MODES OF FAILURE AND
3 MATERIAL DAMAGE
MECHANISMS
3.1 MODES OF FAILURE AND MATERIAL DAMAGE MECHANISMS
The following are the most common material damage mechanisms:
Failure by fracture and plastic collapse
Damage by fatigue
Damage by creep and creep fatigue
Failure by leakage of containment vessels
Damage by corrosion and/or erosion
Damage by environmentally assisted cracking
Failure by instability (buckling)
For each flaw or flaw type consideration should be given to the following points:
The potential modes of final failure
Any possible material damage mechanisms leading to property degradation or
sub-critical flaw growth
Material damage and sub-critical flaw growth can be affected by the material itself,
design features, stress levels, time, cyclic loading, composition and concentration
of process fluids and additives, flow rates, operating temperatures, external
environment, etc., though not all these considerations apply to any given material
damage mechanism. The following are examples of some of the most common
material damage mechanisms.
3.1.1 EMBRITTLEMENT
This type of damage can be caused in some materials by irradiation, temper-
embrittlement, or by caustic, hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide rich environments.
Hydrogen embrittlement resulted in several aircraft accidents after the engine
manufacturer switched from cadmium to zinc plating on a crankshaft bolt.
Figure 3.1 652541 nut used on Continental TSIO-520M engine
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Figure 3.2 Hydrogen attack
3.1.2 CORROSION
Corrosion is the chemical attack on metals due to the interaction with their
environment. There are many forms of corrosion such as uniform corrosion, local
corrosion, galvanic corrosion, crevice corrosion, erosion-corrosion, stress corrosion
cracking (SCC), flow accelerated corrosion (FAC), internal corrosion etc.
[Link] Uniform Corrosion
Uniform corrosion also known as general corrosion, is the uniform loss of metal
over an entire surface as can be seen from figure 3.3. This leads to relatively
uniform thinning on sheet and plate materials and general thinning on one side or
the other (or both) for pipe and tubing. The mechanism of attack is an
electrochemical process that takes place at the surface of the metal. Differences in
composition or orientation between small areas on the metal surface create anodes
and cathodes that facilitate the corrosion process. However, it is not regarded as
the most serious form of corrosion because it is relatively easy to predict. Uniform
corrosion is characterized and expressed as a mass loss per unit area and unit of
time e.g. mm/year. In case of stainless steel if the corrosion rate is less than 0.1
mm/year then the stainless steel is normally considered to be corrosion resistant.
Figure 3.3 Uniform Corrosion
[Link] Localized Corrosion
Unlike, uniform corrosion attack corrosion, localized corrosion occurs at discrete
sites on a metal surface. Localized or non-uniform corrosion results in relatively
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rapid attack and penetration on small areas of metal surface while the remainder of
the surface is not affected. Pitting of iron can develop the tuberculation which
decreases the flow capacity of pipes as shown in figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Tuberculation on the inner wall of carbon steel piping due to pitting
[Link] Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion is an electrochemical process in which one metal corrodes
preferentially to another when both metals are in electrical contact and immersed in
an electrolyte. Dissimilar metals and alloys have different electrode potentials and
when two or more come into contact in an electrolyte a galvanic couple is set up,
one metal acting as anode and the other as cathode. The potential difference
between the dissimilar metals is the driving force for the accelerated attack on the
anode member of the galvanic couple. The anode metal dissolves into the
electrolyte, and deposition is formed on the cathodic metal. The electrolyte
provides a means for ion migration whereby metallic ions can move from the anode
to the cathode. This leads to the anodic metal corroding more quickly than it
otherwise would; the corrosion of the cathodic metal is retarded even to the point of
stopping. The presence of an electrolyte and a electronic conducting path between
the metals is essential for galvanic corrosion to occur.
