Chapter: Three

Geometric Design of Highway

Raju Bhele
B.E. Civil
1
[Link], Transportation Engineering

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2

Typical cross section of road

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3

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4

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 1. Introduction
5

 The geometric design of highway deals with  Geometric design of highway should be
different features of highway. designed in such a way that it provides
optimum efficiency in traffic operation at
Camber reasonable cost.
Horizontal curves
 Sight distance
 Super-elevation
Extra widening
Transition curve
Summit curve
Valley curve
Gradient etc.
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 Geometric design of highway deals with following elements:
6
a. Cross section elements b. Element of Horizontal alignment
Traffic lane  Horizontal curvature radius or
length
Carriage way  Transition curve
Shoulder  Sight distance
Right of way
Side slope c. Elements of Vertical alignment
Camber or cross slope  Grade
Super elevation  Submit curve
Sight distance across the road  Valley curve

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 2. Design Criteria and Controls
7
The geometric of highway depends upon the following factors:
Design speed
Design vehicle
Topography
Traffic volume
Traffic capacity
Road user's behavior

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 a. Design speed
8 It is one of the basic parameter which determines the geometric
design features. Choice of design speed depends of terrain condition
and function of road.
As per Nepal Road Standard (NRS-2070) terrain is classified as below:

S.N. Terrain Type Percent Cross slope Degree

1. Plain 0-10 0-5.7

2. Rolling >10-25 >5.7-14
3. Mountainous >25-60 >14-31
4. Steep >60 >31

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9
Table 7.1 Design speed, kmph
Road Class Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

I 120 100 80 60

II 100 80 60 40

III 80 60 40 30

IV 60 40 30 20

As per NRS 2070

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 Design Vehicle
10
 The design of road is governed by length, height, width and load.
The maximum dimensions of vehicles considered for design of roads in
Nepal as per NRS 2070 are as follows:

Maximum width, m 2.50

Maximum Height, m 4.75

Maximum Length, m 18.00

Maximum single axle load, KN 100

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 c. Topography
11  The topography or terrain condition influence the geometric
design of highway. Based on terrain classification, different
class of roads have different design standard.

d. Traffic Volume
 Traffic volume is the number of vehicle passing through a section
of road per unit time at specified period.
 Higher the traffic volume, higher should be geometric standard for
given highway.

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12 e. Traffic Capacity
 It is the sum of capacity of each lane or ability of roadway to
accommodate traffic numbers
 Therefore, it is necessary to estimate traffic capacity to determine
the numbers of lane required which in turn will help in determining
the total width of road.
𝑽
C = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ∗
𝑺
where,
V = design speed ( km/hr )
S = Average center to center spacing of vehicle
in ( m ).
C = capacity (vehicle per hour per lane )
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 f. Road user's behaviour's
13  Once the road is constructed it is ultimately used by people
having different level of education, awareness, civic traffic
sense.
 These factors affects geometric standard of roads.

Criteria for Geometric Design

Every highway should meet following four major objectives or
criteria:
Speed
Safe
Comfort
Economy
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 Element of cross-section
14

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 3. Element of cross-section
15
Traffic lane
 It is a strip of carriage way
occupied by vehicles moving in a
single stream along road.
 Normally, the width of traffic lane
depends on width of design vehicle,
safety clearance on either sides.
 As per NRS 2070, the width of
traffic lane is given as below
Single lane Intermediate Multilane pavements
road lane width per lane
3.75m 5.5m 3.5m
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(upto 3.0m in difficult terrain)

16 The number of traffic lane required for the given road is
determined theoretically by
N
n= C1

wℎere,
N = Design hourly volume of traffic
C1 = Basic capacity of traffic lane = 1000xV/S
V = Design speed (km/hr)
S = Average center to center spacing of vehicle in m.

