examinations are round the corner, to facili-
tate easy self learning for the students, SCERT, TS has designed Enrichment
Material for Class X, compiling all the major concepts of non-language sub-
jects.
During all critical times and crises, teachers are taking initiative and
doing their best to make the learning happen. In similar lines, they may guide
the students to understand the aspects of this learning material. This learning
material is quite useful to those who need help in different subjects to en-
hance their performance. I hope students will achieve good results by using
this material.

April, 2021 Ms. Patlolla Sabitha Indra Reddy

Hyderabad. Education Minister,
Government of Telangana.

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 SPECIAL CHIEF SECRETARY
GOVERNMENT OF TELANGANA

MESSAGE

Along with all other fields, the field of education has been severely
affected by COVID 19 situation. The whole system, top-down, is struggling
to save the academic year by reaching out to students and impart quality
education. Teachers are playing a key role connecting to students through
various online, social media and electronic media in addition to holding face
to face classes for as many days as possible. SCERT, TS has designed an
Enrichment Material for Class X to equip teachers and students to face the
approaching examinations. Students can enhance their understanding of key
concepts in every unit in different subjects using this material. Practice
questions are given here to facilitate self assessment with the help of teachers
where needed. I hope the students will make use of this material to achieve
success.

April, 2021 Ms. Chitra Ramachandran, IAS

Hyderabad. Special Chief Secretary,
Education Department, Telangana.

(v)
 DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL EDUCATION
GOVERNMENT OF TELANGANA

MESSAGE

State Council of Educational Research and Training, Telangana, has

prepared Enrichment Material to support the teachers and students in facili-
tating an effective transaction of key concepts in non-language subjects. Due
to the special conditions prevailing due to COVID 19 situation, the syllabus
for the examinations has been reduced up to 30% for the current academic
year. The Enrichment Material covers the remaining 70% syllabus and helps
the learners easily understand all the key concepts through self learning. I
expect the students will make use of this material and perform well in the
examinations.

April, 2021 Ms. A. Sridevasena, IAS

Hyderabad. Director of School Education
Telangana

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 FOREWORD

The prevailing situations of COVID-19 have paved way for the development
of a comprehensive learning material for class 10th students with an objective to
cater the needs of students appearing for Public Examinations.

Department of School Education started online transmission through T-SAT

and Door Darshan channels from 1st September, 2020. Apart from this, The District
Educational Officers in some districts also started online classes on YouTube
involving the subject experts. The ultimate objective is to help the students achieve
prescribed Academic Standards. From 1st February, 2021 onwards face to face
class room interactive classes started, in view of paucity of time it is not possible
to cover all the concepts. Hence, this learning material helps to fill all those gaps.

This material gives an understanding and helps them achieve good results in
the examination. The biology syllabus of 10th class has 10 units out of which
unit-7th Coordination in Life Processes, unit- 9th Our Environment and unit -10
Natural Resources (30% of the syllabus) are meant for activity/Project work. The
remaining units (70% of the syllabus) are meant for public examinations. The key
concepts of remaining 7 units are identified and made easy for the students to
understand.

The self learning material is provided for further strengthening of the knowledge
gained through classroom activities, worksheets and digital classes. The key concepts
in each unit are dealt with using pictures, experiments, tables, real life applications
etc., under their specific headings. A variety of practice questions are given to
facilitate self assessment.

Teachers are expected to go through the material thoroughly once to understand

the purpose of the material and in turn guide the students in making effective use of
the material. Students may be encouraged to approach their teachers to clarify
doubts. I appreciate the efforts of the material developers. Further, I wish all the
students to benefit from the material and come up with flying colours in examinations.

M. Radha Reddy
Director
SCERT, Telangana.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The State Council of Educational Research and Training, Telangana extends

its special thanks to Smt. [Link] Indra Reddy, Hon’ble Minister for Education,
Smt. Chitra Ramachandran, Special Chief Secretary to Government, Education
Department, Smt. [Link], Director of School Education for their valuable
guidance and support in developing the enrichment material to students.

We also express our heartfelt gratitude to all the Additional Directors

Sri A. Satyanarayana Reddy, Sri Ch. Ramana Kumar, Sri P. V. Srihari, Sri Krishna
Rao and Smt. Usha Rani for rendering their support and sharing their ideas in
designing the enrichment material for SSC students and in preparing Activity /
project based syllabus.

Further, SCERT expresses profound thanks to Sri Suresh Babu, Consultant,

SLA, SCERT; Sri [Link] Rao Khatri, Consultant, SCERT; Faculty of Department
of Curriculum & Textbooks; subject experts team; Computers Operators and other
Technical team for their commendable work in designing and developing the
material.

(x)
 Chief Advisor
Smt. Chitra Ramachandran, IAS
Special Chief Secretary, Education Department,
Telangana.

Advisor
Smt. A. Sridevasena, IAS
Director of School Education,
Telangana.

Chief Co-ordinator
Smt. M. Radha Reddy,
Director, SCERT,
Telangana.

Co-ordinator
Smt. Tahseen Sultana, Professor & HoD,
Department of Curriculum & Textbooks, SCERT,
Telangana, Hyderabad.

Asst. Co-ordinator
Smt. I. Karunasree
Department of Curriculum & Textbooks, SCERT,
Telangana.

Subject Incharge
Sri E.D. Madhusudhan Reddy
Zilla Parishad High School, Baharpet, Kosgi, Narayanapet District.

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 Writers
Sri E.D. Madhusudhan Reddy, ZPHS, Baharpet, Kosgi, Narayanapet District.

Sri Sanjeev Kumar, ZPHS, Abhangapatnam, Nizamabad.

Sri Pesara Prabhakar Reddy, ZPHS, M. J. Pally, Khammam.

Sri Manikya Reddy, GHS New, Sadashivpet, Sanga Reddy

Sri G. Shyam Sundar, ZPHS Chetlapotharam, Sanga Reddy

Sri D. Nagaraju, GHS, Gajwel, Siddapet.

Smt. Maram Pavithra, ZPHS, Gaddipally, Suryapet.

Smt. S. Srivani, TSMS Palamakula, Ranga Reddy.

Team Assistance
Smt. G. Usha, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Smt. R. Vasavi, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Smt. V. Latha Madhavi, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Cover page design

Sri Md. Ayyub Ahmed, SA, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Layout and Design

Smt. Ratna Sowjanya, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Assistance
Smt. Kota Lalitha, Smt. S. Soundarya,
SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad. SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

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 INDEX
Chapter Page
Name of the Chapter
No. No.

1 Nutrition 1

21 Respiration 10

31 Transportation 18

41 Excretion 26

51 Control and Coordination 32

61 Reproduction 41

18 Heredity and Evolution 52

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 INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS

• Focus on 7 chapters meant for evaluation in public examination .

• This material is developed from the given 7 chapters meant for final
examinations.

• Provide practice on variety of questions given in the material.

• Using pictures, experiments, tables, real life applications etc., under their
specific headings.

• Correlate with text books to clarify doubts in the Abhyasa Deepika.

• Efforts should be made to make use of the Abhyasa Deepika to the maximum
extent for better result.

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

• Read Abhyasa Deepika thoroughly.

• Understand the concepts lesson wise to answer various types of questions

in the public examinations.

• Correlate with text books to clarify doubts in the reading material and
approach your teachers.

• Good practice of the Abhyasa Deepika helps you to achieve good grades.

( xiv )
 CHAPTER

1 Nutrition
The process of providing or obtaining food by the living organisms for health and
growth is known as nutrition. The mode of acquiring food varies from organism to organism.
In single celled organisms, like amoeba the food may be taken in by the entire surface. In
Paramoecium Food is taken in at a specific spot called cytostome.
Modes of Nutrition: Autotrophic nutrition, Heterotrophic nutrition, Saprophytic nutrition
and Parasitic nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition:
Some living organisms make their own food using simple substances which they get
from their environment. This type of nutrition is called autotropic nutrition. The organisms
that exhibit this type of nutrition are called autotrophs. Ex: Green Plants.
Heterotrophic Nutrition:
Some organisms depend upon other organisms for food. This type of nutrition is
called Heterotropic nutrition. The organisms that exhibit this type of nutrition are called
heterotrophs. Ex: animals, fungi, some bacteria.
Saprophytic Nutrition:
Some organisms breakdown the dead and decaying organic matter out-side the body
and then absorb it. This type of nutrition is called saprophytic nutrition. The organisams
that exhibit this type of nutrition are called Saprophytes. Ex: bread moulds, yeast,
mushrooms
Parasitic Nutrition:
Some living organisams depand on other living organisam. this type of nutrition is
called parasitic nutrition. The organisams exhibit this type of nutrition is called parasites.
Ex. Cuscuta, Leech.
Photosynthesis- Factors: Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight
Photosynthesis- End products: Carbohydrates and oxygen are the end products of
Photosynthesis.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide from atmosphere, water from roots and synthesize
Carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll and releases oxygen. This
process is called Photosynthesis.

1
Chemical equation of Photosynthesis:
light
6CO2 + 12H2O X C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
(Carbondioxide) (water) (Glucose) (water) (oxygen)

CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis:

Aim: To prove that CO2 is necessary for split cork
photosynthesis (Mohl's half leaf
experiment). potted plant
Apparatus: wide mouthed transparent wide mouthed
bottle
bottle, Potassium hydroxide solution,
splitted cork, potted plant, Iodine solution KOH

and Vaseline.
Mohl’s half leaf experiment
Procedure: Insert splitted cork in the
mouth of the bottle. Insert one of the leaf of destarched plant through a split cork into
bottle containing potassium hydroxide solution. Apply Vaseline around the cork. Leave
the plant in sunlight. After a few hours, detach and test this leaf with Iodine.
Observation: The leaf part which was exposed to the atmospheric air and light becomes
Bluish-black and the leaf part inside the bottle remain colorless.
Result confirmation: Inside the bottle CO2 is not available, because KOH absorbs the
CO2. This proves that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Precautions: Keep away the leaf from KOH. Don't allow air in to bottle.
Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis in the presence of light:
Aim: To prove that Oxygen is evolved in
oxygen
Photosynthesis (Hydrilla funnel Experiment).
Apparatus: Hydrilla plant, a short stemmed glass bubbles

funnel, beaker , water, test tube, match stick or incense

stick. test tube
Procedure: Place a plant like. Hydrilla in a short beaker
stemmed glass funnel and keep in a beaker containing
water
water. Invert a test tube filled with water over the
funnel
stem of the funnel. Ensure that the level of the water
Hydrilla plant
in the beaker is above the level of stem of the inverted
funnel (as shown in the experiment image). Keep the
apparatus in the sunlight at least for 2- 4 hours. Hydrilla experiment

2
Observation: After some time it is observed that gas bubbles released from the Hydrilla
plant. These bubbles are collected at the end of the test tube pushing the water into the
beaker. After sufficient gas is collected in the test tube, it is taken out of the beaker
carefully by closing it with thumb
Result confirmation: Test the gas by inserting a glowing match stick or incense stick
which would burst into flames. This proves that Oxygen is evolved in Photosynthesis.
Precautions: Collect the test tube and take out of the beaker carefully by closing it with
thumb.

Internal structure of leaf:

Generally Photosynthesis is carried out in all the green parts (leaves) of the plant.
Internal structure of leaf shows upper and lower epidermis. In between these epidermal
layers mesophyll tissue is present. It is differentiated into pallisade and spongy tissues.
Palisade tisue is located below the upper epidermis. The cells of palisade tissue are
pillar like contains more number of chloroplsts and perform the function of photosynthesis.
Spongy tissue is presented
cuticle
towards lower epidermis
upper epidermis
and is loosely packed with
palisade parenchyma
large intercellar spaces. chloroplast

}
xylem
Stomata are located in the Vascular bundle
phloem
lower epidermis. A large spongy parenchyma
air spaces
nuber of chloroplasts are guard cell
present in guard clls of lower epidermis
stomata
stomata and gruond tissues T-S of leaf cuticle
of the leaf.
membrane stroma thylakoid
Structure of the Chloroplast:
stroma
Chloroplasts are an important cell
organelles which carry photosynthesis } granum

found exclusively in plant cells.

