IV.

BABYHOOD

Characteristic of Babyhood

 Babyhood is the True Foundation Age

Babyhood is the true foundation of life because, at this time many
behavior patterns many attitudes, and many patterns of emotional
expression are being established.

There are four reasons why foundations laid during the babyhood
years are important.
1. Contrary to tradition, children do not outgrow undesirable traits
as they grow older.
2. If an undesirable pattern of behavior or unfavorable beliefs and
attitudes have started to develop, the sooner they can be
corrected the easier it will be for the child.
3. Early foundation quickly develop into habits through repetition,
they will have a lifelong influence on a child‘s personal and social
adjustments.
4. Learning and experience play dominant roles in development;
they can be directed and controlled so that the development will
be along lines that will make good personal and social
adjustments possible.

 Babyhood Is an Age of Rapid Growth and Change

Babies are able to understand many things and can communicate
their needs and wants in ways that others can understand.

 Babyhood Is an Age of Decreasing Dependency

The decrease in dependency on others results from the rapid
development of body control which enables babies to sit, stand, and
walk and to manipulate objects. No longer are babies willing to let
others do things for them that they can or believe they can do for
themselves.

 Babyhood Is the Age of Increased Individuality

 Perhaps the most significant thing about increased independence is
that it permits babies to develop along lines suited to their interests
and abilities. No longer can all babies be expected to thrive on the
same food or the same schedules for sleeping and eating.

 Babyhood Is the Beginning of Socialization

Babies show their desire to become a part of the social group by
putting up protests when they are left alone for any length of time and
by trying to win the attention of others in any way they can.

 Babyhood Is the Beginning of Sex-Role Typing

Almost from the moment of birth, boys are treated as boys and girls
as girls. The same sex-identifying traditions apply to girls.

 Babyhood Is an Appealing Age

They are appealing because of their big heads, protuding
abdomens, small, thin limbs, and tiny hands and feet. When they are
dressed in baby clothes and wrapped in baby blankets, they become
even more appealing.

 Babyhood Is the Beginning of Creativity

In these early months of life to develop interests and attitudes that
will lay the foundations for later creativity on for conformity to
patterns set by others.

 Babyhood Is a Hazardous Age

Since behavior patterns, interests, and attitudes are establish
during babyhood, serious psychological hazards can result if poor
foundations are laid at this time.

Physical Development

Pattern of Physical Development during Babyhood

 Weight
4 months – the baby weight has normally doubled
1 year – on the average, three times as much as they did at birth,
or approximately 21 pounds
 2 months – the typical American baby weight 25 pounds

 Height
4 months – the baby measures between 23 and 24 inches
1 year – between 28 and 30 inches
2 years – between 32 and 34 inches

 Physical Proportions
Head growth slows down in babyhood, while trunk and limb growth
increases. Thus the baby gradually becomes less top-heavy and
appears more slender and less chunky by the end of babyhood.

 Bones
The fontanel, or soft spot on the skull, has closed in approximately
50 percent of all babies by the age of 18 months, and in almost all
babies by the age of two years.

 Muscles and Fat

They grow slowly during babyhood and are weak. By contrast, fat
tissue develops rapidly during babyhood, due partly to the high fat
content of milk, the main ingredient in a baby‘s diet.

 Body Builds
Three most common forms of body build.
1. Ectomorphic – which to be long and slender
2. Endomorphic – which tends to be round and fat
3. Mesomorphic – which tends to be heavy, hard, and rectangular

 Teeth
The average baby has four to six of the twenty temporary teeth by
the age of one and sixteen by the age of two. The first teeth to cut
through are those in front, the last to appear are the molars. The last
four of the temporary teeth usually erupt during the first year of early
childhood.

 Nervous System
 At birth, brain weight is one-eighth of the baby‘s total weight. This
is true also for the cerebrum. Immature cells, present at birth,
continue to develop after birth but relatively few new cells are formed.

