T.L.

E 10

Mortalities

Mortality in fish production ponds has been considered an parameter in understanding the dynamics of
any population. Mortality, in general perspective, is synonymous to loss of life. In aquaculture, without
knowledge and enough understanding of how fast fishes are removed from a set of population. it is
impossible to identify the population dynamics within the pond.

Fish mortality is categorized into two types:

[Link] mortality refers to the loss of population from natural sources. which occurs after stocking.
This is mainly due to stress, predation, old-age, diseases, and in-pond water quality deterioration.

[Link] mortality refers to the loss of population from external factors such as the fishing activities
done in the pond, which affects the survival rate of aquatic species.

The mortality rate among ponds will vary depending on the size and number of aquatic species,
particularly fishes. A dead fish may float for [Link] days in warm water or may sink
immediately after dying in cold weather.

Dead fish have three important environmental concerns:

[Link] outflow of water occurs, carcasses and associated bacteria may be released to the ponds.

[Link] decomposition period of dead fish could impair in-pond water quality and cause effluent water
quality to decline.

[Link] bad smell from large fish kill could be a problem at the surrounding areas.

Factors that Contribute to Fish Mortality

Fish kill is common in any aquatic environment. It happens unexpectedly over a short period of time
involving a large number of dead fish. The following are factors that contribute to fish mortality.
[Link] Causes of Fish Mortality

[Link] depletion

Dissolved oxygen levels are dependent on the following:

[Link]

[Link] depth

[Link] movement
[Link]

[Link]

Oxygen depletion in aquatic environment happens when there is an imbalance in the natural nutrient
cycles. For instance, fish farmers who over-fertilize the fishpond and place high nutrient levels from
feeding causes oxygen depletion and even, fish kills.

[Link] of toxic algae

When nutrient competition becomes intense, some species of algae release toxic substances into the
water. The toxins produced by algal species can kill other algae that results in an algal population made
up of large numbers of toxin-emitting species.

Algal toxins are not produced by external sources. They naturally occur. Toxic algal blooms, harmful algal
blooms (HABs), and red tides are naturally occurring in any aquatic environment. There may be times
that human activities can contribute to the increased toxins.

[Link] sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide is not only dangerous to aquatic animals but also to humans. This can cause serious
health risk and even death, if inhaled by humans.

Hydrogen sulfide is a toxic gas that is commonly found at pond bottoms. It came from different sources
such as organic matters (e.g. fish waste, tree parts, and dead dish), chemicals containing sulfur, and
mixture of salt water, among others. For instance, when organic matters build up, they create a thin
black mud, that when turnover occurs,

releases hydrogen sulfide gas that smells like a rotten egg. A turnover happens when the surface water
mixes with water near the bottom.

[Link] due to bacteria or parasites

All aquatic animals are vulnerable to disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It can also be infected
by parasites such as lice, tapeworms, and leeches. These organisms are found at low levels in aquatic
environment with limited number of fish. Massive fish kill IS seldom caused by these organisms.
Diagnosing bacterial infections are difficult to do. However, these may appear as bloody rings or streaks
on the skin or at the edges of fish scales.
Fish mortality due to parasitic infections begins slowly with only one or few fish each day. As parasites
multiply, the number of dead fish continue to increase over time. It will only cause severityinmortality
rate of fishes when the aquatic environment is crowded, when most of the aquatic animals are stressed
or starving, and when the temperature or the level of chemical toxins are high.
B. Unnatural Causes of Fish Mortality

[Link]

In agricultural areas, pesticide runoff has been known to kill fishes. When the newly applied pesticides
are washed off by the rain into the ponds, lakes, or streams, its concentration level can be dangerous to
aquatic animals, especially when it reaches the lethal level. Pesticides that are improperly applied to
aquatic organisms also lead to fish kill. Some of the signs of fishes affected by pesticides are spinal
curves, dark reddish discoloration, loss of equilibrium, convulsion, and death. Smaller fishes will die first,
unlike in oxygen depletion, where larger fishes die first.