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 b. Carriage Way
17
 It is defined as a strip of road which is constructed for the
movement of vehicles. It is also called pavement width. The
width of pavement is calculated by formula,
Cw = Tw x n
where,
Cw = Carriage way width lane
Tw = Width of traffic lane
n = numbers of lane

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 c. Shoulder
18  It can be defined as strip provided on
both sides of carriage way.
 It provides lateral support to carriage
way and also serve as reserve lane for
overtaking.
 Very wide shoulder are also not
desirable due to tendency of vehicles
misusing it as a carriageway
 As per NRS 2070

Road classes Class I Class II Class III Class IV

Minimum shoulder 3.75 2.5 2.0 1.5
width, m

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19 Camber or Cross slope

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 d. Camber or Cross slope
20  It is convexity provided to the cross section of carriage way.
 In other words, it is a slope provided to road surface in transverse
direction to drain off rain water from the road surface.
 It is provided by raising center of carriage way with respect to
edge forming a crown on the highest point on the center line.
 It is expressed as percentage. Eg: If camber is x%, the cross
slope is x in 100.

Objectives of providing camber

 To drain out surface water
 To separate traffic in two direction
 To improve the appearance of road
 To prevent infiltration of water into underlying pavement
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 Too steep cross slope is not desirable because
21
Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
Unequal wear and tear of tyres as well as road surface due to
thrust on wheel.
Discomfort while overtaking.
Problem of toppling over of highly loaded trucks.

As per NRS-2070 camber on different road surface is given as

below:
Pavement Cement Bituminous Gravel Earthen
type Concrete
Camber, % 1.5 to 2.0 2.5 4.0 5.0 4/8/2021
 Types of Camber
22  Straight line camber

 Parabolic camber
 Composite camber

i. Straight line camber

It is that type of camber which is made of two equal straight line slopes.

ii. Parabolic Camber

 Parabolic camber is provided by providing a parabolic shape to the
surface of the road.
 It is also not used in general because it has steep slopes towards the
edges, which can create the outward thrust to the vehicles and helpful for
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overtaking operation.
 iii. Composite Camber
23
 It is either composed of partly parabola
and partly straight line or 2 straight lines
having different slopes.

Straight line camber

Composite Camber

Parabolic Camber

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24
4. Elements of Horizontal Alignment
 Horizontal alignment is a series of straight line called tangents with
provision of curves at each change in direction.
The different element of horizontal alignments are:
 Tangent
 Horizontal Curve

a. Tangent
It is a straight line obtained by joining
two successive points of intersection of
two straight traverse line along road route.
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 b. Horizontal Curve
25  It is a curve in a plan to provide change in direction to center line of
road. Deviation are necessary due to following reasons:
 Topography of terrain
 Restriction imposed by property
 To use existing right of way
 Other factors controlling
highway alignment

Types of horizontal curves

 Circular Curve
 Transition Curve

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 i. Circular curve
26 It is a curve having constant radius. It is classified into following types:
 Simple curve
 Reverse curve
 Compound circular curve
a. Simple curve
 It consists of single arc connecting two straight lines.
b. Reverse circular curve
 It consists of two or more arc of one or different circle turning in two
opposite direction.
c. compound circular curve
 It consists series of simple circular curve of one or different radius
turning in same direction and meet at common tangent point.
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27

Curve with single arc

Curves with different radius

curve of one or different radius turning in same

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or different direction
 ii. Transition Curve
28 A curve whose radius varies from infinity
at the tangent point to a designed radius of
circular curve.
Functions of transition curve
 To introduce centrifugal force gradually
between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve so that
sudden jerk on vehicle can be avoided.
 To introduce design super elevation and
extra widening at the start of curve.
 To provide aesthetic appearance of road.
 To enable driver to turn steering gradually
for his own comfort and safety.
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29

Calculation of length of Transition Curve

The length of transition curve is designed to fulfill three
conditions:
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
Rate of introduction of super elevation
Minimum length by IRC empirical formula. (Indian Road
Congress)

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 i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
30

 Let, the length of transition curve be Ls meter. If 'f' be time taken to travel transition length at
uniform speed 'v' m/s.