 Sense Organ Development

3 months – the eye muscles are well enough coordinated to enable
babies to see things clearly and distinctly and the cones are well-
enough develop to enable them to see colors. Hearing develops rapidly
during this time. Smell and taste, which are well develop at birth,
continue to improve during babyhood. Babies are thin texture of their
skin and because all sense organs relating to touch, pressure, pain,
and temperature are present in well-develop forms.

Physiological Functions

 Sleep Patterns
First year of babyhood, the mean duration of night sleep increases
from 8½ hours at three weeks to 10 hours at 12 weeks and then
remains constant during the rest of that year.
First 3 months, the decline in day sleep is balanced by an increase
in night sleep.
1 hour in length occur in both day and night sleep, with deep sleep
lasting only about 23 minutes.

 Eating Patterns
From birth until 4 to 5 months of age, all eating is in the infantile
form of sucking and swallowing. Food, as a result, must be in a liquid
form. Food dislikes, which begin to develop during the second year,
are frequently the result of the prolongation of infantile eating
patterns.

 Patterns of Elimination
Bowel control begins, on the average, at 6 months, and bladder
control begins between the ages of 15 and 16 months.
Pattern of Motor Control

Head Region

 Eye Control
Optic nystagmus, or response of the eyes to a succession of moving
objects, begins about 12 hours after birth; ocular pursuit movements
between the 3 and 4 weeks; horizontal eye movements, between the 2
and 3 months; vertical eye movements, between the 3 and 4 months;
and circular eye movements, several months later.

 Smiling
Reflex smiling, or smiling in response to a tactual stimulus, appears
during the first week of life; social smiling or smiling in response to the
smile of another person, and begins between the 3 and 4 months.

 Head Holding
In a prone position, babies can hold their heads erect at 1 month;
when lying on their backs, at 5 months; and when held in a sitting
position, between 4 and 6 months.

Trunk Region

 Rolling
Babies can roll from side to back at 2 months and from back to side
at 4 months; at 6 months, they can roll over completely.

 Sitting
The baby can pull to a sitting position at 4 months, sit with support
at 5 months, sit without support momentarily at 7 months, and sit up
without support for 10 or more minutes at 9 months.

Arm and Hand Region

 Hands
Thumbs opposition – the working of the working of the thumb in
opposition to the fingers – appears in grasping between 3 and 4
months and in picking up objects between 8 and 10 months.
  Arms
The baby can reach for objects by 6 or 7 months and can pick up a
small object without random movements by one year.

Leg region

 Shifting of the body by kicking occurs by the end of the second week.
Hitching, or moving in a sitting position appears by six months.
Crawling and creeping appear between eight and ten months, and at
eleven months babies walk on ―all fours.‖
 Babies can pull themselves to a standing position at about ten months,
stand with support at one year, walk with support at eleven months or
one year, and walk without support at fourteen months.
 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Motor development involves basic movement abilities:

Gross Motor Development: Fine Motor Development:

large body movements smaller movements
control over actions hand and finger movements
getting around the environment controlled & refined

What's the difference between fine and gross motor skills?

Motor skills are motions carried out when the brain, nervous system,
and muscles work together. Fine motor skills are small movements — such
as picking up small objects and holding a spoon — that use the small
muscles of the fingers, toes, wrists, lips, and tongue. Gross motor skills are
the bigger movements — such as rolling over and sitting — that use the
large muscles in the arms, legs, torso, and feet.
History
Motor development theory was developed during the 18th and 19th
century. Most theorists observed their own offspring and descriptions of their
achievement were kept in baby biographies.

 Longitudinal studies from the 1930's were a foundation in the

development field. These are still cited in textbooks today.
 In the 1960's interest in motor development declined. It was not
regarded as an important subject to pursue.
 Prior documentation was very thorough in all areas; so modern
researchers had no further areas to investigate.
 These were models of reflexes and neural maturation. The models were
detailed but they did not look at variety or complexity of the movement.