For instance, when a pond owner uses pesticides to control ticks and chiggers near the fishpond area, it
can easily cause fish mortality. Fish farmers and pond owners need to take extra precautions when
applying any chemical, especially near the fishpond area. Factors such as weather and temperature
should be monitored. Commonly used herbicides are usually not detrimental to fishes. However,
itmayrender the fishes inedible for human consumption and may prevent livestock from using the water
for up to 2 to 3 weeks.

2. Salt water

Different fishes have different water requirements to stay alive. This involves the proper salinity level,
pH level, and other parameters. Fish farmers also know that placing freshwater fishes to salt water can
kill the fishes and other aquatic animals.

Salt water can come from septic systems, livestocksaltlicks,and other sources that can enter the
[Link] water in a pond, fish farmers use chemical test kits. Monitoring the
quality of water, such as the salinity level in pond, prevents fish kill.
3. Sewage

A poorly maintained septic system or a broken pipe can be a source of a raw sewage that can enter the
fishpond and cause fish kill. The sewage is not usually toxic to the fish. However, it consumes the
available oxygen as it decays that triggers a low dissolved oxygen, resulting for fish to die.

With the loaded nutrients found in sewage, intense algal blooms may possibly occur. When the algae
reach a density sufficient to shade itself out, these would result in a partial or complete die-off of
phytoplankton. When this happens, dead phytoplankton decays may use up enough available oxygen to
cause a fish kill.

Preventions of Fish Mortality

A. Fish Suffocation

1. Do not apply excessive fertilizers.

2. Do not overstock fishes in the pond.

3. Ensure that manure and wastes will not enter the pond.

4. Only one-third of the pond must be treated with herbicide.

5. Emergency surface aerators or pump sprays should be installed.

6. Conduct a regular water quality test.

B. Fish Diseases and Parasites

1. Stock healthy fishes.

2. Regularly monitor the health of the fish.

3. Separate the different aquatic animals and then, exclude all the wild fishes.

4. Prevent any transfer of fish from other ponds.

5. Monitor and follow the recommended stock fish population.

6. Avoid stressing the fish and other aquatic animals.

7. Monitor the water quality.

Management of Other Factors that Affect Fish Mortality

1. Virus

[Link] and sanitize the equipment and facilities.

[Link] the infected population to avoid the contamination of other stocks.

[Link] filtration or sanitizing system.

[Link] report any viral outbreak to concerned persons.

2. Bacteria

a. Apply disinfectants on a regular basis.

b. Sustain optimal growth conditions.

c. Remove the sources of stress.

3. Fungal disease

a. Minimize physical injuries while handling, particularly during stocking, transporting, transplanting, and
harvesting.

[Link] the eggs with care.

c. Fishes should be at their best possible conditions.

4. Parasites and pests

[Link] a clean water supply.

[Link] a pathogen-free food.

[Link] hygienic practices in the area.

[Link] the different aquatic animals and then, exclude all the wild fishes.

[Link] not stress the fish and other aquatic animals.

[Link] overcrowding the pond.

[Link] a good filtering system for water intake.

General Management Approaches on Fish Mortality

[Link] flow should be increased.

[Link] pond should be flushed with clean, fresh water.

[Link] and bottom water should be pumped out.

[Link] water should be aerated.

[Link] and dying fishes should be removed.

[Link] weeds and organics should be removed.

Ways to Dispose Aquaculture Mortalities

[Link] is a controlled biological treatment that transforms aquaculture mortalities into a

valuable on-farm resource. If afish farmer intends to use this method, the site must be far away from
surface water to avoid pond contamination. To facilitate the breakdownofthe shell of mollusks and
crustaceans, crushingthem priortocomposting is recommended.

[Link] or recycling does not harm the environment. Fish carcasses can be used as fertilizers and
shells from shellfish can be used to create useful handicraft products. However, this method is not
appropriate when the cause of death of aquatic animals are due to certain diseases.