Stainless steel hardware (rivets, bolts, screws) installed into an aluminum fitting
creates a potential for dissimilar metals (galvanic) corrosion as shown in Figures
3.5 and 3.6. Leaking hydraulic line from aircraft brake system caused by galvanic
corrosion. Aircraft brake systems are drenched in electrolyte (dirty water) so extra
caution is advised when mixing metals. Notice that the gap between the tubing and
sleeve can trap moisture into the crevice. Stainless steel parts are cadmium plated
and primed if they are attached to aluminum or alloy steel parts.
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Figure 3.5 Stainless Steel sleeve on aluminum Figure 3.6 Corrosion Pit from galvanic
fitting = galvanic corrosion corrosion
For a particular application, some of these failure modes and damage mechanisms
will not be relevant. However, it is necessary, at the outset, to consider all operating
conditions including start-up, shut-down, process upset and external environment
to establish which are relevant to the particular component under consideration. It
is also necessary to take account of possible interaction between the various
damage mechanisms. The risk of failure from the operation of these failure modes
and damage mechanisms can be predicted with varying degrees of confidence and
accuracy. The behavior of components subject to fatigue loading, creep and brittle
fracture is well understood. It is not practical, at this time, to attempt to provide
treatments for the other mechanisms listed in the same depth and generality as can
be provided for failure by fracture, fatigue or creep. However, they all need to be
considered, since failure can arise through their operation. A specific assessment
should be undertaken, if it is established that a risk of failure from these modes
exists. This should incorporate the assumptions and approaches used in these
circumstances, which should be fully documented and agreed by all parties.
[Link] Inter-granular Corrosion (IGC)
Intergranular corrosion is an attack on or adjacent to the grain boundaries of a metal
or alloy. It is a form of corrosion where the boundaries of grains of the material are
more susceptible to corrosion than the grains themselves.
This situation can happen in otherwise corrosion-resistant alloys, when the grain
boundaries are depleted, known as grain boundary depletion, of the corrosion
inhibiting elements such as chromium by some mechanism. In nickel and austenitic
stainless steels where chromium is added for corrosion resistant, the mechanism
involved is precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries, resulting in
the formation of chromium-depleted zones adjacent to the grain boundaries (this
process is called sensitization).
[Link] Corrosion Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue is a special case of stress corrosion caused by the combined
effects of cyclic stress and corrosion. Damage from corrosion fatigue is greater
than the sum of the damage from both cyclic stresses and corrosion. Control of
corrosion fatigue can be accomplished by either lowering the cyclic stresses or by
corrosion control.
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[Link] Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
When assessing the integrity of a structure containing a flaw or flaws, it is
necessary to consider whether subcritical crack growth can occur under service
conditions by environmentally assisted cracking. The latter is a collective
description for stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue, and combinations thereof. The
interactions between these failure mechanisms can be complex. For example,
apparent stress corrosion thresholds and growth rates can be profoundly influenced
by minor cyclic forces or very slow monotonically increasing forces. An example
of SCC failure in an aircraft component can be seen as shown in figure 3.7. The
term corrosion does not necessarily imply gross surface oxidation or dissolution but
may be, and often is, the very mild form of general corrosion associated with the
formation of passive and largely protective oxide films. Because of its complexity,
the assessment of flaws in structures where environmentally assisted crack
extension might occur should only be undertaken by engineers with a high level of
appropriate knowledge.
Figure 3.7 showing SCC in an aircraft component
Stress corrosion cracking results from the conjoint action of an aggressive
environment and a static applied or residual stress. It includes cracking due both to
metal dissolution and to hydrogen embrittlement. An apparently benign
environment may be corrosive locally due to concentrations of chemical species.
Once initiated, stress corrosion cracks usually attain an approximately uniform
velocity, provided that the driving force is maintained and that the local
environment remains unchanged. This velocity depends on the particular metal and
environment. Typical behavior is shown in Figure 3.8 in terms of the crack growth
rate, da/dt, plotted against the stress intensity factor, K. Residual stresses may be of
overriding importance. This applied value should then be compared with the
threshold stress intensity factor for susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking,
KISCC. KISCC is defined as the stress intensity factor at which stress corrosion cracks
will initiate and grow for the specified condition (metal, environment, exposure
time, etc.) under predominantly plane strain conditions.