Later investigations reorganised the relation between neuromotor impulse

and coordination of movements. Findings concluded that sensory and motor
systems combined, contributes to the overall outcome.

Results found that motor development was not a single function but many
factors that become dynamically structured.
 Walking not only relies on the motor programming in the brain,
but it also relies on
Balance - which involves visual guidance and postural control
Muscle tone - which depends on motivation

Stages
This topic covers three stages of motor development, spanning the ages 0 to
12, beginning with early reflexes, and developing through the various
milestones that a child reaches as they mature.

Stages of development

There are three stages of motor development in children.

The first stage is marked by extremely rapid growth and development,

as is the second stage. By the age of 2 years old, this development has
begun to level out somewhat. The final stage does not have any marked new
developments, rather it is characterized by the mastering and development
of the skills achieved in the first two stages.

0-2 YEARS OR INFANTHOOD

The Newborn Child

It is argued that many of a newborn's reflexes contribute to motor

control as the child learns new motor skills. For example the stepping reflex
promotes development areas of the cortex that govern voluntary walking.
This and other examples can be seen in the table below.

Reflex Age
Method Motor preparation
name Disappears
Assumes fencing
position; 1 arm
Tonic extended in front of May prepare for
4 months
neck eyes on side to which voluntary reaching
head is turned. Other
arm flexed.
Lifts one foot after
Prepares for
Stepping another in stepping 2 months
voluntary walking
response
Palmar Spontaneous grasp of Prepares for
3-4 months
grasp adult's finger voluntary grasping

Assessing reflexes in newborns will determine the health of the

nervous system, as reflexes that are weak or absent, exaggerated or overly
rigid may indicate some brain damage. Therefore stages will need to be
modified slightly.
The average ages at which gross motor skills are achieved during
infancy may vary. This range may be seen in the table below.

Average Age Age Range

Motor Skill
Achieved (90% Infants)
Head erect & steady when held 3 weeks-4
6 weeks
upright months
3 weeks-4
Lifts self by arms when prone 2 months
months
3 weeks-5
Rolls from side to back 2 months
months
Grasps cube 3 months, 3 weeks 2-7 months
Rolls from back to side 4 ½ months 2-7 months
Sits alone 7 months 5-9 months
Crawls 7 months 5-11 months
Pulls to stand 8 months 5-12 months
 Plays Pat-a-cake 9 months, 3 weeks 7-15 months
Stands alone 11 months 9-16 months
Walks alone 11 months, 3 weeks 9-17 months
Builds tower of 2 cubes 13 months, 3 weeks 10-19 months
Scribbles vigorously 14 months 10-21 months
Walks up stairs with help 16 months 12-23 months
Jumps in place 23 months, 2 weeks 17-30 months

Although the sequence of motor development is fairly uniform across

children, differences may exist individually in the rate at which motor skills
develop. A baby who is a late reached may not necessarily be a late
crawler/walker. Concern would arise if the child's development were delayed
in many motor skills.

Summary of Table

Motor control of the head comes before control of the legs. This head-to-
tail sequence is called the cephalocaudal trend.
Motor development proceeds from the centre of the body outward; i.e. the
head, trunk and arm control is mastered before the coordination of the
hands and fingers. This is the proximodistical trend.
Physical growth follows these same trends throughout infancy and
childhood.
Once the child has grasped these gross motor skills, they are then able to
explore their environment further by grasping things, turning them over,
and seeing what happens when they are released. Infants are then able to
learn a great deal about the sight, sound and feel of objects.
Reaching and grasping development is a classic example of how motor skills
start out as gross, and then graduate to mastering fine motor skills.
At 3 months voluntary reaching gradually improves in accuracy. It does not
require visual guidance of arms and hands, but rather a sense of movement
and location.
By 5 months reaching is reduced as the object can be moved within reach.
At 9 months an infant can redirect reaching to obtain a moving object that
changes direction.
6-12 months the infant can use a pincer grasp, thus increasing their ability
to manipulate objects.
2-6 YEARS OR EARLY CHILDHOOD

