CEng 122n: Engineering Utilities 2

Topic 03: Building Elements That Serve as Passive Fire Safety Measures

Description: Essential theories about fire; building elements that have fire-resistance and serve as main passive fire
safety measure; materials applied and incorporated to a building material that contributes to passive fire
protection.

Objectives:

a) Understand the fire growth, fire safety objectives, and fire safety tactics.
b) Know the different building elements that serve as passive fire safety measures.
c) Determine the different material solution for passive fire protection.

Prepared By:

Arador, Jozel Rose A.

Nival, Dianne Rose D.

Tumamak, Francis Emmylou C.

2021
 TOPIC 03: BUILDING ELEMENTS THAT SERVE AS
PASSIVE FIRE SAFETY MEASURES

 Introduction

 Theory
Fire Growth
Fire Safety Objectives
Fire Safety Tactics

 Fire-Resistant Building Elements

 Passive Fire Protection Material Solutions

Thermal Insulation Barrier
Endothermic Building Materials
Alkali Activated Binders
Flame Shield
Intumescent Coatings
INTRODUCTION

Building plays a big role in the progress of a certain country. They are designed to last for a long time and
provide its full functionality to the people. While in use, it is subjected to natural and man-made hazards such as fire
which can pose a threat to the state of the building and harm the people inside of it. Such damages are a great loss of
money so that is why buildings must be designed to withstand such forces and ensure life and structural safety.

Fire hazard in a building is either caused by accident or intentional which puts the structural safety and life
safety at stake. In terms of severity and versatility, fire hazard has developed over the years and have become a growing
concern. Passive fire safety measure is one of the ways developed to prevent and lessen the effects of fire. With that, it is
important to understand the movement of fire, possible tactics and the objectives to come up with possible solutions and
effective measures.

THEORY

A. FIRE GROWTH

In building fires, three basic mechanism of heat transfer are present – conduction, convection, and radiation.

a) Conduction – the mode of heat transfer in solids although it may occur in liquids and gases; happens when
there is a conductor that the heat can flow into.
b) Convection – involves the movement of medium; in a particular space, convection currents are present which
spreads the heat in all points.
c) Radiation – mechanism that is dependent in temperature; transfers heat through electromagnetic waves that are
emitted by a material.

Fig 1.1: Forms of Heat Transfer (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

In the illustration, the three basic mechanism of heat transfer can be seen. When there is a fire, convection currents
easily heat the space, heat radiation simultaneously happens because of sudden change in temperature, and conduction
which is heat is transmitted through direct contact.

B. FIRE SAFETY OBJECIVES

It focuses on the safety of the people and the property, the building and the surrounding area. It has two working
principles:

a) Life Safety - the engineer/architect is seeking to reduce to within acceptable limits the potential for injury or
death to the occupants of the building and for others who may become involved. It simply means protecting
people from smoke.
b) Property Protection - the reduction to acceptable limits of the potential for damage to the building fabric and
contents. The engineer/architect will be seeking to ensure that as much as possible of the building can continue
to function after a fire, and that the building can be repaired. The building should also remain safe for
firefighting operations during the fire. As much as possible, keep the heat away from the building.
C. FIRE SAFETY TACTICS

These five tactics are derived to fulfil and apply the fire safety objectives.

a) Prevention – ensuring that fires do not start by controlling ignition and fuel sources.
1. Building Fabric – is the components and materials that the building is made of. Professional in-charge
should know the differences of fire safety terms and the essential characteristics of building materials
which can be measured.
 Ignitability – the ease with which a material can be ignited when subjected to a flame.
 Combustibility – whether or not a material will burn when subjected to heat from an already
existing fire.
 Fire Propagation – the degree to which a material will contribute to the spread of a fire
through heat release when it is itself heated; this is concerned with the level of heat emission
and the rate of heat release.
 Surface spread of flame – whether a material will support the spread of flame across its
surfaces.
 Potential for smoke obscuration – the degree to which the material when burning will produce
smoke that leads to reduced visibility.
 Fire resistance – whether or not a component, or assembly of components, will resist fire by
retaining their loadbearing capacity, integrity and their insulating properties.