When determining KISCC, it should be noted that stress corrosion processes can be
very sensitive to small changes in test conditions. In particular, the environment
itself is a important variable, and considerable care is necessary to ensure that the
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service conditions are adequately simulated. It is normal to conduct KISCC tests
under static load conditions. However, it should be noted that structures are seldom
subjected to purely static loading and it is well known that the value of K ISCC can
be considerably reduced if a cyclic component, even of very small magnitude, is
superimposed on the static loading.
Figure 3.8 Schematic description of stress corrosion cracking
In instances where a stress corrosion mechanism prevails in service, it may be
possible to estimate crack growth rate by appropriate inspection of the component
at suitable intervals although generalized correlations are in the stage of
development for use in the standard BS 7910 1999 and ASME Code, section XI.
This involves careful determination of the size of service flaws in situ using non-
destructive techniques including replication metallographic testing.
3.1.3 EROSION
The internal loss of material is mainly due to rapid flow of process fluid and to
abrupt changes in fluid flow direction or the presence of other liquid or solid
impurities.
3.1.4 FATIGUE
Fatigue is a process whereby cracking occurs under the influence of repeated or
cyclic stresses, which are normally substantially below the nominal yield strength
of the material. Cyclic loading can cause crack propagation in certain alloy steels at
stress intensities as low as 1/12th of the K1c value. Threshold stress intensities may
range from 3 to 20 Mpa√m (2.7 to 18 ksi√in). This demonstrates that factors other
than continuum plasticity considerations are important. It is known that both
microstructure and environment greatly affect the fatigue crack growth rate
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response in steels.
Components that fail by fatigue usually undergo three separate stages of crack
growth, which are described as follows:
Initiation of a fatigue crack: This can be influenced by stress concentrations such
as material defects or design.
Propagation of the fatigue crack: This is progressive cyclic growth of the crack.
Final sudden failure: Eventually, the propagating crack reaches a critical size at
which the remaining material cannot support the applied loads and sudden rupture
occurs.
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 3.9 Fatigue failure in a bolt
Crack growth can conveniently be described by graph shown in Figure 3.10, where
crack growth rate, da/dN, is plotted against the stress intensity range (∆K). The
typical crack growth shown in figure 3.10 can be divided into three regions. For
most steels, the data in region 2 can be described by a Paris Law of the type shown.
This is the region for which the largest amount of data is available. These data
indicate that, in general, crack growth in region 2 is relatively insensitive to
variations in microstructure or crack shape. In region 1, usually called the threshold
region, the rate of crack growth per cycle drops off rapidly as ∆K is decreased.
Behavior in this region may exhibit considerable sensitivity to the microstructure of
the material. In region 3, the growth rate may become large because the maximum
value of the stress-intensity factor at maximum cyclic load approaches the fracture
toughness. Here the local stresses are sufficiently large to activate fracture by other
micro structural modes such as intergranular fracture, cleavage fracture or dimple
rupture. The rate of fatigue crack growth is given by the Paris law, the relevant
equation is as follows:
da/dN = a(∆K)m (3.1)
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for values of ∆K above a threshold value, ∆Ko. For ∆K less than ∆Ko , da/dN is
assumed to be zero. Values of „a‟ and „m‟ depend on material and applied
condition.
Figure 3.10 Fatigue crack growth rate, da/dN vs log ∆K
The fracture mechanics description as summarized in the plot shown above has
general limitations that power law representation applies only in the intermediate
region of da/dN and ∆K. It is particularly important that the power-law relation not
be extended to higher values of da/dN and ∆K than those supported by laboratory
test data, because an under estimate of da/dN, and thus an over estimate of fatigue
life, would result. To be sure that the power-law relation is not extended to
excessive values of ∆K, both K1c -type failure and gross yielding failure of the
component must be considered.