The period of the most rapid development of motor behaviors is the

period between 2 and 6 years (also known as the preschool years). Skills
that appear are:
1. Basic locomotor
2. Ball-handling
3. Fine eye-hand coordination
4. Walking leads to running, jumping, hopping, galloping, and skipping
5. Climbing evolves from creeping.
6. The following points need to be highlighted.
7. By the age of 3 walking is automatic.
8. By 4 years the child has almost achieved an adult style of walking.
9. By 3 years the child has attempted to run, albeit awkward in
style and lacking control.
10. By the age of 4-5 years the child has more control over running
and can start, stop and turn.
11. By 5-6 skills in running have advanced to the level of an adult
manner.
12. Between the ages of 3 and 6 climbing proficiency using ladders,
etc., has developed.
13. By 6 years children can hop and gallop skillfully, and jumping
distances are longer.
14. At the age of 3 children begin a shuffle which evolves into
skipping by the age of 6.
15. At the age of 2 children learn to kick, as their balance
mechanism has developed. A full kick with a backswing has developed
by the age of 6.
16. Throwing at the age of 2-3 years is not very proficient although
is attempted. This has improved by the age of 6 when the child will
include a step forward.
17. At the age of 3 a child can catch a large ball with arms straight;
at 4 elbows will be in front when catching; and by the age of 6 years,
elbows will be held at the side.

6-12 YEARS OR LATER CHILDHOOD

After the age of 6 years old, it becomes increasingly difficult to describe

changes and differences in motor skills development. The following
characteristics are evident:
Changes are more subtle, and are often to fine motor skills only
By 9 years eye-hand coordination has developed to being very good
Growth is relatively slow
This stage is terminated by the onset of puberty
Motor skills are perfected and stabilized
Links can be made to physical development.

The following are assessed during this stage.

 Running. This will become faster depending on the length of stride
and tempo.
 Jumping. The ability to jump higher will become greater due to body
size, weight, age and strength.
 Throwing. Boys begin to throw further with a better technique and
accuracy.
 Balancing and coordination. This increases as the child becomes older
and control is perfected.

These areas can benefit greatly from systematic instruction in motor

skills, and physical education programs at school. The quality and type of
environment a child is exposed to will influence the extent to which the child
develops the motor skills learned in the first two stages of development.
Furthermore a child's motor interests will be determined by his or her
opportunities. Differences in gender also come into play in this stage.

Influences
Influences on motor development are both environmental and biological.
The diagram below provides information relating to both.
Biological Influences
Motor skill development is influenced by the following:
Genetics and ethnicity. This can affect the rate and ability of motor skill
development and relates to body weight, size, and strength relevant to body
weight. These aspects and differing rates of development have been shown
to exist for example, between African-Americans and Japanese Americans.
These factors can effect the development of skills for the average individual.
These physical characteristics also account for the initial difference in gross
motor skill ability for males and females.

Environment

Environmental influences that can affect the acquisition or

development of motor skills can be seen as both social and physical.

Social

Social construction of sex.

Parental expectations of their children in view of gender. This is
particularly so with regards to boys. As boys mature they are traditionally
expected to be involved in organized sport, to a greater extent than females.
While girls can expect to have better developed fine motor skills through
most of the stages of development, gross motor skills, as a result of social
influences are better developed in boys.
Child parent interaction. Limiting the opportunities for interaction. This
occurs primarily through families having low levels of structure, and hence
low child-parent socialization. Stresses affecting structure can stem from
economics and/or personal conditions as diverse as alcoholism and mental
health.

Physical

Opportunities that are provided within the home environment. This is

especially so in early childhood, when opportunities outside the home are
limited, e.g. play and activities.
As children become older and spend more time in the school environment,
the opportunities that are provide can either assist or restrict the further
development of motor skills.
That boys and girls socialise differently, e.g. that boys tend to be
competitive and girls more cooperative, has implications for the organisation
of activities and the play environment.
  Competitive behaviour = Focus on skill practice.
 Cooperative social interaction = Limited skill practice.