Fig 1.2: Standard Fire Growth Curve (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

b) Communication – ensuring that if ignition occurs, the occupants are informed and any active fire systems are
triggered.
1. Signs - are extremely important in giving information to the occupants and the fire service. Red has
been retained as the color for fire equipment signs because of the obvious association of the color red
with fire. These signs should be rectangular with white wording on a red background. All signs which
give vital information on fire safety should be illuminated and this should operate in both normal and
emergency conditions.
 Fig 1.3: A Fire Safety Notice (Stollard & Fig 1.4: Fire Escape Signs
Abrahams, 1999) (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

Fig 1.5: Mandatory Signs (Stollard & Fig 1.6: Hazard Warning Signs (Stollard &
Abrahams, 1999) Abrahams, 1999)

Fig 1.7: Prohibitory Signs (Stollard & Fig 1.8: Fire Equipment Signs (Stollard &
Abrahams, 1999) Abrahams, 1999)
 c) Escape – ensuring that the occupants of the building and the surrounding areas are able to move to places of
safety before they are threatened by the heat and smoke.
1. Occupancy - understanding the characteristics of the occupants and patterns of behaviour will suggest
their likely speed of travel, and in conjunction with the expected speed of fire spread, enable the
architects/engineers to design adequate means of escape. Five key characteristics of the occupants can
be identified:
 Sleeping risk – important factor to recognize for fire safety design of the building.
 Numbers – number of people in the building and where are they located.

Fig 1.9: Building Type and Occupancy Levels (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

 Mobility – proportion of occupants may be unable to move away readily from a fire.
 Familiarity – less difficulty in escaping from fire if occupants are familiar with the building.
 Response to fire alarm – ensuring correct response and encouraging swift action.

d) Containment – ensuring that the fire is contained to the smallest possible area limiting the amount of property
likely to be damaged and the threat to life safety. It has active and passive fire containment measures.

Passive Fire Containment Measures:

Passive fire safety measure is a defense of the building against fire spread. Putting into consideration the things
mentioned above, the individual can think of ways on how to apply them especially in passive fire safety. Passive fire
safety attempts to contain fires or slow down the spread through use of fire–resistant walls, floors and fire rated doors. It
makes use of building materials that are always present and available within the building, placed and located evenly
every floors of the building. These materials do not rely on the operation of any mechanical device in order to be
activated or triggered.

Fire safety components that are integrated into the structure of the building and are physical aspects of the
building are known as passive fire safety measures. The supply of escape routes and exits, the provision of fire resistance
to the building structure, and the supply of access to and around the building are all examples of these elements. Passive
fire safety measures main purpose is to attempt to contain fires or slow their spread. This measure has three areas:

1. Structural Protection - the protection against the effects of heat provided to the structural and
building elements of the building such as columns, walls, and floors.
 Fig 2.1: Building Type and Fuel Load (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

The level of fire protection which it is appropriate to give to the structural elements will depend upon the need
for escape and extinguishment. The amount of fire resistance which must be provided will depend upon the fuel load of
the building.

2. Compartmentation

The building has partitions which make it as smaller compartments that have resistance to fire and smoke to
prevent the spread of fire, control the regions of danger, and if possible contain the fire in one area. Open doors, non-
closed stairwells and shafts, unprotected penetrations through fire protection walls and flammable covered areas without
firebreaks are the most typical ways in which fire can spread in a compartmented structure. Such barriers, when properly
constructed and maintained and with protected openings, will usually contain fires of the greatest severity that can be
expected in locations of low hazard.

The number of compartments into which each storey should be subdivided depends on the number of people and
the amount of fuel on each level. The more combustible the contents of the building are the smaller also should be the
size of the compartments. The spacing of compartment walls may also be determined by the ability of the occupants to
escape.