The Paris law, describe in equation 3.1, a and `m' are constant which depend on the
material and applied conditions, including environment and cyclic frequency.
For ∆K < ∆K0, da/dN is assumed to be zero.
Crack propagation depends on the alternating stress intensity factor, ∆K, defined as
∆K = Kmax - Kmin (3.2)
and R = Kmin/Kmax (3.3)
Where R is known as stress ratio.
Values of the constants „a‟ and „m‟ of equation (3.1) as given in Table 3.1 are
recommended for assessing low strength steels. They are applicable to steels with
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yield or 0.2 % proof strengths ≤ 700 N/mm2 and operating in air or marine
environments at temperatures up to 100 °C.
Table 3.1 Recommended fatigue cracks laws for steel in air
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 1/Stage 2
transition point
R
Mean curve Mean + 2SD Mean curve Mean + 2SD ∆K N/mm3/2
ab m ab m ab m ab m
-26 -26 -13 13
< 0,5 1.21 x 10 8.16 4.37 x 10 8.16 3.98 x 10 2.88 6.77 x 10 2.88 315
> 0.5 4.80 x 10-18 5.10 2.10 x 10-1' 5.10 5.86 x 1013 2.88 1.29 x 10-12 2.88 144
a
Mean + 2SD for R> 0.5 values recommended for assessing welded joints.
b
For da/dN in mm/cycle and ∆K in N/mm3/2
Fatigue failures generally leave characteristic markings on the fracture surface
of cracks from which the failure investigator can deduce a great deal of
information. The most obvious are the classic „beach marks‟, which are
commonly observed macroscopically as shown in figure 3.10. Beach marks
indicate successive positions of the advancing crack front and are usually the
first telltale signs that the mode of crack growth is fatigue. Fatigue fractures
tend to be relatively smooth near the origin and show slight roughening of the
surface as the crack progresses. There tends to be little or no macroscopic
ductility associated with fatigue cracking. Detailed examination of the fracture
surface in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) usually shows evidence of
fatigue striations (figure 3.11) dependant on the material), which represent one
cycle of load and crack propagation. If the magnitude of load cycle remains
constant, the striations normally appear closer near the origin, gradually
increasing in spacing as the crack front progresses due to the increasing stress
at the crack tip.
Figure 3.11 Fatigue failure of aircraft propeller assembly
There are many variables that influence fatigue, some of which are the mean
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stress, peak stress, frequency of loading, temperature, environment, material
microstructure, surface finish, and residual stresses. Many of these factors are
taken into account when determining the safe life of an engineering component.
Material surface defects such as forging laps or surface cracking can increase
the local stress, producing a concentration at these points that could initiate
fatigue much quicker than would be expected. Stress concentrations caused by
surface defects such as scratches and wear tend to be more common as these
may not be present at build, but can be introduced during service. Another
common cause of stress concentration is corrosion, which can lead to fatigue
crack initiation.
3.1.5 CREEP (write about homologous temperature)
Creep is one of the most serious high temperature damage mechanisms. It involves
time dependent deformation and high temperature creep cracking, develops at grain
boundaries in engineering components that fail over an extended time. Creep
occurs in components that operate at a temperature greater than 310 0C as per BS
PD 6525. Classification of creep damage in the components exposed to creep range
has been made using the largely qualitative approach based on distribution of creep
voids and micro cracks observed by in situ metallography. In situ metallography
used in conjunction with semi quantitative tools like hardness measurements
indicating loss of tensile strength would permit remaining life assessment studies
on components undergoing creep damage. The typical creep curve showing the
three stages of creep is given in figure 3.12.