[Link] refers to the heating process that extracts usable ingredients such as protein meals and
fats. This method must be undertaken by a licensed professional.

[Link] depot (landfill) is done by depositing fish carcasses in a licensed waste depot. Dead stocks must
be stored and transported appropriately.

[Link]-site burial is usually a preferred option for fish farmers. This is quick and can be achieved easily.
The quantities of dead stock, proximity to surface water and groundwater, location of the site, and
permeability of soil should be considered by fish farmers who are using this method.

[Link] or burning is only considered if the disposal of aquaculture mortalities using the other
methods like composting and recycling are not part of the options. This method generates air pollution.
Other materials such as sawdust, paper, and timber off cuts may need to be added to assist the burning
process. Shellfish are not suitable to burn because of their hard shells. Burning aquatic animals in small
quantities may be appropriate in some circumstances. However, fish farmers need to ensure that the
process will not create an environmental nuisance like air pollution and bad odors to neighboring
properties.

Predators in Aquaculture

A predator is an animal that preys on aquaculture species like fishes, mollusks, and crustaceans. It can
cause damages to farm facilities directly of indirectly. Direct damage is manifested when the fish or
other cultured organisms
are killed or seriously damaged by the predator and lost from the production. Indirect damage includes
non-lethal wounding of fish; chronic stress with a consequent reduction in feeding efficiency or health;
transfer of harmful diseasecausing organisms, like bacteria, viruses and parasites; and sometimes, even
physical damage to aquatic animals.

Common Fish Predators

[Link] are the major reasons of fish loss at aquaculture facilities. These can have a significant economic
impact on operations. Aside from attacking the fish, these predators can injure fish, disrupt the feeding
activity, disturb the bloodstock, and contribute to the spread of diseases and parasites in aquaculture
ponds. Normally, these predators attack in open water and high fish stocking densities at aquaculture
facilities.
[Link] also attack other fish stocks that causes much stress. It is suggested to use screens in the inlets
and the outlets. Periodical pond draining is advised.

[Link] and toads usually attack juvenile tilapia and catfish. To avoid these predators, clearing the
bushes around the area is recommended.

[Link] and insect larvae attack juvenile fish, eggs, and fish that just hatched. As a control measure,
fish farmers are advised to use fish that feed on insect larvae like those that have gills and can remain at
the bottom.

[Link] (theft) attacks all types of fish in the pond and considered as one of the major fish predators.
Human attack is mostly common in cage culture and other intensive fish farming. However, it can be
controlled through employing security personnel, use of trained dogs, andfencing of the farm.

[Link] destroy larval and juvenile fish. To avoid these predators, fence properly and clear the bushes
around the pond.

A. Identify what is being asked in each of the statements. Write your before each number.

[Link] is a term that is synonymous to loss of life.

[Link] is a controlled biological treatment transforms aquaculture mortalities into a on-farm resource.

[Link] is an animal that preys on aquaculture like fish, mollusks, and crustaceans.

4. It involves chemical treatment application sufficient concentrations for a specific time in order to kill
pathogenic organisms have a direct contact with the surrounding systems.

5. It is an act of depositing fish carcasses.

B. Read each statement carefully. Write T if the statement is correct. If the statement is false, change
the underlined word/s to make the statement correct.

1. Mortality in fish production ponds has been considered as an essential parameter in understanding
the dynamics of any population.

2. Water flow should be decreased to manage fish mortality.

3. There may be times that human activities can contribute to the increased toxins.

4. Natural mortality refers to the loss of population from external factors such as the fishing activities
done in the fishpond.

5. It is easy to disinfect permeable surfaces as this requires more time.

C. Circle the letter of the correct answer.

[Link] of the following is a natural cause of fish mortality?

[Link] depletion c. salt water

[Link] d. sewage

[Link] of the following is an unnatural cause of fish mortality?