Fig 2.2: Compartmentation of a Building (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

 3. Envelope Protection

This passive fire safety measure aims to limit the threat posed by a fire to adjoining properties and people
outside the building. It also limits the possibility of a fire starting as a result of fire in adjoining building. The basic
components of envelope protection include the following:

3.1. Roofing Assemblies – creates the first line of defense and protects the building from high temperatures.

3.2. Exterior Wall Assemblies – limits the spread of fire from potential external risk from adjoining properties.

3.3. Roof-Mounted Systems – includes photovoltaic systems and cooling towers but both must be evaluated
well for risk mitigation.

3.4. Fenestrations – includes doors, shutters, windows, skylights, and etc. that are installed to the weakest link
of the envelope protection to ensure fire resistance.

Fig 2.3: Envelope protection (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

The passive envelope protection serves as a protective outer shell to the building from possible fire coming from
adjoining properties.

e) Extinguishment – ensuring that the fire can be extinguished quickly and with minimum consequential damage
to the building. Water, foam, carbon dioxide, and dry powder are some of extinguishment materials.

FIRE-RESISTANT BUILDING ELEMENTS

A. Fire Resistance

It is the capacity of a building element to resist fire within a certain time. It is also the ability of the building
element to continue to function when subjected to heat. Fire resistance is measured by retaining these following
properties:

 The loadbearing capacity of the assembly is its dimensional stability.

  The integrity of the assembly is its ability to resist thermal shock and cracking, and to retain its adhesion and
cohesion.
 The insulation offered by a material is related to its level of thermal conductivity.

They can also provide fire protection by delaying or preventing heat and particles of combustion from spreading
throughout the building.

Fig 3: Stability, Integrity, Insulation (Stollard & Abrahams, 1999)

a) Walls
1. Non-load bearing – a wall that supports only limited walls and can be used to separate rooms or as internal
partitions.
2. Load bearing – bearing walls are able to support vertical load including its weight. These walls prevent
structural collapse and fire spread.
3. Fire Walls – used to separate buildings and lessen the risk of fire spread between them. Firewalls are also
used within the building and must remain stable for a complete burnout on either side.

Fig 3.1: Load bearing wall

Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Load-
bearing-wall-cross-section_fig9_287478964

Fig 3.2: Fire Wall Fig 3.3: Non-load bearing wall

Source: https://www.latakva.com/en/constructions-fire- Source:https://www.intar.com.au/public_resources
protection/item/97/770 /kbcabinetmaking/unit6_installation_requirements/
section2_construction_features/lesson3_other_stru
ctural_features.htm
b) Floor Assemblies - the flooring assembly, as well as the supporting beams, girders, or trusses, are usually
included in floor framing systems.
c) Ceiling Assemblies – the ceilings acts as a barrier to protect the structural framing above it. The complete
assembly acts as a single unit to offer the specified fire resistance.
d) Roof Assemblies - roof loads are typically more modest than floor loads. Moreover, structural contemplations
may request longer ranges than floor outlining, and the state of the roof need not be level.
1. Roof Coverings – protect buildings from exposure fires and reduce the probability of fire spread from one
building to another.
2. Roof Deck Insulations and Vapour Barriers – vapour barriers resists diffusion of moisture and insulation
of roof deck that prevents the transfer of heat between the building’s interior and the roof.

Fig 3.5: Roof Deck Insulation

Fig 3.4: Roof Coverings Source: https://www.ikopolymeric.com/warm-
Source: https://altaroofinginc.com/what-you-need-to- roof/
know-about-fire-resistant-materials/

Fig 3.6: Vapour Barriers

Source: https://www.allianceroofing.ca/flat-roof-
education.html

e) Corridors - are isolated from different regions to give methods for escape for the structure inhabitants, just as
isolating rooms or occupancies.
f) Concealed Spaces - these areas can contribute to faster fire spread and longer fire duration.
1. Fire Blocking Protection – used to restrict the spread of fire in concealed spaces. Material has high
melting point that it will remain in place when subjected to fire.