Ls
t
V
2
Similarly, the maximum centrifugal acceleration V is introduced through the transition length
Ls R V 2 
 
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is given by 'C'. C 
R 
t
V2
C 
Rt
V2
V=m/s C 
R= m L 
R s 
Ls=m V 
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V3
C= m / s 
2 C  …………..i
RLs
 As per IRC
31  The value of 'C' for the design speed V (Kmph)
is
C
80
75  V

m / s2 
Where C varies from 0.5 to 0.8
Then, from equation i
If the design speed is in V (Kmph)
V3 V3
Ls  Ls 
CR
3.63 CR
where,
0.0215V 3
 V= design speed in m/s Ls 
CR
 R= radius of circular curve

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32

 Formula
a. V3
Ls 
CR
Where V=m/s
R= m
Ls=m

C= m / s 
2

V3
Ls  , where v = kmph, R = m, Ls = m and C= m / s 
2
b.
3.63
CR
0.0215V 3
Ls  4/8/2021

CR
 (ii) Rate of introduction of super-elevation
33
Center line
Center line
e(W+We) = E1 E2 (W+We)/2
e
E1 e
e (W+We)/2 E2

W+We
E2 = e(W+We)/2

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 (ii) Rate of introduction of super-elevation
34
 Let, 'e' be rate of super elevation designed for a highway curve having normal pavement
width 'W'. Let, We be extra widening provided at the circular curve. Therefore, the total
pavement width is (W+We). The total raising of pavement with respect to inner edge = eB
= e(W+We) = E1.
 If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge length of transition curve
Ls= E1xN=e(W+We)N
 Similarly, the maximum amount by which the outer edge is to be raised at the circular
curve with respect to the centre is given by E2 = e(W+We)/2
 If the pavement is rotated about the center line, Length of transition

Ls  E 2 N
e(W  We ) N
Ls 
2
Where
N= 1 in 100 in built up area
 1 in 60 in hill roads.
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 (iii) Minimum length by IRC empirical formula.
35

a) For plane and rolling terrain

2.7V 2
Ls 
R
b) For mountainous and steep terrain

V2
Ls 
R

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36 Design step of Transition Curve
a) Calculate the length of transition curve based on allowable rate of change
of centrifugal acceleration.
b) Find out the length of transition curve based on rate of change of super
elevation.
c) Similarly, calculate the length of transition curve as per IRC.
d) Adopt highest value of length of transition curve calculated in above three
step.

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 Factors affecting length of Transition Curve
37
required on Horizontal curve:
 Radius of circular curve.
 Design Speed
 Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.
 Maximum amount of super elevation (E), total pavement
width (B).
 Whether the pavement cross section is rotated about inner
edge or central line.
 Allowable rate of introduction of super elevation which
depends on terrain and environmental condition.

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38 Super elevation.
 In order to overcome effect of centrifugal forces and to
reduce the tendency of vehicle to overcome or skid the
outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to inner
edge. This transverse slope to the pavement is called super
elevation. It is represented by e.

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39

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 Let us consider a vehicle moving in a circular curve of radius R with respect to v
40 m/s

Centrifugal forces on vehicles i.e.

Wv 2
P
gR
Let FA and FB be frictional force acting on wheel. Then for equilibrium
conditions

P cos  W sin   FA  FB .................1

similarly ,
F F
f  A,f  A
RA FB
fxR B  FB
where,

f = coefficient of lateral friction.

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 P cos  W sin   fR A  fR B
41 P cos  W sin   f ( R A  RB )......................2
again,
R A  RB  W cos  P sin  ............................3

Equating 2 and 3

P cos  W sin   f (W cos  P sin  )

P cos  W sin   fxWcox  fxP sin 
P cos  fxP sin   W sin   fxWcox
P(cos  fx sin  )  W sin   fxWcox

Dividing both sides by W cox

P tan   f
 ……….4
W 1  f tan 
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tan


If f=0.15, tan  is equal to 0.07, then

42
f tan   0.01
and
1  f tan   1

Then equation 4 becomes

Wv 2
e f is required equation for super elevation
gRW
where,
 v= speed (m/s)
 g= acceleration due to gravity
 R= radius
 f= lateral coefficient of friction (0.15)
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43  If v is in kmph

e f 
0.278v 
2

v2
9.8R 127 R

where, v= speed (kmpr)