[Link] sulfide c. presence of toxic algae

[Link] depletion d. salt water

[Link] refers to the heating process that extracts usable ingredients such as protein meals and fats.

[Link] c. recycling

[Link] d. rendering

[Link] is the preferred option for disposing mortality by fish farmers as it is quick and can be achieved
easily.

[Link] c. on-site burial

[Link] d. waste depot

[Link] is a fish predator that destroys the larval and juvenile fish.

[Link] c. human

[Link] d. snake

Aquaculture Facilities

Aquaculture plays a vital role in the world market. As the demand for fish. crustaceans, mollusks, and
other aquaculture products continue to grow, better quality production is also expected by the
consumers. Hence, aquaculture facilities should be carefully cleaned and secured by fish farmers. The
facilities have a direct relationship on the level of production and returns of aquaculture products. As
such, poorly constructed ponds will give poorer production yields and returns. Aquaculture facility
pertains to various structures utilized in aquaculture like fishpond, fish cages, and fish pens.
[Link]
A fishpond primarily is a man-made constructed facility to supply for farming the high fishes demand
like tilapia of fishesand milkfish. market. It is The following should be considered when constructing a in
the fishpond:

[Link] regulations

Before establishing a fishpond facility, pond owners should consult a local agriculturest. By doing this,
they will be properly guided about their responsibilities and other local regulation requirements.

[Link] of the site

This factor can be elaborated as follows:

[Link] of ponds

-Embankment ponds have been put up by damming a small stream and can be economically constructed
on the actual stream sites. These ponds are common in the province.

- Excavated ponds are constructed by digging out an area that will be filled with water, usually runoff.

[Link] concerns

-Topography of the location allows economical construction as it directly affects the building costs and
the pond management. Locate the pond where source of enough water can be stored with the least
amount of earth fill.

-Soil with enough clay content is considered an excellent soil for holding water, because it stops the
water from immersing through. Taking soil samples at frequent intervals and have them analyzed to
determine its suitability is also recommended.

-Water supply is also an important factor in establishing pond location. Sources of water such as springs,
wells, or surface runoffs should be in place to ensure the adequacy of water during the pond operation
period. To sustain a suitable water level during summer or dry periods, the drainage area for the pond
that comes from the surface runoff should be large enough. The amount of water or runoff expected
from a watershed is affected by topography, soil types, and plant cover.

3. Construction

The following aspects of construction should be considered:

[Link] is a major factor that determines the kind of fish species to stock and the degree of management
needed to maintain these fishes.

Some of the problems encountered with small shallow ponds are aquatic vegetation, unbalanced fish
populations, and low water levels caused by drought. Overestimation of the pond size can lead to
overstocking of fishes. Ponds should undergo proper management to expect many years of satisfactory
fishing.

[Link] of an average fishpond is between 6-8 feet and a maximum depth of 12 feet. Deeper ponds do
not necessarily mean greater fish harvest. Shallow ponds tend to be more productive. However, ponds
that are too shallow suffer the risk of drying caused by summer drought.
[Link] outlets, such as drainpipes or water control structures, are considered as important structures
in the fishpond. When the pond is drained, necessary repairs are made possible. With this structure, the
presence of aquatic plants is controlled and better management of fish population is guaranteed.

Water quality is maintained by having a drainpipe that contains a bottom draw where the water can
easily flow at the bottom part of the pond. The structural damage can be prevented by having trash rack
over the standpipe. Emergency spillway directs water overflow or flood runoff away from the pond so
that the dam will not be damaged or destroyed.

4. Habitat of stock fish

[Link] quality

In order to survive, grow, and reproduce, fish need good water quality. When dissolved oxygen is high,
the quality water will be free from pollutants and excessive organic matter. It is recommended to fence
the pond to prevent the livestock from trampling the pond banks, which causes muddy water, loss of
fish, and pond shallowing.