Fig 3.7: Fire Blocking Protection

Source:
https://www.pinterest.ph/amp/pin/538461699177
679644/
 g) Openings – to ensure the effectiveness of compartment boundary, number and size of openings may be limited,
and protections of these openings are required.

1. Doors - fire doors are assessed based on the amount of time they are exposed to fire and, optionally, the
temperature rise on the unexposed surface after 30 minutes. Doors with ratings of 4 or 3 hours are
frequently seen in walls separating buildings or dividing buildings into distinct fire zones. Doors with 1 ½
hour ratings are utilized in 2 hour rated enclosures or on external walls that can be exposed to severe fire
exposure from outside the building. Vertical openings in buildings, such as stairwells, shafts, and escape
enclosures, are often protected by doors with 1 hour ratings. Doors with 45-minute ratings are utilized in
room partitions and walls around hazardous locations, as well as in building hallways with enclosure walls
certified for one hour. They can also be utilized in external walls that are exposed to moderate or light fire
from the outside. In addition to the individual door ratings, doors can be arranged in series to raise the
overall rating of the opening, which is the total of the ratings of all the doors.

2. Windows - glazing materials can be utilized in fire-rated doors, windows, and walls; they are employed as
vision panels in fire doors and as windows in fire-rated corridor walls. They are also commonly used in
smoke-stop barriers and to enclose open stairwells in older structures. Fire rated glazing can be made of
wired glass, which allows heat to be dispersed more uniformly across the glass sheet, or it can be made of
special fire protection-rated clear glass and transparent ceramics.

3. Firestop Protection - firestops are materials that are used to plug gaps around wall or ceiling penetrations.
These materials guard against fire-rated wall and floor penetrations. A noncombustible substance, such as
cement grout, mineral wool, or cement plaster, is used to fill the space around the penetration.

4. Ducts - some ducts are needed to be fire resistant, which can be accomplished by duct design or the
addition of extra materials to the insulation. Fire dampers are attached within the duct near the barrier,
which can help restrict smoke flow.

Fig 3.8: Fire Doors

Source: https://ahlada.com/product/fire-rated-steel-doors/ Fig 3.9: Fire-rated Window
Source: https://www.hartandcompany.co.uk/products/fire-
windows/
 Fig 3.11: Fire-resistant Ducts
Fig 3.10: Firestop Protection Source:
Source: https://slideplayer.com/amp/17349442/ https://www.promat.com/en/industry/solutions/passive-
fire-protection/

PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION MATERIAL SOLUTIONS

A. Thermal Insulation Barrier

A thermal insulation material is used for a basic purpose of insulation from heat transfer. Mineral wool,
expanded aggregate and cellulose are representatives of fireproof material for thermal insulation.

a) Mineral Wool - also known as rock wool or slag wool is one of the oldest types of insulation
composed of non-combustible, naturally fire resistant stone wool. It can withstand temperature up to
1000 °C and does not burn. Over 1000 °C a mineral fibre start to melt.
b) Aggregate - affects fire ratings of cementitious composite material on the basis of heat transfer and on
the basis of aggregate moisture absorption. The presence of moisture in the aggregate during a fire test
extends the fire duration by the time when moisture is turned to steam and evaporated from the
material.
c) Cellulose - is made in a loose form from a recycled paper, newspaper, cardboard or other similar
materials, it is considered as one of the eco-friendliest thermal insulation materials. Although
associated with high flammability, the chemical treatment with ammonium sulfate and borate provide
its incombustibility. What is more, because of a high compactness of the cellulosic fibres, the material
contains almost no oxygen and effectively chokes wall cavities of combustion air and thus can
minimize the spread of fire.