Chloroplast is a three membranous
grana thylakoid
structure. Outer two layers form envelops
T-S of chloroplast
and the third layer forms stacked sack
like structures called grana. Thylakoids are present in Grana. Chlorophyll pigments are
present in thylakoid. Chlorophyll is site for trapping of solar energy. The intermediary

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fluid filled portion is called stroma it is responsible for enzymatic reactions, leading to
the synthesis of glucose. Chlorophyll contains one atom of magnesium.
Mechanism of Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction reaction. A series of chemical reactions
occur in two stages in the chloroplast in a very quick succession initiated by light.
1. Light phase
2. Dark phase
Light phase (Light dependent reaction (Photochemical Phase):
In this phase light plays a key role. During this phase light energy is converted into
chemical energy and it takes place in grana of the chloroplast. It occurs only in the
presence sunlight. The chlorophyll on exposure to light energy becomes activated by
absorbing photons.
Hill reaction:
Light energy, splits the water molecules into hydrogen (H+), hydroxyl (OH-) ions.
This reaction is known as Photolysis of water. This was discovered by Robert Hill; hence
it is called as Hill reaction. The highly reactive OH- ions of water undergo quick change
as H2O and O2 are produced in a series of steps. H + ions undergo a series of changes to
form energy like ATP and NADPH as an end products.
Dark phase (Light independent reaction (Biosynthetic phase):
Biosynthetic phase does not require the direct sunlight. This process takes place in
stroma of chloroplast. ATP and NADPH are utilised in this process and the Glucose is
the end product of the Dark reaction.
Digestion in Human beings:
We eat different types of food which will pass through the alimentary canal. In this
digestive track food is broken up physically by the action of the teeth, and chemically, by
the action of enzymes. Then the food is converted into a substance suitable for absorption
and assimilation into the body. This process is called digestion.
Parts of alimentary canal:
The alimentary canal has different parts like mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestines and anus.
Mouth:
Food is cut and crushed by our teeth in the mouth and mixed with saliva to make it
wet and slippery called bolus.

4
Oesophagus:
Oesophagus shows peristaltic movement while food (bolus) moves through it. In
this part no changes occurs in the food.
Stomach:
In stomach food gets churned with gastric juice and HCl. Now the food is in semisolid
state and is called chyme. Here in the stomach the ring like muscles called pyloric
sphincter relaxes to open the passage into the small intestine. Now the food material
passes from the stomach into small intestine.
Small intestine:
The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It is the site for
further digestion. It receives the secretions of liver and pancreas for this purpose. Internally
intestinal wall has number of finger like projections called microvilli. They increase the
surface area for absorption. The passage of digested food through the walls of alimentary
tract into circulatory system is called absoption. Undigested food passes into the large
intestine.
Large intestine:
The undigested food materials move through the large intestine. Excess water present
in the undigested food is absorbed as a result faeces is formed, and it is expelled out through
anus.
Digestive glands - Enzymes:
Ptyalin (salivary amylase) Salivary glands Saliva Carbohydrates
Pepsin Gastric glands Gastric juice Proteins
Bile (No enzymes) Liver Bile juice Fats
Amylase Pancreas Pancreatic juice Carbohydrates
Trypsin Panereas Pancreatic juice Peptones
Lipase Pancreas Pancreatic juice Fats
Peptidases Intestinal glands Intestinal juice Peptides
Sucrase Intestinal glands Intestinal juice Sucrose
Digestive glands play an important role in the digestion process. They break complex
food into simple ones which are able to be absorbed. Glands such as Salivary, gastric,
liver, pancreas and intestinal glands are present in humans. They secret enzymes and
digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats present in food later they are absorbed into blood.
HCl changes the food in the stomach into acidic and kills bacteria.
Balanced food:
A diet which contains proper amount of carbohydrates, proteins, fats vitamins and
mineral salts is called as balanced food.

5
Malnutrition:
Eating of food that does not have one or more than one nutrients in required amount
is known as malnutrition. Poor health, will full starvation, lack of awareness of nutritional
habits, socio-economic factors are the reasons for malnutrition in our country.
Malnutrition - types:
Malnutrition is of three types such as 1. Protein Malnutrition 2. Calorie Malnutrition
3. Protein-calorie Malnutrition.
Diseases due to malnutrition:
Kwashiorkor disease:
Kwashiorkor disease is caused due to protein deficiency in diet.
Body parts become swollen due to accumulation of water in the
intercellular spaces, very poor muscle development, swollen legs,
fluffy face, difficult to eat, dry skin, diarrhoea are the symptoms of the
disease.
Marasmus disease: Kwashiorkor

Marasmus is caused due to deficiency of both proteins and

calories. Generally this disease occurs when there is an immediate
second pregnancy or repeated child births. Lean and weak, less
developed muscles, dry skin, diarrhoea, etc., are the symptoms of this
disease
Marasmus
Obesity:
Obesity is due to over eating and excess of calories intake. It is
a big health hazard. Obese children when grow, they will be target of
many diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular, renal, gall bladder
problems. Junk foods and unhealthy food habits lead to obesity. Obesity

Vitamins- Types:
Vitamins are micronutrients required in small quantities. Vitamins are classified into two
groups based on their solubility. They are
1. Water soluble vitamins (B-complex vitamins and Vitamin C )
2. Fat soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E, and K).

6
Vitamin deficiency diseases:

Vitamin Resources Deficiency Symptoms

diseases
Thiamin (B1) Cereals, oil seeds, vegetables, Beri beri Vomitings, fits, loss of appe-
milk, meat, fish, eggs. tite, difficulty in breathing,
paralysis.

Riboflavin (B2) Milk, eggs, liver, kidney, green Glossitis Mouth cracks at corners, red
leafy vegetables. and sore tongue, photophobia,
scaly skin.

Niacin (B3) Kidney, liver, meat, egg, fish, Pellagra Dermatitis, diarrhoea, loss of
oil seeds. memory, scaly skin.

Pyridoxine (B6) Cereals, oil seeds, vegetables, Anaemia Hyper irritability, nausea,
milk, meat, fish, eggs, liver. vomiting, fits.

Cyanocobalamin Synthesised by bacteria Pernicious anaemia Lean and weak, less appetite.
(B 12 ) present in the intestine.

Diarrhoea, loss of leucocytes,

Folic acid Liver, meat, eggs, milk, fruits, Anaemia problems related to mucus in
cereals, leafy vegetables. the intestines.

Pantothenic acid Sweet potatoes, ground nuts, Burning feet Walking problems, sprain.
vegetables, liver, kidney, egg.

Biotin Pulses, nuts, vegetables, liver, Nerves disorders Fatigue, mental depression,
milk, kidney. muscle pains.

Ascorbic acid (C) Green leafy vegetables, citrus Scurvy Delay in healing of wounds,
fruits, sprouts. fractures in bones.

Retinol (A) Leafy vegetables, carrot, Eye, skin diseases Night blindness,
Tomato, pumpkin, papaya, xerophthalmia, cornea failure,
mango, meat, fish, egg, liver, scaly skin.
milk, cod liver oil, shark liver
oil.

Calciferol (D) Liver, egg, butter, cod liver oil, Rickets Improper formation of bones,
(sunshine vitamin) shark liver oil, sun rays stimu- Knock-knees, swollen wrists,
late the formation of vitamin delayed dentition, weak
D from the sub-cutaneous fat. bones.

Tocoferol (E) Fruits, vegetables, sprouts, Fertility related Sterility in males, abortions in
sunflower oil. disorders females.

Phylloquinone (K) Green leafy vegatables, milk, problems related to Delay in blood clotting, over
meat, egg. Blood clotting bleeding.

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 Practice Questions
❋ Very Short Questions:
1. Explain the autotrophic nutrition. Give examples of autotropic nutrition.
2. What kind of changes takes place the food in mouth?
3. Compare the functions of Small intestine and Large intestine.
4. Explain the process of Photosynthesis with a chemical equation.
5. Mention the sites of Light dependent phase and Light independent phase in the
chloroplast?
6. Write about the factors and End products of Photosynthesis.
7. What would happen, if photosynthesis does not takes place in plants?
8. What food do you suggest to your friend, who are suffering with Obesity?
❋ Short Questions:
1. Explain the structure of a chloroplast with the help of a diagram.
2. Write the differences between the autotrophs and heterotrophs with examples.
3. Narrate the role of digestive enzymes in the digestion of food.
4. Write the 4 questions do you pose to a Doctor to knwo more about the balanced food
and Malnutritional diseases.
5. Write the reasons for malnutrition and explain about any 2 types of malnutritional
diseases.
❋ Essay Type Questions:
1. How do you prove that CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis?
2. Explain about the experiment done in your school to prove that Oxygen is evolved
in Photosynthesis. Mention the precautions you taken while conducting this
experiment.
3. Explain the internal structure of leaf with the help of a diagram.
4. Draw a labelled diagram fo Human digestive system?

Calciferol Rickets butter, cod liver oil, shark liver oil, sun light
Retinol Eye, Skin Leafy vegetables, carrot, Tomato, pumpkin,
diseases papaya, mango, meat, fish, egg, liver, milk,
cod liver oil, shark liver oil
Ascorbic acid Scurvy Green leafy vegetables, citrus fruits, sprouts.
Tocoferol Fertility related Fruits, vegetables, sprouts, sunflower oil.
disorders

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5. Observe the following table and give the answers to the question given below.
1. Write the names of any two vitamisn from the above table?
2. Which food should we take to prevent from eye related diseases?
3. Which diseases should we prevent by taking Fruits, vegetables, sprouts, sun-
flower oil?
4. Which diseases caused by the dificiency of Calciferol and Ascorbic acid?
❋ Multiple Choice questions:
1. The digestive juice contain no enzymes ( )
A) Pancreatic juice B) Bile juice C) Gsatric juice D) Intestinal juice
2. The vitamin related to Blood coagulation ( )
A) Retinol B) Calciferol C) phylloquinone D) Tocoferol
3. Choose the correct sentence related o CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis Experiment
( )
A) Potassium hydroxide releases carbon dioxide
B) Potassium hydroxide absorbs water
C) Potassium hydroxide absorbs light
D) Potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide
4. Sunlight splits the water molecule ........ ( )
A) Hill reaction B) Electrolysis C) Photolysis D) A and C
5. Choose the incorrect pair ( )
A) Calciterol - Rickets B) Pyridoxine - Anaemia
C) Thiamin - Beri beri D) Niacin - Glossitis
6. Choose the odd one regarding enzymes ( )
A) Gastric juice B) Bile C) Pancreatic juice D) Intestinal juice
7. Arrange the parts of human digestive system in the sequential order ( )
i buccal cavity ii duodenum iii Large intestine iv stomach
v small intestine vi Pharynx vii oesophagus
A) i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, vii B) vii, vi, v, iv, iii, ii, i
C) i, vi, vii, iv, ii, v, iii D) i, vii, vi, iv, ii, v, iii
8. identify the disease shown in the diagram ( )
A) Kwashiorkor B) Marasmus
C) Obesity D) Pellagra

9
 CHAPTER

2 Respiration

Food provides energy for all the biological activities only after breaking down
through the process known as respiration. The term 'respiration' derived from Latin word
'respire' meaning 'to breathe', refers to the whole chain of processes from the inhalation
of air to the use of oxygen in the cells. By the oxidation of food not only energy but also
carbondioxide, water and hear are released. These components are sentout of our body
through exhaled air.
Different stages in human respiration :
Gaseous Gaseous
Breathing Gas transport Cellular
exchange at exchange at
by blood Respiration
lungs level tissue level
Air movement into Exchange of gases Transport of Exchanging of Using oxygen in
and out of lungs between alveoli oxygen from blood oxygen from blood cell processes to
and blood capillaries of alveoli into the cells and produce carbon
to body cells and carbon dioxide from dioxide and water,
return of carbon cells into the blood releasing energy to
dioxide be used for life
Pathway of air in human respiratory tract: processes
Nostrils :
Usually air enters the body through the nostrils.
Nasal cavity :
Moist surface of the nasal cavity and hair present in it stops the dust particles in the
air we breathe in. Nasal cavity controls the temperature of air we breathe in.
Pharynx :
Pharynx is the common passage for food and wind. Flap like valve which is below
the pharynx is called epiglottis closes the glottis partially when we swallow food, so it
deflects food down to the stomach and keeps it out of the trachea or windpipe which is
the route to the lungs.
Larynx :
Larynx has vocal cords. When air passes out of the lungs over the vocal cords it
causes their vibration due to this sounds are produced.
Windpipe :
Windpipe /Trachea Channelling air to lungs.
Bronchi
Trachea or the windpipe divides into two bronchi one leading to each lung.
Bronchioles :
Each bronchi is further divided into smaller and smaller branches called bronchioles.
Bronchioles enters small chambers called alveoli.
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 Pathway of air in respiratory tract of human Alveoli :
Nostrils Alveoli are the structural and functional units of