R = Radius (m)

Similarly, for mix traffic, e is calculated for 75% of

design speed.

e f 
0.75v 

2
v2
127 R 225 R
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 DESIGN STEP OF SUPER-ELEVATION
44 V=80 KMPH
R= 200M
e=?
If e is not greater than 0.07, calculate the maximum allowable speed if it is not possible to increase radius and
f = 0.15
v2 80 2
e   0.142  0.07
225 R 225 x200
Since, maximum allowable super elevation is 0.07, take limiting value of e i.e. e= 0.07 and calculate f
v2 80 2
f   0.07   0.07  0.18  0.15
127 R 127 x200
Here, the obtained value of "f” is greater than given value. So, we have to either change radius or velocity but
it is restricted to charge radius. So, we have to change velocity.
Therefor, Adopted velocity
Va  e  f x127 xR  0.07  0.15x127 x200  74.753 Kmph
Thus, allowable speed may be restricted to more than 74 kmph.
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 TYPES OF SUPER-ELEVATION
45
 i. Maximum super elevation
 ii. Minimum super elevation
i) Maximum super elevation

v2
e f 
gR
From the above relation, it is cleared that 'e' increases with increase in speed and
decrease in radius for the constant value of 'f' but from the practical point of view, it is
necessary to limit maximum super elevation. So, as to avoid topping of loaded vehicles,
the maximum super elevation for mix traffic is 7% ( 0.07).

ii) Minimum super elevation:

 It is necessary to have a maximum cross slope to drain off surface water. If super
elevation is equal or less than camber, then the minimum super elevation to be
produced on the horizontal curve maybe limited to a camber of road way
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46
Methods of introducing super elevation
1. Elimination of crown of camber section.
It can be done by 2 methods:
 Rotating order edge about crown.
 Shifting of crown progressively outward
In first method, outer half of cross section is
rotated about crown at a desired rate such that
the surface falls on the same plane as the inner
half and elevation of central line is not changed.
In the second method, the crown is progressively
shifted outward.
Thus, increases the width of inner half of cross
section. 4/8/2021
 2. Rotation of pavement of attain full super
47
elevation.
 There are two method of rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation:
 By rotating the pavement about central line the outer edge is raised and inner edge
is depressed each by half the total amount of super elevation. i.e. E/2
 By rotating the pavement about the inner edge by raising outer edge such that the
outer edge is raised by full amount of super elevation. i.e. E

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48
Extra Widening
On the horizontal curves, carriage way width is increased than normal
width on straight portion. The increased width is called extra widening.
The purpose of providing extra widening are:
 Drivers have tendency to keep away edge of carriage way while
driving.
 The clearance between the vehicles passing each other in the
horizontal curve is caved more than on the straight road due to
psychological effect.
 Because of off tracking, more width of road is occupied by vehicles.
So, width is increased in horizontal curves.
 All the beginning of curves, drivers wished to follow outer edge to
have better visibility.
 Trailer unit required large width at the curve.
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 Types extra widening of curve
49
Extra widening on horizontal curve is of two types:
 Mechanical widening
 Psychological widening

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50 Mechanical widening
 The widening provided to account for off
tracking due to rigidity of wheel base is
called mechanical widening.
 Due to off tracking, the rear wheels follow
a path of shorter radius than the front ones
and thus it increases the effective width of
road space required by the vehicle
 So we provide extra width to provide some
clearance between vehicles, to provide
safety against transverse skidding during
high speeds and also to provide stability for
vehicles like trailer trucks.
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51

 R1= radius of path traversed by outer rear wheel

 R2 = radius of path traversed by front wheel
 Wm = Mechanical widening.

R1= radius of path traversed by outer rear wheel

R2 = radius of path traversed by front wheel

Wm = Mechanical widening.