Fig 4.1: Mineral Wool

Source: http://mima.info/about-mineral-wool/what-is- Fig 4.2: Expanded Aggregate
mineral-wool/ Source: https://theconstructor.org/concrete/lightweight-
aggregate-concrete/6734/?amp=1
Fig 4.3: Cellulose
Source:
https://www.retrofoamofmichigan.com/blog/what-is-
cellulose-insulation-material?hs_amp=true

B. Endothermic Building Materials

a) Concrete - is commonly known as fire resistant and incombustible material, Concrete itself contains
free water but also cement paste is made of significant quantity of hydrated crystals, so it contains a
large amount of bound water. In case of fire, free water evaporates from a heat exposed surface and in
this way it absorbs a great part of heat, leading to minimizing of temperature in internal part of
structural member.
b) Gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) - is a crystalline formed mineral found in sedimentary rock, but
can also be a synthetic gypsum (Flue Gas Desulphurization gypsum or desulphurised gypsum). As
gypsum contains ca. 20% of chemically bounded water, it can be evaporated in case of fire and help to
minimize the temperature in the interior of protected structure and spread of fire.

Fig 4.4: Concrete

Source: https://westerncanadacoatings.ca/concrete-
definition/ Fig 4.5: Gypsum
Source: https://geology.com/minerals/gypsum.shtml

Fig 4.6: Synthetic Gypsum

Source: https://feeco.com/synthetic-
gypsum-processing/

C. Alkali Activated Binders

They are recently developed alkali-activated binders (geopolymers). They are inorganic, ecofriendly binders and
provide a better behaviour in fire. As a passive fire protection, alkali-activated binders act similarly to endothermic
building materials. Chemically bonded water evaporates from a heat exposed surface and in this way it absorbs a
great part of heat, leading to minimizing of temperature in internal part of structural member. Geopolymers can
provide an excellent burn-through fire resistance, are not ignitable, nonflammable, and do not produce neither
combustion gases, toxic gases nor smoke, so they are eco-friendly and safe for both daily exploitation and in case of
fire.

Fig 4.7: Geopolymers

Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Fresh-
Geopolymer-Concrete_fig2_265277484

D. Flame Shield - can be applied to various surfaces such as furniture. The main purpose of flame shields is to
offer a fire retardant solution to the building and the objects within it. It is not an active type of fire protection as
it is not automatic. But in a passive way, it can slow down the expansion of a fire.

E. Intumescent Coatings
a) Thin Film Intumescent Coatings (Single Component) - the fire-resistant thin film intumescent
coating consist in a water- or solvent-based painting layer of approximately 1 – 3 mm thickness. The
complex layer is usually made of three separate components: a primer layer, a base layer that reacts
with fire and a sealer that provides a tightness of coating. A base layer, as a responsible for fire
protection is made of a number of ingredients influencing proper behaviour during fire action.
b) Thick Film Intumescent Coatings (Two Component Epoxy) - in the risk of hydrocarbon fires, that
are more severe than cellulosic ones and occur mostly in high rise buildings and tunnels, the
application of thick film intumescent material is recommended. It is epoxy-based instead of water or
solvent in order to provide additional protection from corrosion of steel members in contact with water.
Thick film coating can be applied in form of spray, by trowel or by the use of casting, which provide a
high quality, hard and smooth finishing surface. This kind of coatings characterize of higher film
thickness than thin film ones, and the thickness is dependent on particular purposes of a structural
element being protected.

Fig 4.8: Steel Beam with Intumescent

Coating (left) and its cross section (right) Fig 4.9: Intumescent Coatings applied to
steel beams

Fig 4.10: Intumescent coating system

exposed to radiant heat
Source (Fig 4.8 - 4.10):
http://www.ryanfire.co.nz/_literature_15512
4/FPA_Intumescent_Coatings_Good_Practi
ce_Guide
Book Reference:

Stollard, P. and Abraham, J. (1999). Fire from First Principles. 3rd Edition. E & FN Spon, an imprint of Routledge 11
New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

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