Carbon diooxide pathway (Exhalation)

lungs. They are covered with blood capillaries. oxygen
Nasal cavity present in alveoli diffuses into blood. carbon dioxide
Oxygen pathway (Inhalation)

present in blood diffuses into alveoli. Gaseous exchange

Pharynx take place in between blood and cells.
Blood :
Larynx
Blood supplies oxygen to every cell in the body.
Trachea Mechanism of respiration in human beings:
The organs mainly involved in respiration are lungs.
Bronchus The lungs themselves can neither draw in air nor push it
out. Instead, the chest wall muscles, and another flexible
Bronchioles flattened muscle called diaphragm helps the lungs in
moving air into and out of them. The diaphragm may be
Alveolus imagined as the floor of chest cavity. When diaphragm
gets relaxed it is in dome shaped.
Blood Inhalation: The chest wall moves upward and expands,
and the diaphragm flattens the volume of chest cavity increases, its internal pressure
decreases and the air from the outside rushes into lungs.
Exhalation: The chest wall is lowered and moves inward, and the diaphragm assumes
its dome shape. These changes increase the pressure on the lungs then they squeeze the
air out to the external atmosphere.
Gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries:
Alveoli present in the lungs are surrounded by blood capillaries that are only one
cell thick. Air, which is entered into lungs has oxygen, this oxygen diffuses into blood
capillaries then the carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into alveoli. when we breathe out
this carbon dioxide sent out of our body.
The composition of inhaled and exhaled air is different .see the table given below.
Gas % in inhaled air % in exhaled air
Oxygen 21 16
Carbondioxide 0.03 4.4
Nitrogen 78 78
Gaseous exchange between blood capillaries and cells:
The cells are continuously using oxygen; hence, the concentration of oxygen is
quite low in them. As the concentration of oxygen is low in them oxyhaemoglobin in

11
blood releases oxygen that enters the cells. oxygen oxidises the food, carbon dioxide
released in cells that carbon dioxide diffuses from cells to blood capillaries.
Haemoglobin present in blood has iron (Fe). when oxygen enters blood haemoglobin
immediately binds the oxygen and forms oxyhaemoglobin. This oxyhaemoglobin divides
and releases oxygen in the cells when blood reaches cells. Carbon dioxide transported in
the form of bicarbonates through blood and plasma.
Hb + 4O2 Hb (O2)4 (Diffuses from lungs to blood)
Hb (O2)4 Hb + 4O2 (in tissues) outer
inner
Cellular Respiration:
cristae
The term cellular respiration refers to the pathway by matrix

which cells release energy by breaking the chemical bonds of

glucose molecules. Cellular respiration in prokaryotic cells
like that of bacteria occurs within the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic Mitochondria
cells cytoplasm and mitochondria are the sites of cellular
respiration. The produced energy is stored in mitochondria in the form of ATP. That is why
mitochondria are called "power houses of the cell". ATP is called energy currency. Each
ATP molecule gives 7200 Calories of energy.
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Occurs in presence of oxygen Occurs in absence of oxygen
Carbon dioxide, water and energy are Alcohol/Acid and carbon dioxide are
released released
Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and other chemical Glycolysis and fermentation occurs in
reactions occurs in this respiration this respiration
Energy released in high amounts One tenth of energy released when
compared to aerobic respiration
(very less energy)
Occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm of the cell
of the cell.
Almost all multicellular plants and Bacteria, fungi and muscles of human
animals perform this respiration perform this respiration

After undergoing strenuous exercise, we feel pain in muscles why?

When Oxygen debt in muscles they undergo anaerobic respiration then muscles
convert glucose into lactic acid. accumulation of lactic acid in muscles leads to pain. when

12
our blood is replenished with oxygen, that oxygen oxidizes lactic acid into water and carbon
dioxide.
thermometer
Anaerobic respiration in yeast:
Aim: To show that carbon dioxide and heat
are produced in anaerobic respiration
Apparatus: Glucose solution, Yeast, liquid
paraffin, Janus green B/Diazine green,
thermometer, thermos flask, beaker, lime liquid paraffin
lime water
water, U- shaped glass tube, Corks etc.
yeast in glucose
Procedure: Take glucose solution in beaker. solution
Heat the glucose solution to remove the
Testing for production of heat and CO2
oxygen present in it. Cool the sugar solution
under anaerobic respiration
without stirring it. To test the presence of
oxygen present in glucose solution add a few drops of diazine green. The colour of sugar
solution Changes from Blue to pink when oxygen is in short supply around it. Now mix
yeast powder in glucose solution and pour this glucose solution in the thermos flask add
paraffin liquid over the glucose solution to cut the contact of air. Close the mouth of the
thermos flask with two holed rubber cork. Arrange the thermometer and U-shaped glass
tube for any gas produced by the yeast to escape through the thermos flask. Keep other
end of this glass tube in lime water which is in the test tube shown in the figure. close the
mouth of the test tube with cork. Do not disturb this entire setup. The readings on the
thermometer should be recorded. It should be observed after one day.
Observation: After a day it was observed that lime water in the test tube turned into
milky white. Temperature was increased in the thermometer and alcohol smell given off
from the thermos flask.
Result: These observations indicate that yeast cells respire anaerobically converting
glucose solution into carbon dioxide, alcohol and heat energy.
Differences Between respiration and combustion:
Respiration Combustion
Glucose is oxidised to carbon dioxide water Glucose first Chars and later burns pro
energy and heat in cells is called respiration. duces carbon dioxide, water and energy
released as heat.
It is a controlled process It is uncontrolled process
It occurs in the presence of water in cells. It does not occur in presence of water
It occurs at our body temperature We have to apply heat energy to start
the process.
13
Respiration in plants:
Plants also respire like animals. In plants gaseous exchange takes place through
stomata and lenticels. Mangrove plants have special structures for gaseous exchange
called aerial/Respiratory roots.
To show that carbon dioxide is released during aerobic respiration in plants:
Aim: To prove that carbon dioxide is released during respiration in plants.
Apparatus: Glass jar or plastic bottle, Germinated seeds, beaker, lime water etc.
Procedure: Before conducting an experiment soak
groundnuts or green gram in water for a day. The next day
shift these soaked seeds into a wet cloth and tie cloth
with a string to make it as a pouch. Keep this cloth pouch sprouted seeds
at the corner of the class for two days. Seeds germinate
within 2 days. We can use those germinated seeds for our
experiment. Fill half of the glass jar with germinated seeds. beaker with
Take lime water in the beaker. Keep the beaker in the glass lime water
Evolved CO2 in respiration
jar in between the germinated seeds. Close the mouth of
the glass jar with a lid. Do not disturb this bottle for a day.
Observation: After a day it was observed that lime water in the beaker changed to milky
white.
Result: It indicates that germinated seeds produced carbon dioxide which turns lime water
into milky white
To Prove that heat is liberated during respiration in plants:
Aim: To prove that heat is released during respiration in plants.
Apparatus: Thermos flask, thermometer, rubber cork,
Germinated seeds etc.
Procedure: Before conducting an experiment soak thermometer
groundnuts or green gram in water for a day. The next
day shift these soaked seeds into a wet cloth and tie
cloth with a string to make it as a pouch. Keep this cloth
pouch at the corner of the class for two days. Seeds
germinate within 2 days. We can use those germinated Thermosflask
seeds for our experiment. Fill half of the thermos flask
with germinated seeds. Close the mouth of the thermos
germinating seeds
flask with a one holed rubber cork. Insert the bulb of
the thermometer in the middle of the germinated seeds
through hole of the rubber cork. Do not disturb this Heat evolved during respiration

14
thermos flask for a day. Observe the temperature of the thermometer for every two hours
up to 24 hours.
Observation: After two hours I observed that temperature in the thermometer increased.
Result: It indicates that germinated seeds performed respiration, so heat is released by
seeds.
Differences Between photosynthesis and respiration:

Photosynthesis Respiration
It is a anabolic process It is a catabolic process
Occurs only in plants and photosynthetic Occurs in all living organisms
bacteria
Light energy converted to chemical energy Chemical energy converted to potential
energy
It occurs in Chloroplasts It occurs in mitochondria
Takes place in the presence of Sunlight Takes place throughout the day
Light energy is fixed here Energy is released here
Carbon dioxide is utilised here Carbon dioxide is released here
Oxygen is liberated Oxygen is utilised
Carbon dioxide and oxygen is combined to Oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide
form glucose in presence of sunlight in water energy and heat is called respiration
chloroplast buy plants is called
photosynthesis
6CO2G12H2O → C6H12O6G6H2OG6CO2 C6H12O6G6O2 → 6CO2G6H2O+[Link].
+heat

Practice Questions
❋ Very Short Questions:
1. What are the structural and functional units of lungs?
2. What would happen if diaphragm does not work?
3. What would happen if vocal cords do not vibrate in the larynx?
4. What are the materials required to do the experiment that heat is liberated during
respiration in plants?
5. Write any two sentences by appreciating the role of haemoglobin in respiration.
6. Why do we feel pain in muscles while doing physical hard work?
7. In which form energy is stored in cells?

15
❋ Short Questions :
1. Observe the table and answer the following questions.

Gas % in inhaled air % in exhaled air

Oxygen 21 16
Carbondioxide 0.03 4.4
Nitrogen 78 78

a. Which gas composition is same in both inhalation and exhalation?

b. In which phase carbon dioxide gas percentage is high?
2. Draw the neat, labelled diagram of alveoli which shows gaseous exchange in it.
3. Write any four differences between Respiration and combustion
❋ Essay Type Questions:
1. Write the materials used and the procedure followed by you to observe the anaero-
bic respiration?
2. Write the differences between photosynthesis and respiration
3. Draw the diagram of organelle in which cellular respiration occurs and explain the
process of cellular respiration.
4. Describe the pathway of air in respiration of humans with the help of flowchart.
5. Observe the given flowchart and answer the following questions
Lactic acid + Energy
Absence or low
Eg: Lactobocilus
amount of oxygen
(anaerobic respiraton
and fermentation) Ethanol + CO2+ Energy
Glucose ÆPyruvate Eg: Yeast
(3 carbon compound)
+ Energy
(Glycolysis)
Presence of Oxygen CO2 + H2O + Energy
(aerobic respiration) Eg: Plants and animals

a. What is the common process in both the respirations?

b. Which living organisms perform respiration without oxygen?
c. What type of respiration performed by muscles while doing strenuous exercise?
d. What type of respiration observed in plants?

16
❋ Multiple Choice questions:
1. Identify the incorrect statement about gaseous exchange in human. ( )
A) Air enters into alveoli from lungs. Lungs are surrounded by blood capillaries
B) Oxygen diffuses from alveoli to blood
C) Carbon dioxide diffuses from Blood to alveoli
D) Oxygen diffuses from blood to alveoli

2. Identified part in the picture is... ( )

?
A) Larynx B) Trachea C) Pharynx D) Bronchi
3. Identify the correct sentence about exhalitaion. ( )
A) Diaphragm flattens and moves downward by the contraction of muscles in it
B) When Chest walls move upward, and diaphragm moves downward then chest
cavity size increases.
C) When chest walls inward and diaphragm gets dome shaped then chest cavity
size decreases
D) When diaphragm moves downward, and chest wall moves inward then the
chest cavity moves upward.
4. Which Of the following useful for gaseous exchange in plants? ( )
A) stomata B) chloroplasts C) nostrils D) mitochondria
5. What is the role of diazine green solution in anaerobic respiration in yeast is?( )
A) Activates anaerobic respiration in yeast
B) Helps in checking the presence of oxygen in yeast solution
C) Helps in identifying carbondioxide release
D) Accelerate the work of paraffin solution
6. What is the common passage for food and wind? ( )
Sentence 1: Oxygen is released from oxyhaemoglobin and diffuses from blood
into cells.
Sentence 2: Carbon dioxide present in cells diffuses into blood stream
A) Both the sentences are incorrect
B) sentence one is correct and sentence two is incorrect
C) sentence one is incorrect and sentence two is correct
D) Both the sentences are correct
7. Identify the lab activity ( )
A) Heat is released during respiration
B) Heat is released during photosynthesis sprouted seeds

C) carbon dioxide is released during respiration beaker with

D) Oxygen is released during respiration lime water

17
 CHAPTER

3 Transportation

All the living organisms need nutrients, gases, liquids etc., for growth and maintenance
of the body. All the organisms would need to send these materials to all parts of their body.
For theis specialized system that is developed by organisms is called 'the circulatory
system'. Heart and blood vessels are main parts of the human circulatory system.
Structure of the Heart
Heart is located in between the lungs and protected by rib cage. The size of your
heart is approximately the size of your fist. The heart is pear shaped structure triangle in
outline, wider at the anterior end and narrower at the posterior end. The heart is covered
by two layers of membrane. The membranes are called pericardial membranes. The
space between these two layers is filled with pericardial fluid, which protects the heart
from shocks.
Internal Structure of Heart :
The Heart is divided into four parts externally by grooves. The two upper parts are
called atria (auricles), and the lower ones are called ventricles. The walls of the ventricles
are relatively thicker than atrial walls. The left atrium and ventricle are smaller when
compared to that of right - atrium and ventricle. The two atria and the two ventricles are
separated from each other by muscular partitions called septa. The openings between atria
and ventricles are guarded by valves.
arteries to head
artery to left arm

superior vena cava

aorta
pulmonary artery (left branch)
pulmonary artery (right branch)
left pulmonary veins
right pulmonary veins
left atrium
right atrium semi - lunar valve in the
pulmonary artery

right atrio ventricular valve left atrio ventricular valve

(Tricuspid Valve) (Bicuspid Valve)
left ventricle
inferior vena cava
right ventricle
Internal structure of heart
18
Heart - Blood Vessels
The blood vessels found in the walls of the heart are coronary vessels which supply
blood to the muscles of heart. The vein which is at the anterior end of the right side of the
heart is superior venacava, which collects blood from anterior parts (head and neck) of
the body. The vein which is coming from posterior part of the heart is inferior venacava,
collecting blood from posterior part (hand and legs etc) of the body. These open into the
right atrium of the heart the pulmonary artery departs from the right ventricle and reaches
the lungs. Whereas blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary
veins. A large blood vessel called the aorta exists from the left ventrical and carries
blood to all parts of the body.