To reduce the soil erosion and to prevent the fertilizers or pesticides to enter the fishpond, a vegetated
border is needed. The pond shoreline may be planted with desirable trees for shading and nutrient
uptake. Maintaining of at least 18 inches water visibility is necessary for plankton production. The
plankton in fishpond is useful in many ways. It serves as feeds for fishes and dissolved oxygen that
regulates sun's penetration.

[Link] structure

Providing artificial fish attractors are needed when the fishpond contains little fish cover. Fish covers are
things that protect the fish from predators such as weeds, logs, and rocks. Fish attractors are man-made
habitats such as stake beds, gravel beds, or brush reefs, that are necessary for concentrating fish that
provide substrate and served as the feeding location and shelter for young fish and other small aquatic
animals. One attractor is enough for a small pond. For larger fishponds, two to three attractors can be
provided.

[Link]

The productivity of the fishpond is determined by the water fertility. The use of fertilizer increases the
productivity of the pond through stimulating the growth of microscopic plants. As an effect of
fertilization, the water of the pond turns green, shading the bottom part, and prevents the growth of
nuisance aquatic plants. However, before beginning to fertilize the pond, water is tested to be sure that
its lime content is sufficient.

d. Liming

When the pond has soft, acidic water, the addition of lime is required to improve the fishing rate.
Moreover, when alkalinity is below 20 ppm, addition of agricultural limestone to neutralize the pond
bottom is highly suggested.

To determine the amount of lime needed, a mud sample should be analyzed. Even the application of
lime over the entire pond bottom is necessary. Liming the ponds is done every 2 to 4 years.
5. Aquatic vegetation

Supplying oxygen, providing cover, and serving as food for insects eaten by the fish are some of the
essential roles of aquatic plants in ponds. It also protects the pond's shoreline from wave erosion and
served as feeding and nesting habitat for waterfowls. Aquatic plants are desirable and beneficial to fish
communities, especially if it covers 20% to 30% of the pond's surface during summer period. However, it
can also harm aquatic animals if the plant densities are greater than 30%. Aquatic plants can be
manually, chemically, and biologically controlled. Manual control is the most common among the three.
It can be done by physically pulling, raking, cutting, digging, shading, or mowing nuisance plants.

6. Fish stocking

The available resources determine the kind of fish to stock. Transferring of fish from another pond is
discouraged. Such action can cause fish diseases. Stock the right species in the pond to ensure good
economic returns. Some of the fishes that are commonly stock in the fishpond are catfish, tilapia, blue
gill, and milkfish. In stocking a specific fish, consider its biological characteristics, productivity, mortality
factors, and marketability.

7. Management of fish population

Harvesting

Fish management aims to provide good fishing. Maintaining balance in the fishpond requires harvesting,
especially if the fish stock had already grown or the need to harvest arises to avoid overpopulation of
stocks, which may later cause greater damage. Harvesting is considered a difficult part in pond
management. The key is to practice a conservative harvest where fish are harvested in a sustainable
way.

Fish feeding

The productivity of the pond and the weight of the fish are determined by the amount of food produced
in the pond. While pondproduces natural food for fish, supplemental feeding may be beneficial,
especially when the harvest demand is high and large fish are desired.

Formulated fish feeds are in pellet form. The said supplement comes in twoforms either sinking or
floating [Link] farmers who are feeding the fish with floating pellets are able to see whether or not
the fishes are eating the feeds, since the feeds float.

c. Record keeping

To help pond owners evaluate the status of the fish population, records of numbers and sizes of fish
caught in the pond should be noted. Proper record keeping determines the effectiveness of the pond
management practices employed. Reviewing the records periodically and noting the differences or
changes that happen in the pond are some of the advantages of having a record.

d. Fish kill

Suffocation is the most common cause of fish kills that occurs when aquatic plants do not produce
enough oxygen for the fish to breath. The best way to prevent fish kill is to properly control the nutrient
inputs and oversupply of aquatic vegetation. Pond owners and fish farmers should avoid treating a large
amount of aquatic vegetation.