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52 Now,
Wm = OC-OA = R2-R1
or, R1 = R2 - Wm----------------------(i)
Again,
In triangle AOB
OA2 = OB2 - BA2 (BY USING
PYTHOGORUS THEOREM)
R12 = R22 - L2
(R2 - WM)2 = R22 - L2
or, R22 - 2R2 x Wm + Wm2 = R22 - L2
or, L2 = 2 x R2 x Wm -Wm2
= Wm (2R2 -Wm) 4/8/2021
53 l2 l2
Wm  
2 R 2  Wm 2 R 2

If there are numbers of lane, then Mechanical widening

nl 2
Wm 
2R

In normal condition, ( l = 6.1m)

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54 ii) Psychological Widening
 Sometime extra width is provided for extra space required for overhangs of
vehicles and to provide greater clearance for crossing or overtaking
vehicles. Such widening provided to pavement is called psychological
widening.
 Mathematically, it is represented by

V
W ps 
9.5 R
Where,
V = speed ( kmph)
R = radius (m

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55 Total widening (We)
(We) = Wm+ Wps

nl 2 V
We  
2 R 9.5 R
Where,

n = number of lanes

l = length of wheel base in meter = 6.1 m

v = design speed

R = radius (m)

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56 METHODES OF PROVIDING EXTRA WIDENING:

i. Widening of pavement on horizontal curve

ii. Widening of pavement on sharp curve

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57

B C

Widening is provided in both side of curve D

A

A-B: Extra widening is uniformly increased

B-C: Full extra width is provided
C-D: Extra widening is uniformly decreased

C
B
D
Widening is provided in inner side of curve only
A

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  Normally, widening is provided at the beginning of transition curve and
uniformly increased till full widening is provided at the end of transition curve.
58  The full width i.e. (W+We) remains same throughout the circular curve.
 Similarly, in the case of horizontal curve We/2 is provided on the both side of the
curve.

half extra width is provided at either side of curve

 But, in the case of sharp curve full extra width is provided at the inner side of the
curve

Full extra width is provided at inner curve

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59 Sight Distance:

 Sight distance is defined as the length of carriage way that is

visible to driver at any instant from the specified height of driver's
eye above the road surface.
 According to NRS, the height of driver's eye is 1m and height of
object is 0.15m above the road surface.
Sight distance

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 Restriction to sight distance
60 i) Horizontal curve
 Building curve
 Visibility restriction
due to head light limitation
 Restriction due to the tree

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 ii) At vertical summit curve
61  Restriction of visibility for night driving.

iii) At valley curve

 Problems of night visibility
iv) At intersections
 Restrictions to visibility due to presence of building.

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 Types of sight distance
62
Stopping sight distance
safe overtaking or passing sight distance
Stopping sight distance

OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

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 Stopping sight
63
 It is a total distance needed by a vehicle to stop before
meeting other object in his path.
Stopping sight distance = Lag distance + Braking distance
Lag Distance
It is a distance travelled by vehicle during total reaction time.
According to NRS, the total reaction time is 2.5secs.
Mathematically, Lag distance = V*t
Where,
V= design speed (m/s)
t = total reaction time (sec)
If V is in kmph,
Lag distance. = 0.278 vt
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  Braking Distance
It is a distance travelled by vehicle after application of brake.
64 Mathematically, if F is the maximum frictional force developed and
distance, the work Done against frictional force is l be the braking
Fx l =fxWx l
The kinetic energy at design speed v m/s is Wv
2

This will be zero when the vehicle stopped 2 g

Equating work done and Kinetic energy
Wv 2
fWl 
2g
v2
l
2 fg
If V is in kmph, braking distance = V2/254f
Where, f = coefficient of lateral friction

Stopping sight distance = Lag distance + Braking distance

= Vt+V2/2gf
OR
= 0.278vt+v2/254f 4/8/2021
 Stopping Sight Distance At Slope
65

 Let us consider a slope with ascending gradient (+n%) on which a vehicle is moving
with speed v m/s and be the braking distance (distance cover after break is apply
l
 The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface which acts to breaking force,
each equal to W sinA = wtanA = wn
 Equating kinetic energy and workdone
Wn Wv 2
( fW  )l 
100 2g
n Wv 2
(f  )W * l 
100 2g
v2
l
n
2g( f  )
100