Heart - Valves
There are one-way valves in the heart and blood vessels that connect to the heart.
Tricuspid Valve: The valve present on the Right Auriculo - ventricular septum between
Right atrium and Right ventricle is referred to as "Tricuspid Valve". It allow deoxiginated
blood flow from right atrium to right ventricle only.
Bicuspid Valve or Mitral Valve: The valve present on the left Auriculo Ventricular
septum between left atrium and left ventricle is referred as Bicuspid valve or Mitral
valve. It allows oxyginated blood from left atrium to left ventricle only.
Pulmonary Valves: A major blood vessel that originate from right ventricle is pulmonary
aorta. The valves present at the region of pulmonary aorta are called "Pulmonary valves". It
allows the de oxyginated blood from right ventricle to lungs only.
Systemic Valves: A major blood vessel, originates from left ventricle is systemic aorta.
The valves present at the region of systemic aorta are called systemic valves. It allows
the oxyginated blood from left ventricle to aorta only.
Blood Vessels: The arteries, veins and blood capillaries are main blood vessels of
human circulatory system.
Arteries: Arteries carry blood from the heart to body parts. Since the blood flow is rapid
and at a high pressure, the arteries have thick elastic walls. There are no valves in
arteries. Usually oxygenated blood flowsin the arteries. But deoxygenated blood flows
in the pulmonary artery.
Veins: Veins are the vessels which carry carbon from all parts of the body back to the
heart. The veins have thin walls and valves are also present which allow blood to flow
towards the heart only. Usually deoxygenated blood flows in the veins. But oxygenated
blood flows in the pulmonary veins.

19
Blood Capillaries: Blood capillaries are the microscopic vessels made of single layer
cells. They allow diffusion of various substances and establish continuity between
arteries and veins. Blood reaches the cells via capillaries. They establish continuity
between arteries and veins.
tough fibrous coat

muscle layer lumen

elastic lumen lining cells
fibrous coat lining cells (endothelium)
(endothelium)

Fill in the following table.

Structure / Function of blood vessel Artaery Vein

1. Thickness of walls(thick / thin)
2. Valves (present / absent)
3. Capacity to retain shape when blood is absent
(can retain/can’t retain)
4. Direction of blood flow (heart to organs / body
organs to heart)
5. Pressure in the vessel(low /high)
6. Type of blood transported
(oxygenated / de-oxygenated)

The cardiac cycle

The human heart starts beating around 21st day during
the embryonic developmen. If it stops beating, it results in the
death of a person. One contraction and one relaxation of atria
and ventricles is called one cardiac cycle. Let us understand
1. Imaginary relaxation
cardiac cycle with the help of following steps. of atria and ventricles.
1. We start with the imagination that all the four chambers
the heart are in relaxed state (diastole).
2. Blood from venacava and pulmonary veins enters the right
and left atria respectively.
3. Now the atria contract, forcing the blood to enter into the 2. Blood flows into atria.
ventricles. Fig-10(1-2)

20
4. When the ventricles are filled with blood they start contracting and atria start relaxing.
The aperture between the atria and ventricles is closed by valves. On ventricular
contraction due to pressure the blood moves into the aorta and pulmonary artery.
When the valves are closed forcibly, we can listen to the first sharp sound of the heart
'lub'.
5. When the ventricles start relaxing the pressure in the ventricles is reduced. The blood
which has entered the arteries tries to come back into the ventricles. The valves which
are present in the blood vessels are closed to prevent backward flow of blood into the
ventricles. Now we can listen to a dull sound of the heart 'dub'. The atria are filled up
with blood and are ready to pump the blood into the ventricles.

5. Relaxation of
4. Contraction of ventricles.
3. Contraction of atria and ventricles. The closing
A.V. Valves closed (Lub)
flow of blood into ventricles. of arterial valves (Dub).
blood flows into arteries.
Cardiac cycle

Single and double blood circulation

The blood flows in the blood vessels. To keep the blood moving the heart pumps it
continuously. There are two types blood circulation modes in animals. They are single
circulation and double circulation.
Single Circulation: If blood flows through heart only once for completing one circulation
it is called single circulation. Ex: Fishes
Double Circulation : If the blood flows through the heart twice for completing one
circulation it is called double circulation. Ex: Amphibia to Mammals.
Blood pressure (B.P.): When heart contracts blood flows rapidly into the artery, causing
pressure on the walls of the arteries it is called blood pressure. This pressure helps the
flow of blood in blood vessels of our body. Doctor measure the blood pressure (B.P.)
with a device called sphygmomanometer. For a healthy young adult B.P. is 120/80 (120
is systolic pressure and 80 is diastolic pressure). People who have high B.P. during
resting period are said to have hypertension.
Coagulation of blood : When you cut yourself, the blood flows out of the wound for
only a short time. Then the cut is filled with a reddish solid material. This solid is called
a blood clot.
21
• When the blood flows out, the platelets release an enzyme called thrombokinase.
• Thrombokinase acts on pro-thrombin converting it into thrombin.
• Thrombin acts on another substance called fibrinogen, converting into insoluble fibrin.
• The blood cells entangle in the fibrin fibres forming the clot.

Thrombrokinase
Prothrombrin Thrombin
Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin
Materials transport with in the plant
The plants also transport the material with in their blody like animals. The water
absorbed by roots and supplied by xylem, food prepared by leaves are supplied to the
remaining parts of the plant by phloem.
Water Transport in Plant :
The Osmosis, Root pressure and transpiration etc., like factors help the plants to
absorb water. Where as food prepared by leaves are supplied through phloem.
Osmosis - Root hairs
The Osmosis plays major role in the root hairs and passes inward from cell to cell
until it gets into the xylem vessels. The cytoplasm lining of the cell wall acts as the
semipermeable membrane. The root hairs grow out into the spaces between the soil particles
and that the hairs are surrounded by moisture. The soil water is an extremely dilute solution
of salts. Soil water concentration is more dilute than that of the cell sap in the root hair;
therefore water will pass into the vacuole of the root hair by Osmosis. The entry of water
dilutes the contents of the root hair vacuole so that it becomes more dilute than it's
neighbouring cell. So, water passes into the neighbouring cell which in turn becomes diluted,
finally water enters the xylem vessels.

epidermal cell
soil particles
soil water
xylem vessel
nucleus
air spaces

cells of cortex cell wall of root hair

vacuole
cellsap

L.S of root showing relationship of root hair and soil water

22
Root Pressure clamp
glass
The vast number of root hairs and root cells water level
involved, a pressure in the xylem vessels develops strong rubber tubing
cut stem portion
which forces the water upwards, This total pressure is soil

known as root pressure.

water
Transpiration
Root pressure
The evaporation of water through leaves is called
transpiration. Water evaporates through stomata of leaves and lenticles of
stem. When the leaves transpire, there is a pulling effect on the continuous
columns of water in the xylem vessels.
Transport of manufactured food Transpiration
Food such as sugar is synthesised in the green parts of plants, mainly the leaves,
this food has to be transported to all the living cells through phloem.
Biologists studies about food transportation in
proboscis plants with the help of aphids.
To obtain juice an aphid pierces the plant tissues
with its long needle like organ 'proboscis'. An aphid
aphid
is killed while in the act of feeding and the body is
then carefully cut away, leaving the hollow proboscis
still inserted into the phloem. It is found that because
phloem the fluid slowly excudes from the cut end of the
xylem proboscis in the form of drops; these drops are then
bark
pith collected and analysed. The components (sugar and
Aphid extracting food material amine acids) of proboscis drops matched with phloem
from plant components.
Removing ring of bark to illustrates the conduction of sugar by the phloem
Removing a ring of bark from a shoot to expose
the wood. Remove all tissues from the centre some growth
outwards, including the phloem. After a few days, roots

food had accumulated above the ring, but was not no growth
present below it. If it is left for some more time,
the stem increases in thickness immediately above Removing ring of bark
the right. but no growth occured below. Beacuse
absense of phloem.

23
 Practice Questions
❋ Very Short Questions:
1. What are the differences between xylem and pholem?
2. What would happen if valves of heart are not function properly?
3. Write about hypertension.
4. Write two questions, which you are going to ask doctor to know about function of the
sphygmo mano meter?
5. Which factors help the plants to absorb water?
6. How can you appreciate the protection of heart with pericardial membranes and
pericardial fluid?
❋ Short Questions:
1. Illustrate the process of coagulation.
2. What are differences between single circulation and double circulation?
3. Draw the well labled diagrame of ‘‘Removing ring of brak’’ and write about it.
4. Explain the valves of heart.
5. What is the study of biologists on aphids?
❋ Essay Type Questions:
1. Draw the well labled diagrame of heart and write about blood vessels, which connected
to heart.
2. Write about the experiments of root pressure and transpiration
3. How do structures of arteries, veins and blood capillaries are help in circulation of
blood?
4. Explain the sequential events in the cardiac cycle.
5. Observe the following table
Arteries Veins
Walls are thick Walls are thin
Absent of valves Present of valves
Transport the blood to body parts Bring the blood from body parts to heart
Pressure in this vessels high Pressure in this vessels low

write the answers to following questions.

1. What is the use of thickness present in arteries?
2. How can you support the valves present in veins?
3. Direction of blood flow not same in all arteries and veins? comment on it.
4. Write the two characteristics of arteries and veins each.

24
❋ Multiple Choice questions:
1. Identity the right sequence ( )
A) Pulmonary vein → left ventricle → left atrium → lungs
B) Pulmonary vein → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle
C) Lungs → pulmonary vein → left atrium → left ventricle
D) Lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → pulmonary vein
2. Identify the correct sentence ( )
A) Veins are the blood vessels that carry blood from parts of the body
B) Arteries are not strong as veins
C) Pulmonary vein carries blood from heart to lungs
D) Inferior vena cava collects deoxygenated blood from upper parts of the body
like head and neck
3. What is the reason for heart beat ( )
A) Closing of valves
B) Blood pressure in arteries and veins
C) Blood flows rapidly through valves
D) Flow of blood into ventricles
4. What part is pressed by doctor to examine B.P. with sphygmomanometer? ( )
A) vein B) Artery C) Capillary D) Lymph vessels
5. Identify the wrong sentence ( )
A) Root pressure helps the small plants to absorb water
B) Water transport through xylem
C) Plants absorb the water rapidly with the help of transpiration
D) Osmatic pressure helps the phloem to transport food material
6. Identify the right pair ( )
A) Root hair - present on shoot B) Xylem - Transport food material
C) Stomata - Transpiration D) Phloem - Transport water

25
 CHAPTER

4 Excretion

In living organisms different kinds of material are produced out of various metabolic
activities, In addition to the substances needed for metabolism, waste products are also
produced. Excretion is also one of the metabolic activities in living organisms. In the process
of excretion. Waste products produced in the body of an organism are separated and removed.

Waste products generated in human body

The waste products generated in human body include carbon dioxide, water,
nitrogenous compounds like urea, ammonia, uric acid, bile pigments, excess salts etc.