The crack growth rate due to creep ac, is calculated from the equation:
ac = A (C*)q ----------------------------3.4
The constants A and q are given in Table 3.4 that lead to growth rate in m/h if C* is
in units of Mpa .m/h
Figure 3.12 Typical creep curve showing the three stages of creep curve A, constant-load test; curve B,
constant-stress test.
The parameter C* is calculated from the equation:
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C* = σA (Єc /t) „R ------------------------ (3.5)
Where , σA = Applied or design stress, Єc = Fractional accumulated creep strain,
t= time,
„R = (KA /σA)2 --------------------------- (3.6)
Where , KA = Applied stress intensity
The fractional accumulated creep strain Єc is given by the relation:
σ4Ae-19700/T (4.0 x 10-3 x t0.33 + 5.21x10-6t)------------ (3.7)
where T is absolute temperature and t is time estimate.
Table 3.2 Constants used to derive creep crack propagation rates.
[Link] Creep damage evaluation by metallographic replication
The aspects mainly considered valid as an index of creep exposure are:
Microstructural phase evolution
Microvoid formation at grain boundaries (Neubauer etc.)
Evolution of carbides (eutectoidic and ferritic fine precipitation)
Interparticle distance
[Link] Micro structural phase evolution
This aspect is mainly related to the effect of temperature and is not so strictly
connected to load application. It is commonly accepted as a qualitative thermal
degradation index shown through:
tendency to pearlite/bainite spheroidisation
coarsening of precipitates in the ferritic matrix and at grain boundaries,
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broadening of denuded zones (no precipitates) along grain boundaries.
This microstructural evolution is an index of an improved ductility of material but is
often considered as a demonstration of overheating exposure.
Figure 3.13 Micro structural phase evolution generic aspect
[Link] Micro voids formation at grain boundaries
The concept has been mainly studied and developed in the 70‟s and is commonly
recognized and applied in all European countries with the Neubauer classification
and derived methods.
The principle is based on the fact that creep evolution of heat resistant steels is
related to the appearance of cavities some time before rupture. These cavities
gradually form micro cracks by interlinkage and at the end come to initiate the
rupture. Size and density of the cavities increase as creep progresses from secondary
to tertiary. Cavity size is largely dependent also on material type, however it is in the
range of micron size (often also lower), therefore they are usually called “micro-
voids” or “micro-cavities”. Due to their small size, they cannot be detected by
conventional NDT techniques such as PT, UT, MT, RT, and metallographic
investigation is required. A first classification scale for creep damage has been
proposed by Neubauer as reported in table 3.3.
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Table 3.3 Neubauer schematic assessment of the microstructure
A simplified approach of Neubauer damage classification can be found in the Italian
ISPESL Guidelines 002 (reference document for creep classification applied in Italy)
where the Neubauer classification is limited to the five different grades with an
indicative representation of damage aspect as reported in table 3.4.
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Table 3.4 ISPESL simplified Neubauer classification
Grade Microstructure Picture
0 New material
1 Normal (no cavities)
2 Presence of isolated microcavities
3 Presence of directional oriented
microcavities
4 Presence of microcracks
5 Presence of macrocracks
[Link] Carbide evolution
Many significant studies have been conducted on the evolution of carbides present in
steels due to creep exposure. Separation and coarsening of carbides is in general an
index of material degradation due to creep exposure. The most important class of
carbides that are present in low alloy creep resistant steels are, M3C, M7C3, M23C6,
M6C, MC and M2C .
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Figure 3.14 Ferritic-pearlitic structure, there is dispersion of carbides and accumulation at grain
boundaries. X 200
Figure 3.15 Carbides are dispersed in ferrite matrix and precipitated at the grain boundaries 200X
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Figure 3.16 Microstructure of weld bead affected by intergranular microcracks and "oriented"
microcavities due to Class C damage. 300X
Figure 3.17 Microstructure of weld bead containing Interdendritic microcracks and oriented”
microcavities (Class C creep damage). 300X
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