Learning & Behavior

These pages provide teachers and parents with a framework from which
to understand the links between motor development and sensory integration
and the relation to learning and behavior.

HOW DOES HANDEDNESS DEVELOP?

Handedness The brains of left-handers tend to be less strongly

lateralized than those of right-handers. Experience can affect handedness.
Reflects dominant cerebral hemisphere Right-handed (90%) - left
hemisphere Left-handed (10%) - both hemispheres May be genetic basis,
but affected by experience Position in uterus, practice Few left-handers
show developmental problems Left hemisphere damage
may link left-handedness & some mental problems.

Bilateral coordination skills begin to emerge in early

babyhood. Babies love their hands, and they move both
hands together to explore or touch something. Moving both
hands or both legs together like this is called symmetrical
movement. (If your baby under 18months does not move
both hands together like this, and tends to leave one hand out completely,
then see your doctor or paediatrician urgently)
Some examples of symmetrical movements that we see in older children are
jumping and clapping hands.
As the baby grows and develops, he learns to crawl, and in this way,
he learns to use each side of the body in a rhythmical way, first one side and
then the other. These are reciprocal movements .
Crawling is thus a vital part of a baby‘s development, as it gives the
baby tremendous opportunities to develop good bilateral coordination in
preparation for handedness.

As the child grows and develops, more reciprocal skills

such as walking, running, climbing and riding a tricycle
develop. Both sides are doing the same task, one side
at a time. Using the hands to pull in a rope is a good
example of reciprocal bilateral coordination of the
hands.

The next phase of bilateral coordination development is called

asymmetrical bilateral coordination . This means that both sides of the
body are working together, but they are doing a different, yet
complementary task.
Look at this child coloring in. He has developed
asymmetrical bilateral coordination as can be seen
by one hand holding the paper while the other hand
colors with a crayon. Cutting with scissors, drawing on
paper, kicking a ball… these tasks all require that one
hand or leg is ―active‖ while the other hand or leg
―assists‖. By age 4, most children have achieved some
measure of proficiency in developing this skill.
As the child gets better at getting both hands to work together in a
complementary way, the ability to cross the midline begins to emerge.

Crossing the midline means that one hand

spontaneously moves over to the other side of the body
to work there. In this photo, the child is reaching over to
the left with his right hand. This is called crossing the
midline.
Before crossing the midline is established, you may have
noticed that your young child tends to use the left hand
on the left side of the body and the right hand on the right side of the body.
So if he is building a block tower with all the blocks in front of him, he will
pick up the pieces on the left with his left hand, and the pieces on the right
with his right hand. And while drawing, or coloring, he may spontaneously
switch hands to color the other side. This is normal for young children!
However, in order for handedness to develop properly, crossing the midline
needs to be an established skill. That means that the child needs to be
comfortable spontaneously crossing the midline with either hand.
This will enable the dominant hand to get the practice that it needs in
becoming skilled.

How to help your child:

In order for handedness to emerge, your child‘s
bilateral should be encouraged to develop – try some
symmetrical and reciprocal activities from my OT Mom e-
book: Activities for Bilateral Coordination
If your child avoids crossing the midline, then both hands will
tend to get equal practice at developing skills, and your child‘s true
handedness may be apparently delayed. My article on Hand
Dominance explains why it is important for your child to have a dominant
hand.
Encourage a strong hand to emerge by making sure crossing the midline is
not delayed – try these activities for crossing the midline!
Remember, as well as wanting strong, dominant handedness to emerge, we
also want the ―other‖ hand to become a good ―assistant‖. If your child tends
to leave one hand out (not stabilising the paper while writing, or turning the
paper while cutting), then keep on doing bilateral coordination activities to
help his hands to work together well.

COORDINATION SKILLS

Whether playing games, taking part in sport or doing schoolwork,

coordination skills are important for your child.