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66
 similarly, in the case of descending gradient

v2
l
n
2g( f  )
100
Therefore, stopping sight distance =
v2
SSD  vt 
n
2g( f  )
100
If speed is in kmph ,
Stopping sight distance is
v2
SSD  0.278vt 
n
254( f  )
100
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 Headlight sight distance = stopping sight distance
67
Intermediate sight distance = 2* stopping sight distance
Coefficient of friction as per Nepal Road Standard 2070
Speed (kmph) Coefficient of friction (f)

20 to 30 0.48
40 0.38
50 0.37
60 0.36
65 0.36
80 0.35 4/8/2021

100 0.35
 68 Overtaking sight distance:
Vehicle to be overtaken

Overtaking vehicle

Vehicle coming from opposite lane

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69

 Let, A be the vehicle which overtakes B and A1, A2, A3 are it's different position
at different interval of time.
 B be vehicle to be overtaken and B1 and B2 are it's position at different interval
of time.
 C be the vehicle coming from opposite lane and C1 and C2 are it's position at
different interval of time.
 Vb = speed of overtaken vehicle
 V = design speed of vehicle A and C
 d1 = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during reaction time 't'
second from A1 to A2 4/8/2021
70

 d2 = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during overtaking

operation from A2 to A3 during the time interval 'T' second.
 d3 = distance travelled by vehicle C from C1 during the time interval 'T'
sec.
 Distance travelled by vehicle A during reaction time’t’ sec is d1.
d1 = Vb * t --------------(i)
From position A2 the vehicle A overtakes B and goes back to it's previous
lane in the position A3 in the time interval 'T' secs. The distance between A2
and A3 is d2 and the minimum distance between A2 and B1 is S. Similarly,
the minimum distance required between B2 and A3 is S. 4/8/2021
71

d2=s+b+s = b+2s
Where, b= distance traveled by vehicles B during overtaking time, T sec
b = vb*T
d2=s+b+s = vbxT+2s………..(i)

By Empirical formula,
s = (0.69vb+6.1)m = (0.7vb+6) m, where vb is m/s
Using general formula for the distance traveled by a uniformly
accelerating body with initial vb and acceleration a,
4/8/2021

d2 = vbT+0.5aT2. ………..(ii)
 From equation I and ii,
72
vb*T+2s = vbT+0.5aT2
4s
T
a

If, a= acceleration (kmph/sec)

14.4s
T
A
where
s = 0.2vb + 6
vb= velocity of the overtaking vehicle (kmph) 4/8/2021
73

 The distance traveled by the vehicles coming from the opposite lane i.e.
from the position C1 to C2 is d3
 Therefore,
Overtaking sight distance = d1+d2+d3 = vbt+vbT+2s + vT
 t = reaction time = 2.5 secs as per NRS 2070
 If velocity is given in terms of kmph
O.S.D = 0.278 vbt+.278vbT +2s+ 0.278VT

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 NOTE,
74  In the case, if the velocity of overtaken vehicles i.e. vb is not given, the
overtaken speed is assumed as
(v-4.5) m/s, Where, v= design speed in m/s
Or
(v-16)kmph, Where, v= design speed in kmph

Overtaking sight distance (O.S.D)

A) One way road = d1+d2
B) Two way road = d1+d2+d3
C) The minimum length of overtaking zone for One way road = 3(d1+d2)
D) The minimum length of overtaking zone for Two way road = 3(d1+d2+d3)

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75 problem
A. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 and 60 kmph respectively. If
acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 2.5 kmph per second, calculate safe passing
sight distance for
One way traffic.
Two way traffic.

B. Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision if truck
speeding at 40 kmph along a certain 5 % grade downward in a single lane road
encounters with another vehicle coming toward it at a speed of 90 kmph.
Assume a total reaction time of 2.5 sec and f = 0.35

C. Calculate minimum sight distance needed to prevent a head on collision of two cars
approaching from opposite direction at 90 kmph and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction time
as 2.5 sec, f = 0.7 and brake efficiency as 50% for each case.

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 Factors affecting stopping sight distance
76
Total reaction time
 It is time taken from the instant the object is visible to driver to
the instant the brakes are effectively applied. It is of two types.
i. Perception time
ii. Braking reaction time

i. Perception time
The time required for driver to realize that brake must be applied
is called perception time.
ii. Braking reaction time
It is the time that elapses between moments, the foot is removed
from accelerator and placed on the brake paddle and time to
activate brake action.
 PIEV Theory
77

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 Perception:
78
 Time for sensation by eyes and transmission to brain from
nervous system.
Intellectual:
 Time to understand situation.
Emotion:
 Emotional sensation and disturbances such as fear, anger,
etc.
Violation:
 Time taken for final action.

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 b)Speed
79 The braking distance or distance moved by the vehicles after application
of brakes depends upon the speed of vehicle. Greater the speed,
greater will be stopping sight distance.
c) Efficiency of brake
Break efficiency is said to 100%, if wheels are fully locked preventing them
from rotating on the application of breaks. This results in skidding which is
not acceptable. So, breaking force should be greater than frictional
force between wheels and pavement.
d) Frictional between road and wheel
It depends upon the nature of road and condition of road. The breaking
distance increases with decreases in skid resistance.
e) Gradient
If there is positive gradient, stopping distance is less and if there is
negative gradient, stopping sight distance is high. 4/8/2021
80
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Gradient:
 Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect
to the horizontal.
 It is expressed as the ration of 1:x (1 vertical unit : x horizontal unit).
 Sometimes the gradient is expressed as n percentage. i.e. n%.
 A rising or ascending gradient is donated by positive sign such as +n1,
+n2, etc. and the descending gradient is donated by negative sign such
as –n1, -n2 etc

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81 Types of gradient

a)Ruling gradient
b)Limiting gradient
c) Exceptional gradient
d)Minimum gradient.

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 Ruling gradient
82  It is the maximum gradient with which the designer attempts to design a vertical
profile of the road.
 Ruling gradient is also known as the design gradient.
 IRC recommend ruling gradient of 1 in 30 in plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 20
in mountainous terrain and 1 in 1.7 on steep terrain.
Limiting gradient
 It is gradient steeper than ruling gradient. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it is
necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient.
Exceptional gradient
 It is gradient steeper than limiting gradient which is provided in exceptional
cases only. Eg hair pin bend. The disadvantages are
 More fuel consumption
 More friction losses
 Reduces engine efficiency
 Wear and tear to pavement and wheel
4/8/2021
83 Minimum gradient
 The road can be level with little or no gradient.
 In such cases there will be problem of drainage system thought the
surface water can be drain off providing camber and cross slope and
additional longitudinal slope is needed to drain water.
 The minimum gradient depends upon rainfall, types of soil, topography
and other site condition.

4/8/2021
 Curve resistance for turning vehicles.
84  Automobiles are steered by turning the front wheel
but rear wheels do not turns.
 So during the movement of vehicle on the
horizontal curve, direction of rotation of rear and
front wheel are different and there is loss tractive
force.
 AB is rear wheel which gives tractive forces (T)
along PQ directions. The front wheel CD is turned
along the horizontal curve and the tractive force is
produced along RS and the tractive force is equal
to Tcosα. This tractive force is less than actual force
 Loss in the tractive force is T- Tcosα = T(1- cosα)
 This loss of the tractive force due to turning of
vehicle on the horizontal curve is called curve
resistance.
4/8/2021
 Compensation in gradient
85
 Due to turning angle, the curve resistance i.e T(1- cosα) is
developed.
 Similarly, when there is horizontal curve in addition to gradient,
there will be increase in resistance due to grade and the curve and
it should not exceed the resistance due to maximum gradient
specified.
 So during design of sharp horizontal curve, the gradient should be
decreased to compensate the loss of the tractive force due to
curve.
30  R
 Grade compensation =
R 75
 The maximum limit of grade compensation =
R
Where R is the radius of circular curve
4/8/2021