Excretory Systems in Human being

Human excretory system mainly consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair ureters, urinary
bladder and urethra.
Kidneys : In human beings Kidneys are a pair of bean shaped, reddish brown
structures in the abdominal Cavity attached to dorsal body wall, one
on either side of the back bone.
Ureters : Each Ureter arises from hilus of the kidney. These are a pair of whitish,
narrow distensible and muscular tubes measuring 30 cm in length.
Ureters open into the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder : It is a median, pear shaped and distensible sac. It stores approximately
300-800 ml of Urine temporarily.
Urethra : Urethra is a tube that take urine from urinary bladder to outside The
opening of urinary bladder into urethra is guarded by a ring of muscles
or sphincter. Urethra is 4cm long in females and in males it is 20 cm
long.

Internal Structure of the kidney:

When observing internal structure of kidney, It shows two distinct regions. Dark
coloured outer zone is called cortex and pale inner zone is called medulla. Each kidney
consists approximately 1.3 to 1.8 million microscopic thin tubules called nephrons.

26
 Observe the pictures below.
convoluted
malpighian body tubule (PCT)

glomerulus efferent arteriole

cortex
medulla
afferent
arteriole
{ convoluted
tubule (DCT)
Bowman’s capsule

{
collecting duct
renal artery
renal vein hilum
capillary network

nephron ureter
loop of Henle

calyces open to pelvis

pelvis
Internal structure of kidney
Structure of a nephron

Structure of nephron:
Each nephron has two parts 1) Malphigian body 2) Renal tubules
Malphigian body: Consists of blind cup shaped broader end of nephron called Bowman's
capsule and bunch of fine blood capillaries called glomerulus. Afferent arteriole enters the
bowman's capsule forms a bunch of blood capillaries and leaves the bowman's capsule
as efferent arteriole which has a lesser diameter than afferent arteriole.
Bowman's capsule in lined by a single layer of squamous epithelial cells called
podocytes cells. There are fine pores between podocyte cells.
Renal tubule: Renal tubule consists of proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), loop of
Henle, Distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Distal Convoluted tubule opens into a collecting
tube. All the parts of the renal tubule are surrounded by a network of peritubular capillaries
formed from efferent arteriole.

Different Stages in Urine formation :

Formation of urine involves four stages. (i) Glomerular filtration (ii) Tubular Re-absorption
(iii) Tubular secretion (iv) Formation of hypertonic urine
1. Glomerular filtration: Blood flows from renal artery to glomerulus through afferent
arteriole, as a result pressure filtration takes place. Due to this waste molecules and
some Water along with useful substances are filtered and enter into the Bowman's capsule.
This pressured filtration is called glomerular filtration. The filtrate formed in Bowman's
capsule is called primary urine.

27
2. Tubular Re-absorption: Filtrate formed after glomerular filtration is almost equal to
blood in chemical composition except the presence of blood cells. The peritubular
capillaries present around the Henle's loop reabsorb all the useful components and excess
water from primary urine.
3. Tubular secretion: Waste products left unfiltered in the blood are secreted by the
peritubular capillaries into the loop of Henle.
4. Formation of concentrated Urine: Urine passes from loop of Henle to Distal
convoluted tubule. Where it gets further concentrated by the action of hormone called
Vasopressin. Deficiency of vasopressin causes excessive, repeated, dilute urination.
The condition is called diabetes insipidus.
Composition of Urine
Urine is a pale yellow coloured fluid. Urine has amber color due to the presence
urochrome, which is formed by the denaturation of Haemoglobin.
Urine contains 96% of water, 2.5% of organic substances (urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine, B, C, vitamins, hormones, oxalates), 1.5% of inorganic substances (sodium,
chloride, phosphate, sulphate, magnesium, calcium, iodine).
What happens if both kidneys fail completely?
Kidney failure is called End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD). If kidneys stop working
completely, our body is filled with extra water and waste products as a result you feel
tired and weak. This condition is called uremia.
Dialysis or kidney transplantation is done for the people whose kidney's fail to
work.
Process of Dialysis:
In the process of dialysis, blood is filtered artificially in a machine called dialyzer.
This process of artificial filtration is called haemodialysis. In this process blood is taken
out from the main artery, mixed with an anticoagulant, such as heparin and then send into
the apparatus called dialyzer. In this apparatus blood flows through tubes which are
madeup of cellophane. These tubes are embedded in the dialyzing fluid. The membrane
separates the blood flowing inside the tube and dialyzing fluid. As nitrogenous wastes
are absent in dialyzing fluids, these substances from the blood move out freely, there by
filtering the blood of its wastes. The filtered blood is pumped back on to the body
through a vein after adding anti-coagulant. Each dialysis session lasts for 3 to 6 hours.
Kidney transplantation
The best long term solution for kidney failure is kidney transplantation. A functioning
kidney from a donor preferably a close relative is transplanted. Now a days kidney from

28
the donor or from brain dead patients are collected and transplanted. This is called organ
donation.
Accessory Excretory Organs in Human body
Kidneys are the most important excretory organs. In addition to kidneys there are
Certain organs which have their own specific functions but carry out excretion as a
secondary function. These are lungs, skin, liver and large intestine. Small amount of
nitrogenous wastes are also eliminated through saliva and tears.
Lungs: Lungs excrete carbon dioxide and water vapour formed in the process of respiration.
Skin: Sweat glands in skin excretes excess water and salts from the body in the form of
sweat. Sebaceous glands in skin eliminate sebum.
Liver: The life span of RBC is 120 days, Later RBC are destroyed in the liver. As a
result of haemoglobin destruction, bile pigments like biliverdin, bilirubin and urochrome
are produced. The urochrome is excreted through urine.
Large intestine: Excess salts of calcium, magnesium and iron are seperated by epithelial
cells of colon and are elimination along with the faeces.

Excretion in Plants
The biochemical substances produced in plants are of two types, they are 1. Primary
metabolites 2. Secondary metabolites. The materials required for the normal growth and
development of the plant are called Primary metabolites Eg. Carbohydrates, fats and
proteins. The materials which are not required for normal growth and development of
plant but help in self defence, pollination, seed dispersal, and help the plant to recover
from an injury are called secondary metabolites. They are Tannins, Resins, Gums, Latex,
Alkaloids.
Tannins: Tannins are carbon compounds. These are used in tanning of leather and in
medicines e.g. Cassia, Acacia.
Resins: Resins are stored in resin passages. These are used in varnishes- e.g. Pinus.
Gums: Some plants oozes out a sticky substance when branches are cut these are called
gums. The gum swells by absorbing water and helps in the healing of damaged parts of a
plant. Gums are used as adhesives and binding agents in the preparation of the medicines,
food, etc. Eg: Neem, Acacia.
Latex: Latex is a sticky, milky white substance. Latex is stored in latex cells or latex vessels
of a plant. Eg: Rubber Plant.
Alkaloids: Alkaloids are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous substances produced by
the plants. These are stored in different parts of the plants.
29
 ALKALOID PLANT PART USES
Quinine Cinchona Bark Antimalarial drug
Nicotine Tobacco Leaves Insecticide, stimulant

Morphine, Cocaine Opium Fruit Pain killer

Reserpine Snake root Root Medicine for High BP
Caffeine Coffee Seed Central nervous
system Stimulant
Nimbin neem Seeds, Barks, Leaves. Antiseptic
Scopolamine Datura Fruit, flower Sedative
Pyrethroids Chrysanthemum Flower Insecticides

Differences between Excretion and Secretion

Excretion Secretion
● Removal of waste materials from a organism ● Movement of materials from one
point to other point
● passive process ● Active process
● Tears, Sweat, Urine, Carbon dioxide ● Enzymes, Hormones, Saliva

Practice Questions
❋ Very Short Questions:
1. Differentiate between Excretion, Secretion?
2. Write about any two accessory excretory organs.
3. Write two slogans needed for campaigning organ donation.
4. What would happen if the kidneys fail to function.
5. What are the waste products generated in the human body?
❋ Short Questions:
1. Explain the human excretory system with a neat labelled diagram?
2. Describe the process of dialysis?
3. Write about the alkaloid that are useful in every day life?
4. Write the differences between primary and secondary metabolites.
5. Explain the composition urine?
❋ Essay Type Questions:
1. Describe the structure of nephron with a neat labelled diagram?
2. Explain the procedure followed in the lab to observe the Internal structure of a
kidney.
3. Write about Secondary metabolites of plants, plants in which they are found and
their uses?
4. Explain the different stages of urine formation?

30
5. Observe the table below.
Quanine Bark Antimalarial drug
Caffeine seeds Central nervous system stimulant
Nimbin Seeds, bark, leaves Antiseptic
Reserpine Root Medicine for High Blood pressure

Answers the following questions.

i) Write the names of any two alkaloids from the above table
ii) Which parts of plants are used as alkaloids?
iii) From the above table name the alkaloids obtained from Neem, Coffee?
iv) Quinine, reserpine are used to prevent which diseases?
❋ Multiple Choice questions:
1. Identity the correct pair of the following ( )
A) Tannin - Pinus B) Resin - Cassia C) Gum - Neem D) Latex - Acacia
2. Which the following is not an accessory excretory organ ( )
A) Skin B) Large Intestine C) Lungs D) Small intestine
3. Identify the Correct Sequence ( )
A) Glomerular filtration → Tubular Secretion → Tubular re-absorption →
Formation of hypertonic urine
B) Glomerular filtration → Tubular secretion → Formation of hypertonic urine
→ Tubular reabsorption.
C) Tubular Secretion → Tubular reabsorption → Glomerular filtration → Formation
of hypertonic urine
D) Glomerular filtration → Tubular reabsorption → Tubular secretion → Formation
of hypertonic urine.
4. Identify the components in the composition of urine. ( )
A) 95% water, 2.5% organic substances, 1.5% inorganic substances
B) 96% water, 1.5% organic substances, 2.5% inorganic substances
C) 96 % water, 2.5% organic substances, 1.5% inorganic substances
D) 96% organic substances, 1.5% inorganic substances, 2.5% water
5. Which of the following is not a part of renal tubule ( )
A) Bowman’s capsule B) Proximal convoluted tubule
C) Distal convoluted tubule D) Loop of Henle
6. Diabetes Insipidus means ( )
A) Concentrated urine, less urination
B) Dilute urine, excessive urination
C) Concentrated urine, excessive urination
D) Dilute urine, less urination

31
 CHAPTER

5 Control and Coordination

In our body the nervous system and endocrine system work together to control and
coordinate all our activities such as physical actions, our thinking process and emotional
behaviour. In plants nervous system is absent. But phytohormones control the life process.
Nervous system
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, sense organs and nerves. The
sense organs receive the stimulus and this stimulus with the help of sensory nerves
reaches brain and spinal cord. This information will be sent to different organs by motor
nerves for action.
Structure of Nerve cell dendrites

The nerve cell is the structural and functional unit nissl’s granules
nucleus
of nervous system. The nerve cell carries impulses. cell body
The nerve cell consists of three parts (i) Cyton (ii)
Axon (iii) Dendrites
axon
Cyton is the cell body having large nucleus. Nissil
grannules are present in the cyton. Dendrites arise from node of ranvier
myelin sheath
the cyton. They are much branched the axon is the long
and cylindrical process that arises from the cyton. It is
surrounded by a layer of fatty material knowns as myelin axon terminal

sheath. It is broken at regular intervals and these broken Nerve cell

spots are called as nodes of Ranavier.
Synapse
Dendrites of nerve cell connect to the other or to the
axons of other nerve cell through connection called synapse.
Synapse
Synapse is the functional region between two neurons where
information from one neuron is transmitted or relayed to
another neuron.
Types of Nerves Synapse

Based on the function, nerves are divided into three types 1) Sensory nerves (Afferent
nerves) (2) Motor nerves (Efferent nerves) (3) Mixed nerves

32
Sensory nerves: Sensory nerves are also called as afferent nerves. They carry the
impulse from receptors (sense organs) to the central nervous system (Brain and Spinal
cord)

Sensory nerve

Motor nerves: Motor nerves are also called as efferent nerve. They carry impulse from
central nervous system to different body parts.

motor nerve
Associated Nerves: The nerves whith afferent and efferent nerves are called associated
nerves.
Reflex arc
inter neuron
The single pathway that goes spinal cord
upto the spinal cord from detectors
sensory nerve
and returns to the effector muscle is a
motor nerve
reflex arc. components of Reflex arc
effector muscle
are (1) Receptor (2) Sensory nerve (3)
Association nerve (4) motor nerve (5)
effector organ.
detector
Reflexarc can be shown as stimulus
Reflex arc
→ Receptors of sense organs →
sensory nerve fibres → Brain → Spinal cord → Motor nerve fibres → muscles/glands.
Divisions of Nervous System
Following are the different division of nervous system found in Human beings.
Nervous system