8. Testing the pond

Fishing is the best way to determine the condition of the fishpond. The fish caught can be examined and
evaluated to know if it is healthy and free from possible threats. Frequent fishing helps fish farmers
monitor the daily status of aquatic animals.

Steps in Constructing Earthen Fishpond

1. Survey the land

[Link] the reference point by clearing the land to get the line of sight. Temporary bench mark (TBM)
is normally applied in constructing a fishpond as a basis in establishing reference points. Elevations and
slopes are established through the TBM.

If there is an existing pond, use it as the reference point to get the heights of dikes.

If there is no existing pond, the fixed point on an inlet or outlet canal can be used as the TBM.

b. Use level and twine to measure the elevations from the supply canal.

c. Determine the slopes for both vertical and horizontal dimensions from the dike top to pond bottom.
This provides an understanding on how the water will flow from the pond to the drain or back to the
river.

d. Elevate the canals by placing blocks of timber or sand bags.

e. Survey across the bodies of water using bamboos, pipes, or other objects.

2. Clear all vegetation and remove top soil from the site

Vegetation and top soil should be removed from the site prior to excavation. These are not included in
constructing pond dikes.

3. Determine elevations in the pond

It is important to understand the layout of the land from where the pond is going to be constructed. This
helps the pond owners to identify the necessary elevations in the fishpond. The elevations of the pond's
inlet and outlet determine the placement of the pond drain. These elevations will also determine how
deep the pond can be.

4. Identify the areas of the pond to be excavated

Consider the dike slope, width, length, and depth of the pond to identify the size of the pond.

5. Excavate the pond area

Have a clear plan before excavating the area of the pond. Farm workers should know where to dig and
where to place the soil.

6. Build the dikes

Walls or dikes are the most important components when constructing a pond. These are constructed
using the soil excavated from the pond area.

7. Install the drainage system

a. Install the drainage system when the dike has been raised at least above the original ground level.

b. Across the dike, cut a trench for the drainpipe at the selected point in the deep end.

c Lay the pipe at the proper slope (not less than 1%) through the dike.

d. Place a screen at the outflow to make sure that the cultured fish are protectedfrom predators and
unwanted fish or other aquatic animals.

8. Fill the pond with water

Fill the pond with the appropriate amount of water.

B. Fish Cage

A fish cageisan enclosed aquaculture facility situated in a stream, a river, a lake, or a reservoir; wherein,
the bottom part is supported by floats or a fixed frame.

C. Fish Tank

A fish tank is a container used in culturing fish. The following are the standard tanks used in
aquaculture:

1. Round tank
2. Raceway rank
3. D-ended tank

Nets in Aquaculture

A net is length of open-meshed material used primarily to catch fish.

Types of Nets Used in Catching

1. Bottom trawl net

2. Drift net
3. Cast or throw net
4. Drive-in net
5. Fyke net
6. Hand net
7. Ghost nets
8. Gillnet
9. Landing net
10. Lift net
11. Seine net
A. Match the items in column A with the items in column B. Write your answer on the line before each
number.

  

A B

1. It pertains to various structures a. facilities

utilized in aquaculture like fishpond, b. fish cage

fish cage, and fish pen. c. fishpond

2. It is a man-made facility for d. frames

farming fish like tilapia and milkfish. e. net

3. It is an enclosed aquaculture facility f. tank

situated in stream, river, lake, or reservoir.

4. It is a container used in culturing fish.

5. It is a length of open-meshed material

used primarily to catch fish.

B. Identify what is being asked in each of the statements. Write your answer on the line before each
number

1. A fish needs this factor in order to survive, grow, and reproduce.

2. This pond is constructed by digging out an area that will be filled with water, usually runoff.

3. This is a major factor that determines the kind of fish species to stock and the degree of management
needed to maintain these fishes in the pond.

4. These are things such as weeds, logs, and rocks that protect the fish from predators.

5. It aims to provide good fishing.