 While aligning a hill road with ruling gradient of 6% in
86 horizontal curve of 60 m is encountered. Find the
compensated gradient at a curve
 Ruling gradient is 6%
30  R
 Grade compensation =
R
30  60
=
60

= 1.5%
75 75
Maximum limit of grade compensation is = = 1.25%
R 60
Compensated gradient = 6% - 1.25% = 4.75%

4/8/2021
87

Vertical curves
The vertical curves used in highway may be of two
types
[Link] curves
B. Valley curves

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88
Summit curves
 The vertical curve having convexity upward is called summit curve. The summit curves
develops in following cases as shown in fig

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  While designing the length of summit curve we need to consider stopping sight
89 distance and overtaking sight distance.

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90
Two cases are to be considered while designing
length of summit curves for the stopping sight
distance.
Case A:
 When the length of summit curve is greater than stopping sight
distance
Case B
 When the length of summit curve is less than stopping sight
distance

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 Case A:
91 When the length of summit curve is greater than
stopping sight distance (L>SSD)
 The general equation for the length of summit curve of the parabolic curve i.e

NS 2
L = ( 2 H  2h ) 2

L = length of summit curve

S = stopping sight distance
N = Angle of deviation
H = height of eye level of driver above the road surface = 1.2m (IRC)
h = height of object above the road surface = 0.15m (IRC)
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 NS 2
L=
92 4.4

Case B
 When the length of summit curve is less than sight distance
(L<SSD
( 2 H  2h ) 2
Length of summit curve = 2S 
N

If,
H= 1.2m
h = 0.15m
4.4
L = 2S 
N
4/8/2021
 Two cases are to be considered for designing the
93 length of summit curve for overtaking sight
distance

Case A
 Length of summit curve is greater than overtaking sight distance
Case B
 Length of summit curve is less than overtaking sight distance

4/8/2021
 Case A
94 Length of summit curve is greater than overtaking sight
distance (L>OSD)

NS 2
L=
( 2 H  2h ) 2

NS 2
=
9.6

if H = h = 1.2m (IRC)
S = overtaking sight distance

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 Case B
95 Length of summit curve is less than overtaking sight
distance (L<OSD)

( 2 H  2h ) 2
L = 2S 
N

9.6
= 2S 
N

4/8/2021
96 problem
A. Design length of summit curve formed at intersection of two gradient +3.0%
and -5.0% in order to provide stopping sight distance for design speed of 80
kmph. Assume all necessary data.
B. A ascending gradient of 1 in 80 meets descending gradient of 1 in 100.
Design a summit curve for 100 kmph so as to have a overtaking sight
distance of 500m.

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 Valley curve
97  A vertical curve having convexity downward or concavity
upward is called valley curve

Length of valley curve is designed for two cases

 Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration 0.6 m3/s
 Head light sight distance
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 Case A
98 The length of valley curve for the comfort conditions is given by

NV 3 12
L = 2[ ] where v is in m/s
C

When
V = Kmph
C = rate of change of centrifugal acceleration = 0.6

L = 0.38x(NV3)0.5
 For stopping sight distance
99 Case A :The length of valley curve is greater than stopping sight
distance

NS 2
L=
2h1  2s tan 

 H1 = height of head light from road surface = 0.75 m

  = inclined angle of head light beam = 1 degree

4/8/2021
100
Case B : The length of valley curve is smaller
than stopping sight distance

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101

 L = 2S – 2h1  2s tan 
N

 L = 2S - 1.5  0.035 XS if h1 = 0.75 and α is 1o

N

4/8/2021
102 problem
a) Design the length of valley curve for both comfort and head light sight
distance requirement for a design speed 80 kmph if it is formed with a
descending grade of 1 in 25 meets an ascending grade of 1 in 30. Take c =
0.6 m/s3

4/8/2021