Central Nervous Systems Peripheral Nervous Systems

Brain Spinal Cord Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System consists of brain and spinal cord.
Structure of Brain: Brain is a soft structure present inside the cranium of skull. It is
protected by three layers. The fluid present in between these layers is called cerebrospinal
33
fluid. This fluid protects the brain from the cerebrum

shocks.
Corpus
The outer portion of the brain contains Diencephalon
cell bodies of the nerve cell these and are pons varoli
grey coloured. This portion is called grey cerebellum
pituitary gland
matter. the inner portion of the brain contains spinal cord
medulla
axons of the nerve cell. As these axons contain
Brain
white myelin sheath this portion of the brain
is called white matter.
Brain contains following parts
1. Fore brain: It contains cerebrum and diencephalon
2. Mid brain: It contains optic lobes
3. Hind brain: It contains cerebellum and medulla oblongata
Functions of the parts of the brain
Brain Parts Structure Functions
Olfactory Clubshaped Sense of smell
lobes
Cerebrum It contains two lobes called ● seat of mental abilities
cerebral hemispheres. The ● controls thinking, memory, reasoning
surface of the cerbrum has perceptions and speech
folds. The elevations of the
Fore folds are called Gyri and
brain depressions are called Sulci.
Diencephalon It is in Rhomboidal shape. It Controls emotions such as anger, Reflex
is divided into thalamus and centre for muscular activities, centre for
hypothalamus water balance, blood pressure, body
temperature, sleep and hunger. The
hypothalamus controls the pitutary gland.
Mid Mid brain Small stalk like structure It relays motor impulse from the cerebral
brain cortex to the spinal cord and relays sensory
impulses from spinal cord to thalamus.
Reflexes for sight and hearing
Hind Cerebellum It contains two large cerebral Maintains posture, equalibrium and musule
brain hemispheres. tone.
Medulla It is in traingular in shape. Controls cardiac, respiratory, vasomotor
oblongata activities, coordinates reflexes like
swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomting

34
Structure of Spinal cord
Spinal cord extends from the back of the hind brain to the back of the stomach
through the neural canal of vertebral column. It is almost cylindrical in shape. In spinal
cord the white matter is towards periphery while grey matter is towards the centre of
spinal cord. The myelinated axons leave the spinal cord from both the sides of the
vertebral column. The spinal cord is not only a road for passing instructions from the
brain but it also acts as controlling centre.
Peripheral Nervous system
The peripheral nervous system is formed by 12 pairs of cranial nerves that are
which arise from the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerve arises from the spinal cord. The
peripheral nervous system is a vast system of the dorsal and ventral root spinal and
cranial nerves that are linked to the brain and spinal cord on one end and senseorgans on
the other.
Autonomous nervous system
The peripheral nervous system involuntarily controls the several functions of regions
like our internal organs (for example blood vessels smooth and cordiac muscles) so it is
called autonomous nervous system. It has voluntary control on muscles of some areas of
skin and the skeletal muscles also. Normally such involuntary activities take place by
the coordinating effort of the medulla oblongata and autonomous nervous system.
Sympathetic Nervous System: It is formed by the chain of ganglia on either side of the
vertebral column and the associated nerves.
Para Sympathetic Nervous System: It is formed by the nerves arising from the ganglia
of the brain and the posterior part of the spinal cord.
The sympathetic and para sympathetic nervous system together constitute
autonomous nervous system. These are considered as a part of peripheral nervous system
only.
Endocrine System:
Endocrine system works with the chemical substance known as hormone. These
hormones are secreted directly into the blood by the endocrine glands.
Duct and Ductless glands:
The secretion of some glands flows in the vessels they are called duct glands
whereas the secretion of some glands does not flow in the vessels their secretion directly
mixes in the blood these glands are called ductless glands. The system formed by the
ductless glands is endocrine system. Liver secretes its secretions in the vessels so it is
called duct gland. Pancreas is the example for mixed gland. It acts as both duct and
ductless glands. ‘Islets of Langerhans’ present in the Pancreas, secretes insulin. Insulin
regulates the glucose level in the blood. The person suffering from diabetes will be given
insulin injection.

35
The endocrine glands their secreted hormons and its response on Human body:

Name of Response of body to Hormone

the endo- Location Hormone secreted

Pitutary Floor of Growth Hormone (or) Growth of bones

gland brain Somatotrophin
(Master Stimulates the secretion of Thyroxine
Thyroid stimulating
gland)
hormone (TSH)
Adreno cartico Trophic Stimulates the secretion of adrenal
hormone (ACTH)a cortex
Follical Stimulating In female growth of graffian follicles,
hormone (FSH) stimulates the secretion of progestron.
Gonadotropin hormone Activity of ovary and testies
Lutenising Hormone (LH) In females ovulation, development of
corpus luteum;
Prolactine In females development of mammary
glands, promotes milk production.
Oxytocine Controls the contraction of uterus
muscles.
Vasopressin Regulates the reabsorption of water

Thyroid Neck Thyroxine Effects in general growth rate and

gland metabolical activity

Ovary Below the Progestron Growth of the uterus development of

abdomen Estrogen mammary glands
control of menstrual cycle

Testies Scrotal Testosterone Development of secondary sexual

sacs characters in males.

Adrenal above the Adrenalin Increase in heart beat, Rise in blood

gland kidney Sugar, Dialation of coronary artery

Pancreas Near Insulin Decrease of sugar levels in blood.

deuodenum Glucagon Increase of Sugar levels in blood.

Feedback Mechanism:
Feedback mechanism is the mechanism of self-controlling. The mechanism which
exists in our body to regulate the production and release of hormone in the body is
feedback mechanism. This feedback mechanism plays an important role in bringing back

36
the increased metabolic rate by the secretion of hormone to normal rate. For example,
Insulin releases more in blood when the sugar level is more than the normal value. When
the sugar level in the blood comes to normal position the secretion of insulin decreases.
Control and coordination in plants
In plants nervous system and endocrine system are absent but there is a controlling
mechanism by hormones. These hormones are called phytohormones. Plants can sense the
presence of stimuli like light, hot water, touch pressure, chemical gravity etc. The hormones
present in plants are called phytohormones. Phytohormones coordinate the activities of
the plant usually by controlling one or other aspect of the growth of the plant hormones
are called as growth substances. The first plant hormone Auxin was discovered by Went.

Phytohormones Uses

Auxins Cell elongation and differentiation of shoots and roots

Cytokinins Promote cell division, development of sprouting of lateral buds, opening of

stomata
Gibberellins Germination of seed, sprouting of buds, elongation of stem development of
seedless fruits. Breaking the dormancy in seeds and buds...
Abscicic acid Closing of stomata, promoting seed dormancy promoting the aging of
leaves
Ethylene Ripening of fruits

Tropic and Nastic movements in plants:

The movement of individual parts of plants is possible when they are subjected to
an external stimulus.
In plants there are two types of movements, they are tropic movement and nastic
movement. In tropic movement the direction of stimuli determines the direction of the
movements but where as in nastic movement the direction of movement may not be
determined by direction of stimuli.
When we touch the leaflets of ‘touch me not’ plant they shrink. This type of movement
is nastic movement.
The response of plant to light and showing movement towards light is called
‘phototropism’.

37
 Tendrils are thin thread like growth. They grow towards the support and wind
around them. This type of response to make contact (or) touch is called ‘thigmotropism’.
Roots always grow towards the earth which is called ‘geotropism’.
The plants which grow near a rock or wall side, they grow towards region containing
water. Such type of movement is called ‘hydrotropism’.
The chemical substance stimulates the pollen grain which falls on the stigma. This
type of response to chemicals is called ‘chemotropism’.

Practice Questions
❋ Very Short Questions:
1. What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?
2. Which part of the brain controls the body equilibrium?
3. Why endocrine glands are called ductless glands?
4. Give the examples for sex hormones in human beings?
5. What happens if more amount of adrenalin is secreted in the blood?
6. Give the example for mixed gland
7. Draw the well labelled diagram of synapse and explain its function
8. What happens if potted plant is kept near the window? Which side it grows?
9. Write the difference between Nastic movement and trophic movement.
❋ Short Questions:
1. What is the difference between sensory nerve and motor nerve?
2. Explain the autonomous nervous system with the help of an example.
3. Explain the Reflex arc with the help of diagram.
4. Explain the different types of trophic movements in plants with suitable examples.
5. Write any four questions which you would like to ask your teacher to know about
‘feedback mechanism’.
6. Prepare a table showing the different types of phyto hormones and their uses in
plants.
7. Explain the structure of Nerve cell with the help of a diagram.
❋ Essay Type Questions:
1. Explain the structure of Human Brain with the help of a diagram.
2. Explain the functions of various parts of the brain.

38
3. Observe the following table of endocrine glands and answer the questions given
below
Name of the Location Hormones Response of body to hormones
endocrine gland secreted
Pituitary gland Floor of the brain Somatotrophin Growth of the bones
Gonadotrophin Activities of ovaries and testis
Thyroid gland Neck Thyroxin General growth rate and
metabolic activities
Ovaries Lower abdomen Estrogen Controls menstrual cycle
Testis Scrotal sacs Testosterone Development of secondary
sexual characters
Adrenal gland Attached to kidneys Adrenalin Increase of heart-beat rise in
blood sugar

i) Identify the sex hormone which is found in females?

ii) Which hormone plays an important role in the development of secondary
sexual characters in male?
iii) Where the pituitary gland is located?
iv) Name the endocrine glands which secrete Thyroxin and Adrenalin hormones.
4. Observe the following table and answer the following questions.
Phytohormones Uses

Auxins Cell elongation and differentiation of shoots and roots

Cytokinins Promote cell division, development of sprouting of lateral buds, opening of

stomata
Gibberellins Germination of seed, sprouting of buds, elongation of stem development of
seedless fruits. Breaking the dormancy
Abscicic acid Closing of stomata, seed dormancy

Ethylene Ripening of fruits

i) Which phytohormones help in the growth of the plant?

ii) Which hormone ripens the nuts?
iii) What are the uses of cytokinins?
iv) Which hormone enhances seed dormancy? Which hormone works against it?
❋ Multiple Choice questions:
1. The total no. of Cranial nerves present in human being is ( )
A)12 pairs B) 43 pairs C) 33 pairs D) 10 pairs
2. Identify the correct pair ( )
A) Pituitary-Thyroxine B) Adrenalin-Testosterone
C) Ovary-Estrogen D) Pancreas-Gonadotrophin

39
3. Identify the nerve cell type ( )

A) Motor nerve B) sensory nerve C) mixed nerve D) Association nerve

4. Match the following ( )
a) Phototropism ( ) i) Gravity
b) Geotropism ( ) ii) Light
c) Hydrotropism ( ) iii) Chemicals
d) Chemotropism ( ) iv) Water
A) a-ii, b-iii, c-i, d-iv B) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii C) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv D) a-iii, b-iv, c-
ii, d-i
5. Mixed gland is ( )
A) Pituitary B) Adrenalin C) Pancreas D) Thyroid
6. Identify the incorrect pair ( )
A) Mid brain - cerebrum B) Forebrain - diencephalon
C) Hindbrain - cerebellum D) Hind brain - Medullaoblongata
7. Auxins were discovered by ( )
A) Charles Darwin B) Francis Darwin C) FW went D) Mendal
8. Islets of Langerhans are present in ( )
A) kidney B) liver C) Pancreas D) Trachea
9. Growth hormone is secreted by ( )
A) Pitutary gland B) Andrenal gland C) Pancreas D) Testis
10. Parts of the central nervous system ( )
A) Brain, Cranial nerves B) Spinal cord, Spinal nerves
C) Brain, Spinal cord D) Cranial nerves, Spinal nerves

40
 CHAPTER

6 Reproduction

Reproduction is a necessary life process for continuation of life by producing offspring.

Modes of reproduction:
There are two forms of reproduction: They are asexual and sexual.
Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces offspring that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parent without involving male and female gametes. It
includes different types, they are Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Parthenogenesis,
Regeneration, Vegetative Propagation and Sporogenesis.
Fission:
In this process, an organism divides into two or more parts and each part develops
into a that new organism resembles the parent organism. In binary fission parent cell
divides into two and in multiple fission it splits into many daughter cells. Ex: Single
celled organisms like Bacteria, Parmoecium etc.
Budding:
A new organism develops as an outgrowth or bud due to cell division from one
particular site of the parent cell or body. At maturity, the bud detaches from the parent
body and becomes an independent individual Ex:- Yeast, Hydra.
Fragmentation:
When a filamentous organism splits into pieces, each fragment develops into a
mature organism Ex:- Spirogyra, lichens and flatworms.
Parthenogenesis:
The process of development of young ones from unfertilized gametes is called
parthenogenesis. In these organisms the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into female
and unfertilized ovum develops into male. In this process the sperms develop by mitotic
division in male, whereas ova develop by meiotic division in females Ex:- Spirogyra,
honeybee, ants.
Regeneration:
The ability of an organism to give rise to a new individual from their body parts is
called regemeration. These body parts can regenerate into a complete organism
Ex:- Planaria .

41
Vegetative propagation:
Plants propagate by their vegetative parts like roots, leaves and stem structures.
They may propagate naturally or artificially.
A. Natural propagation:
It occurs through specialized structures of a mature plant roots, leaves and stem
structures like rhizomes, corms, bulbs, tubers, runners, stolons show such propagation.
Root buds: Sweet potato, Guava, Millingtonia, Murraya (Curry leaves) give rise to a new
plant from root buds.
Leaf buds: In Bryophyllum leaves develop small buds with adventitious roots at the margins,
which later give rise to a new plants.
Stem structures: The stem structurs like Rhizome in Ginger, Corm in Colocasia, Bulb
in Onion, Stem tubers in Potato, Runners in grasses, stolons in Jasmin and Strawberry
help in vegetative propagation.
B. Artificial Propagation:
Cuttings: A piece of the stem or branch having bud is cut off from the parent plant. When
the lower part of such cutting is buried in moist soil, it grows as an individual plant after
developing roots. Ex. Rose, Hibiscus.
Layering: A weak lateral branch of the plant with at least one node is bent towards the
ground and covered with moist soil. After few days adventitious roots develop from that
branch, then it is cut off from the parent and grown as a new plant. Ex: Nerium, Jasmine.
Grafting: It is a technique where two plants with desirable characters are joined to
continue their growth as a single plant. The grafted upper part is called the scion and the
lower part- which forms the roots is called stock. Plants with desirable characters can be
produced. Grafting is commonly used in cultivation of flower and fruit yielding plants.
Sporogenesis (Spore formation):
The spores are formed from sporangium, released after bursting the spongia and
germinate on reaching suitable substratum in favourable conditions and develop to form
a new individual. Ex: Fungi like Rhizopus, Mucor, few Bacteria, Moss and fern plants
reproduce by asexual spores.
Observing spores in fungus (Rhizopus).
Aim: To examine mycelial hyphae, sporangia, spores of Rhizopus.
Material required: Soft rotten bread or fruit or vegetable, polythene bag, Plain glass
slide, coverslip, water, disposable gloves.

42
Procedure:
● Leave the bread in the open air for an hour. Place the bread in a plastic bag, sprinkle
water over it to have dampness, then seal the bag, Place the bag in a dark, warm place.
Mold would start growing in 2-3 days.
● Using a toothpick, scrap very little of the mold and place it on the slide and add a
drop of water.
● Place a cover slip on the specimen without trapping air bubbles underneath.
● Use a tissue paper to remove excess water at the edges of the cover slip and view
the slide under a compound microscope.
Observations: Fine thread like structures called mycelial hyphae and on a small errect
hyphae knob like structures called Sporangia are seen. Each sporangium contains hundreds
of minute spores.

Bread

Rhizopus growing on bread Rhizopus mycelium seen under

microscope

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants: Stigma

Anther
Flower - The reproductive part. Filament
Style
The typical bisexual flower has sepals, petals, stamens
Corolla
and carpels. Sepals and petals are non-essential parts.
Stamens are male parts and are called androecium, produce
Calyx
male gametes in the form of pollen grains. Carpel is the
female portion called Gynoecium. It has three main parts Ovary

called ovary, style and stigma, produces ovules inside the

ovary. Parts of a flower

Pollination:
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the flower is called pollination.
It is of two types. They are;
Self-pollination: In this pollen grains are transferred to stigma of the same flower
Cross pollination: In this Pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of another flower of
the same plant or different plant of the same species.
43
Double fertilization - Triple fusion:
After pollination, pollen grains germinate on stigma to produce pollen tube and grow
through the style to reach the ovule. The pollen grains are with two male nuclei. The
ovule is attached by a stalk to the inner side of the ovary. Each ovule has microscopic
embryo sac. It has 7 cells, 8 nuclei.
Pollen tube carries 2 male nuclei. One fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid
zygote, it develops into an embryo. The other male nucleus fuses with the two polar
nuclei (secondary nucleus), forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm.
Because of two fertilizations, it is known as double fertilization.
1st male nucleus + Egg Cell → Zygote → Embryo (contained in a Seed) → New plant
2nd male nucleus + Secondary nucleus → Endosperm

stigma

pollen tube

style
antipodals

ovary polar nuclei

integuments
ovule synergids
gametophyte cells egg cell
central cell

embryo sac Female gametophyte

Fertilisation
Post-fertilization changes:
After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
The ovule develops a tough coat and converts into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and
ripens to form the fruit. Meanwhile the other floral parts may shrivel and fall off.
Reproduction in Human beings:
Male reproductive system:
Male reproductive system has (1) a pair of testes, (2) vasa Efferentia, (3) a pair of
Epididymis, (4) a pair of vasa Deferentia, (5) a pair of Seminal vesicles, (6) Ejaculatory
duct, (7) Prostate gland, (8) a pair of Cowper's glands, (9) Urethra.

44
Testis are located in the scrotum, hangs outside the body and maintains temperature
suitable for sperms. Each testis has highly
Ureters
coiled seminiferous tubules, in which millions Urinary bladder
of sperms are formed by meiosis. Vasdeferens
Epididymis stores sperms temporarily. seminal ducts
seminal vesicle
Vasa Efferentia; Vasa Deferentia- Are long,
prostate gland
thin tubules that serve as a passage for sperm.
Cowper's Gland, Prostate Gland, Seminal
penis
vesicles: Secrete fluids that stimulates, urethra
nourishes, neutralize the acidity and enables epididymis

the sperm to move.

testis
Ejaculator duct and Urethra: Two scrotum
Male reproductive system
ejaculatory ducts join at the center of urethra.
Urethra transports not only urine but also sperms. It is also called as urino-genital duct.
The passage of spermatozoa: Seminiferous tubules → vasa Efferentia → epididymis →
vasa diferentia → ejaculatory duct → urethra.
The sperm: The sperm has a head which bears acrosome. It Acrosome
helps the sperm to penetrate into the ovum. The head has male Head

nucleus. It fuses with the female nucleus. Head and middle piece Nucleus
Neck
are attached by neck. Mitochondria of middle piece produce Mitochondria
energy for the movement of the sperm. The tail helps the sperm to Middle piece

propel.
Tail
Female reproductive system: The parts of the female
reproductive system are (1) a pair of ovaries, (2) a pair of fallopian
tubes, (3) uterus, (4) vagina and the functional mammary glands.
Ovaries: The ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity. The
ova develop in tiny cellular structures called graafian follicles.
Each follicle contains a single ovum formed after meiosis. When Sperm cell
ovum mature, the follicle ruptures and releases the ovum. It is
called ovulation.
Fallopian tubes: Generally, the ovum enters the widened funnel of an oviduct (fallopian
tube), a tube that carries ovum to the uterus. Fertilization occurs as the ovum passes
through the fallopian tubes, thus forming zygote. The zygote under goes mitotic division
while travelling down in the fallopian tubes and reaches the uterus and transforms into a
solid ball of cells.
45
 fallopian tube
Uterus: It is inverted pear-shaped
structure. The inner layer of uterus is
called endometrium. It receives the funnel

embryo. If there is no fertilization the

ovary
endometrium disintegrates and flows out uterus

as menstrual fluid. If there is fertilization cervix

the thickness of endometrium continues, vagina

it provides nourishment to the Female reproductive system

developing embryo.
Pregnancy [Gestation period]: it is the period in which a foetus develops inside a
woman's womb or uterus. The embryo attaches to the soft tissues of the uterus, This is
called as implantation of an embryo. Certain cells of the embryo develop into membranous
structures called chorion, amnion, allantois, yolk sac. These layers nourish, protect, and
support the developing embryo. Placenta is a tissue formed by the cells of foetus and the
mother. Amnion join at the cord of allantois to form long tube called umbilical cord.
Pregnancy lasts, on an average 9 months [40 weeks or 280 days]. This period is called
gestation period.
Vagina: It is the outer canal of the female reproductive tract. During the delivery the
baby is pushed out of the body through the vagina.
Mammary Glands: During the end of pregnancy, a watery yellowish lymph like fluid
called 'colostrum' accumulates in the mammary glands. For the first few days after the
baby is born, the mammary glands secrete only colostrum. It is very important to feed
colostrum to the new born baby. It helps in developing the immune system of the child.
After this milk is secreted. In mother when production of milk stops menstrual cycle will
resume.

Birth control methods:

They are used to prevent unwanted pregnancy. Surgical methods of birth control
are available for males as well as females. In males a small portion of sperm ducts is
removed called vasectomy. In females a small portion of oviducts are removed called
tubectomy.

Reproductive health:
Physical devices such as condoms and diaphragm (cap) prevent fertilisation and
also STD like Gonorrhoea, Syphilis and HIV-AIDS. Every year 1st December is
considered as AIDS Awareness Day.
46
Cell division
According to cell theory cells arise from pre-existing cells, indicates the importance
of cell division in the creation of new cells. It is the process by which a cell divides into
two or more daughter cells.
Cell cycle: Cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and
divides. It has two stages. They are 1. Interphase 2. Division phase. A cell spends most
of its time in interphase, it replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.
The cell cycle has the following phases
M (1 hr)
G2 (3.5 hrs)
M

G2

G1
S

S (10.5 hrs)

G1 (10.5 hrs)

Cell cycle
Types of cell divisions: It is 2 types; they are Mitosis and Meiosis.
MITOSIS: It is somatic division. 2 daughter cells are produced. Both are genetically identical
to the parent cell.
Interphase: It's a longest phase. All the materials required for division are prepared in this
phase. cell shows large nucleus and dense cytoplasm, It has 3 stages, they are;
i) G1 Stage- cytoplasm and organelles are synthesized, the cell size increases during
this phase.
ii) S Stage- DNA Synthesis stage, leads to duplication of chromosomes.
iii) G2 Stage- all the proteins necessary for division are synthesised.
Mitotic phase: It has two divisions. They are Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis: Division of the nucleus is called as 'karyokinesis'. It has four phases.
They are; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
1. Prophase: Chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes. Centrosome devides
into centrioles and forms the ends of spindle fibers. Chromosomes split length-wise to
form chromatids.
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 Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
Mitosis

2. Metaphase: Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator. Spindle apparatus is

clearly seen between the opposite poles and spindle fibres attached to Centromeres.
3. Anaphase: It occurs rapidly. Centromeres split, separating chromatids as a result
Daughter chromosome are formed. Spindle fibres pull daughter chromosomes (sister
chromatids) to opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase: The daughter chromosomes arrive at both the poles, of the cell. Nuclear
membrane is resynthesized around each set of daughter chromosomes. Nucleoli
re-appear in each daughter nuclei. As a result, two nuclei are formed at both poles of a
cell. Daughter chromosomes elongate, become invisible due to decondensation, forming
chromatin.
Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm is called as cytokinesis. As soon as the telophase
completed, the remnants of spindle fibres and Golgi complex reach the cell plate and produce
cell wall materials where the parent cell divides into two daughter cells. In plant cells cell
plate, in animal cells, cleavage furrow forms at the equator to divide cell during cytokinesis.

Meiosis
It is a reproductive division, by the process of meiosis 4 daughter cells are produced.
Chromosomes in the daughter cells are reduced to half. Haploid gametes or spores are
formed from a diploid parent cell.
It has two nuclear divisions. 1st nuclear division is Meiosis-I and 2nd is Meiosis-II.
Meiosis-I is a reductional division in which '2n' parent cell divides into 2 haploid (n)
daughter cells.
Meiosis-II is like mitosis, in this division 2 haploid (n) daughter cells of Meiosis-I
undergoes one mitosis. As a result FOUR haploid (n) daughter cells are formed at the end
of meiosis.

48
 Prophase 1 Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1 Telophase 1
Meiosis Fou haploid (n)
Daughter cells

Comparison of Cell Divisions

Mitosis Meiosis

Number of divisions 1 2

Number of daughter cells 2 4

Genetically identical Yes No

Chromosome Number Same as parent Half of the parent

Where Body cells Germ cells

When Throughout life At sexual maturity

Role / Significance Growth, Repair Maintains constant number

of chromosomes

49
 Practice Questions
❋ Very Short Questions:
1. What would happen if, organisms do not reproduce?
2. When does parthenogenesis occur. Give examples.
3. What would happen if meiosis fails to occur in sexually reproducing organisms?
4. What precautions will you suggest to prevent sexually transmitted diseases?
5. How does the repair of worn-out parts take place in multicellular organisms?
6. What are the different artificial vegetative propagation methods used in plants?
❋ Short Questions:
1. Write the differences between grafting and layering.
2. What are the advantages of grafting?
3. Name the plants which propagate vegetatively by stem structures?
4. Name some important crop plants of daily life, which can be cultivated by using
their vegetative parts?
5. Write the differences between regeneration and fragmentation.
6. Write the differences between mitosis and meiosis.
7. Explain the structure of human sperm.
❋ Essay Type Questions:
1. Draw a neat labelled diagram of human female reproductive system and explain.
2. Write the apparatus used and procedure followed to observe the sporangia of Rhizopus
in the laboratory.
3. Draw the labelled diagram of a bisexual flower and explain briefly about each part.
4. Explain the double fertilization and triple fusion in angiosperms.
❋ Multiple Choice questions:
1. Identify the plant which propagates by root. ( )
A) Potato B) Sweet potato C) Ginger D) Onion
2. Identify the method of asexual reproduction in yeast from the following ( )
A)Binary fission B) Parthenogenesis C) Budding D) Spore formation
3. Identify the stage of cell cycle in which DNA replicates? ( )
A) Interphase B) Prophase C) Metaphase D) Anaphase

50
4. Match the following ( )
1. Prophase ( ) a) Nuclear membrane synthesized
2. Metaphase ( ) b) Daughter chomosomes are formed
3. Anaphase ( ) c) Nuclear membrane disintegrate
4. Telophase ( ) d) Alignment of chromosomes
A) 1-c; 2- a; 3- d; 4- b C) 1-d; 2- a; 3- b; 4- c
B) 1-b; 2- d; 3- a; 4- c D) 1-c; 2- d; 3- b; 4- a
5. The number of cells and nuclei in the embryo sac ( )
A) 7cells, 8 nuclei B) 8cells, 7 nuclei C) 1cell, 3 nuclei D) 3cells, 8 nuclei
6. Which part of the male reproductive system stores the sperm cells? ( )
A) Vasa Efferentia B) Epididymis C) Seminiferous tubules D) Seminal vesicles
7. Identify the diploid structure of flowering plants from the following ( )
A) Pollen grain B) Embryo C) Endosperm D) Embryo sac
8. One of the following organism does not reproduce by binary fission. ( )
A) Amoeba B) Spirogyra C) Euglena D) Paramoecium
9. Which of the following is a parthenocarpic fruit? ( )
A) Dates B) Almonds C) Banana D) Coconut
10. Identify the surgical method of contraception in females ( )
A) Hysterectomy B) Copper - T C) Vasectomy D) Tubectomy

51
 CHAPTER

8 Heredity and Evolution

We find different living organisms in the world around us. we see variation and
similarities among them. Differences in characters within very closely related groups of
organisms are referred to as variations. Passing of characters or traits from parent to
offsprings is called heredity. The process in which traits or characters are passed from
one generation to another generation is called inheritance.
Gregor Johann Mendel did many experiments on pea plants to explain how characters
and variations are passed from one generation to another.
Mendel reasons to choose pea plant for his experiments
Mendal choosed the pea plant for his experiments. Because of the following
advantages.
having well defined characters having Bisexual flowers
Predominantly self pollinating plant Suitable for cross pollination
It is an annual plant
Mendel choosed 7 pairs of contrasting characters in pea plants for his study. They are
color of the flower, postion of the flower, color of the seed, shape of the seed, shape of
the pod, color of the pod, length of the stem.
Mono hybrid cross
Mendel selected one character of pea plant and examined how that character is
passed to next generation.
When a pure breed yellow seed pea plant is cross pollinated with pure breed green
seed pea plant (parent generation) in the first generation (F1) all the pea plants were
with yellow seeds.
When these plants are self pollinated in F2 generation. 75% yellow seed pea plants
and 25% green seed pea plants were found it is in the ratio of 3:1.
Based on these results Mendel hypothesized some factors. Every character has factors,
which are called alleles.
If these factors are of same type, they are homozygous or if the factors are of different
type then they are referred to as heterozygous.

52
In F1 generation all pea plants are with yellow seeds, this character is called dominant
character and the green seed character which did not express is called recessive character.
In F2 generation 75% are yellow seed producing pea plants and 25% are green ones.
This is known as phenotype and this ratio is called phenotype ratio, It is 3:1. Based
on the factors genetic constitution it is [Link] ratio. It is known as genotypic ratio.

YY yy
Parent
pure breed pure breed green
generation
yellow seed plant seed plant

Y y

Gametes
cross pollination
Yy
F1 generation
100% yellow seed plants
(Yellow colour dominant character, green
colour recessive character)

Y y Yy

Gametes Y y Y y

Self pollination
Y y
Y YY Yy
y Yy yy
75% Yellow seed plants
F2 generation
25 % Green seed plants

Phenotypic ratio 3:1

Genotypic ratio [Link]

Y Y, yy are homozygous; Y y are heterozygous

53
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Mendel proposed laws of inheritance which include law of dominance, law of
segregation, Law of Independent Assortment.
Law of Dominance: Out of two factors which are responsible for a character, only one
factor is expressed in F1 generation and other factor remains recessive (or) suppressed,
this is the law of dominance.
Law of Segregation: The alleles received from the parents get separated and each one
enters into a separate gamete (sperm, ovum) randomly is called law of segregation.
Law of Independent Assortment: When two different characters pass from parent
generation to next generation one character of it except the opposite character does not
show influence on any other characters. This is law of independent assortment.
Sex Determination in Human Beings:
Each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of 23 pairs 22 pairs of
chromosomes are autosomes and one pair are Allosomes (or) sex chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes are two types one is ‘X’ and other is ‘Y’.
Females have XX chromosomes, where as males have XY chromosomes. Female
gamete (ova) have only one X chromosome. Male gamete (sperm) have two types of
chromosomes, one with X chromosome and other with Y chromosome.
If a sperm carries X chromosome fertilizes the ovum with X chromosome results in
a baby girl. If a sperm carries Y chromosome fertilizes the ovum with X chromosome
results in a baby boy.
Who determines the sex of the baby - mother or father?
Observe the flowchart below
Father Mother

Parents

44+XY 44+XX

22 22
+X Gyno +Y Andro
Sperm Sperm 22+X 22+X Gametes
Eggs

Offspings
Baby girl Baby boy Baby girl Baby boy
(44+XX) (44+XY) (44+XX) (44+XY)

54
 We can observe from the above flowchart that chromosomes in the sperm of the
father plays an important role in the sex determination of the baby. So, father is responsible
for the birth of a baby girl or a baby boy.
EVOLUTION:
From ancient times it is believed that living things do not change and remain the
same forever. But some scientists, after much research have proposed theories of evolution.
Inheritance of acquired characters proposed by Jean Baptist Lamarck
(Lamarckism):
According to lamarcks theory, at some point of time in the history the size of giraffe
was equal to that of deer. He thought that due to the shortage of food materials on the
ground and to reach the lower branches of trees giraffes started stretching their necks.
Because of continuous stretching of neck, after several generations giraffes developed
long necks. Such characters that are developed during the lifetime of an organism for its
need and survival are called acquired characters and passing of acquired characters to
its offsprings (next generation) is the "Inheritance of acquired characters", proposed by
lamarck.
August Weismann Experimental Results on Rats Tail:
August weismann removed tails of parental rats and observed that their offsprings
are normal with tails. He has done it again and again for 22 generations but still offsprings
are normal with tails. He disproved lamarck's theory "Inheritance of acquired characters"
saying that the bodily changes caused due to the surroundings are not inherited to their
offsprings.
Theory of Natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin (Darwinism)
Charles Darwin proposed 'Natural Selection' theory:
It states that the nature itself decides which organism should survive or perish from
it.
The organisms with useful traits will survive. Nature selects the one who survives.
The organisms with unfavourable traits will perish from its environment.
Each species tend to produce large number of offsprings. They compete with each
other for food, space, mating and other needs. Sometimes they have to compete
with other species for survival. In this struggle for existence, only the fittest can
survive. This is called 'struggle for existence'.
In a population when there is a struggle for the existence the fittest will be survived.
Nature favours only useful variations. Surviving in the struggle for life is called
'survival of the fittest'.

55
 The offsprings of survivors inherit the useful variations, and the same process
happens with every new generation until the variations becomes a common feature.
Above a long period of time this leads to the formation of new species. This new
species, is distinctly different from the original species.
All species on the earth have evolved in the same way.
Small changes within the species is known as "Micro evolution". Formation of new
species is known as "Speciation" or "Macro evolution".

Evidences of Evolution:
Some evidences for evolution are currently available. Some of the examples are:

Homologous organs Analagous organs

Evidences from Embryology Fossils Vestigial organs

Homologous Organs:
Similar arrangement of bones in the
forelimbs of organisms though their
functions are different, these organs are
called homologous organs, for example,
flippers of whale (swimmer) wings of a bat
(flyer) leg of a cheetah (runner) claw of a
mole(digger) and hand of a man(grasping).
Organs which are structurally similar and
functionally different are called homologous
organs. It indicates that all vertebrates have
evolved from a common ancestor. This type Homologous organs
of evolution is called divergent evolution.

Analogous Organs:
Organs which has structurally different but functionally similar Insect wing
are called analogous organs. For example, wings of insects and wings
of birds are structurally different but both are used for flying,
functionally similar, their origin is not common. This type of evolution
Bird wing
is called convergent evolution.
Analogous
organs

56
Evidences from Embryology:
There are remarkable similarities in the embryos of different animals from fish to
man. the resemblance is so close that at an early stage it is difficult to distinguish one
embryo from the other. Even a tadpole larva of a frog resembles fish more than the frog.
When we observe the life cycle, a every organism exhibits the structural features of their
ancestors. This indicates that all organisms have common ancestor, from which all
organisms have evolved.

Fossils:
If a dead organism as a whole or its body parts get caught in mud, they do not
decompose quickly and the mud will eventually harden and retain the impression of the
body parts of the organism. All such preserved traces of extinct organisms are called fossils.
Age and period of fossils is determined by radioactive isotopes of certain elements
such as Carbon, Uranium, and Potassium. By calculating the half life of radioactive
isotopes the age of fossils can be estimated.

Vestigial organs:
During the course of evolution some organs which are not useful, gradually disappear.
Some organs which do not have any function, but still remain in the body of organism are
called vestigial organs. Sometimes vestigial organs abruptly appears even in human beings.
This phenomenon is called 'ATAVISM'. Ex: baby with tail. In human beings appendix has no
role to play in the process of digestion. But in herbivores (rabbit, goat, horse) appendix
plays an important role indigestion. There are nearly 180 such vestigial organs in human
beings. Human being is said to be a moving museum of vestigial organs.
Practice Questions
❋ Very Short Questions:
1. Why Mendel choosed garden pea plant as material for his experiments?
2. Write the Phenotypic, Genotypic ratio of Monohybrid cross
3. Write the questions you would ask your teacher to know about evolution
4. What would happen if evolution does not take place?
❋ Short Questions:
1. Who decides sex of the baby - mother or father explain?
2. Explain the inheritance of acquired characters proposed by lamarck with examples.
57
3. Observe the table below and answer the following questions

Y y
Y YY Yy
y Yy yy
i) YY, yy - Indicates which characters?
ii) Write phenotypic ratio of the above
4. Write the results of experiment conducted by August Weismann.
5. Explain the laws proposed by Mendel.
❋ Essay Type Questions:
1. Explain monohybrid cross based on any one character.
2. Explain the evolutionary evidence with examples.
3. Explain the key points in the "theory of natural selection" proposed by Darwin.
❋ Multiple Choice questions:
1. Genotypic ratio of monohybrid cross ( )
A) [Link] B) 3:1 C) 1:3 D) [Link]
2. Homozygous state of the following ( )
A) yy B) Yy C) yY D) Yr
3. The number of chromosomes in women is indicated as ( )
A) 44 + XY B) 22 + XY C) 44 + XX D) 23 + XX
4. Identify the incorrect statement ( )
A) Homologous, analogous organs both show convergent evolution
B) Homologous organs show convergent evolution
C) Analogous organs show divergent evolution
D) Homologous organs show divergent evolution
5. Identify the correct pair ( )
A) Inheritance of acquired characters - August weismann
B) Natural selection - lamarck
C) Struggle for existence - Charles Darwin
D) Speciation - Mendel

58
6. Identify the following picture ( )
A) Vestigial organs
B) Analogous organs
C) Fossils
D) Homologous organs
7. Natural selection means ( )
A) Nature favours only fittest organisms
B) Natures reaction in living organisms
C) Organisms produce more offsprings
D) Ensuring that there are more trees in nature

59