Coordination usually refers to whether a child can get the arms and legs to
work together in a coordinated, effective way.
In addition, many tasks which require coordinated movement also require
the child to have good motor planning to time their movements accurately.
To get your child ready for school, there are 2 types of coordination skills
activities that are are particularly important: bilateral and hand-eye.

Bilateral Coordination Skills

This is the ability to use both sides of the body together in a coordinated
way. This girl is pulling herself up a rope using both hands in a coordinated
way.
Children with poor bilateral integration may struggle with gross motor games
or with fine motor tasks which require both hands to work together well.
Head over to my Bilateral Coordination page for more info and activities!
Playdough Activities can also give your child a chance to practice bilateral
skills.

HAND EYE COORDINATION

This is the ability of the eyes to guide the hands in movement.

Catching a ball and being able to hit a ball with a bat are obvious examples,
but many parents don‘t realize that good hand-eye coordination can also
help a child‘s handwriting.
Head over to my Hand-Eye Coordination page for more info and activities!
Use these visual motor activities to help toddlers and preschoolers work on
hand-eye skills

How to Determine if Your Child is Left or Right Handed

One of the delights of being a parent is watching your child grow and
develop. Some parents keep a development book handy to make sure their
child is reaching all the milestones within the prescribed time-frame, and
delight with each new development. Parents wait for their child to start
smiling, talking, sitting up, crawling and walking with bated breath, eagerly
looking forward to the next phase of their little one‘s development. As you
watch your bundle of joy grow, you may be interested in knowing how to
determine whether your child is left-handed or right-handed. Some people
may feel that it doesn‘t matter, but for lefties, life can be a little more
challenging if some adjustments aren‘t made, and for parents of lefties,
making those adjustments early can help your child in a variety of
situations.

What is Hand Dominance?

Scientifically, hand dominance or handedness is explained as the hand
that is most used in performing tasks or the hand that is the most nimble
and rapid in performance. Among researchers and scientists, hand
dominance is seen as a continuum between strong right and strong left. The
four types of handedness are: right-handedness, left-handedness, mixed-
handedness and ambidexterity.
By far, the vast majority of the population is right-handed. Left-
handedness is less common. Someone who changes hand preferences when
doing a variety of tasks is considered mixed-handed or ambidextrous. About
30% of the population displays this trait. Ambidexterity is relatively rare, but
can be learned. Those who learn to be ambidextrous have a tendency to
favor their naturally dominant hand, while those born with the ability are
equally adept at doing things with either hand.
It is interesting to note that in identical twins there is often a
difference in the handedness of the two, with one being left-handed and the
other being right handed. Rik Smit explores this phenomenon in his
book, The Puzzle of Left-Handedness. Australian researchers supposedly
debunked the idea of the vanishing twin theory, which held that left-handers
were part of an identical twin pair in which the right-handed twin fetus failed
to develop, however, Smit re-visits this idea heavily in his research.
Indicators for Hand Dominance

For the most part, babies start off using both hands to do things and
preference for one hand or the other seldom manifests before seven to nine
months of age. Even then, the preference may not necessarily be
permanent. Usually around two years of age there is steady use of one hand
in particular, but some four- to six-year-olds may still be ambivalent
regarding a dominant hand. Often, parents will assume that the hand with
which the child catches or throws a ball is the dominant hand, but that isn‘t
always the case. More accurate indicators include observation of which hand
the child uses to reach for items that are placed directly in front of him, or
the hand she uses to feed herself. If she stirs things counter-clockwise, she
is most likely left-handed. Which hand does he use for grooming? These
everyday tasks are more accurate in predicting the handedness of your
child. Genetics plays a part in handedness as well. 10% of the population is
left handed, and twice as many males as females are lefties. If both parents
have a dominant left hand, there‘s a 25% to 50% chance your child will be a
leftie. Trying to change your child‘s dominant hand may lead to frustration
since it is a trait determined by genetics and the brain, and is not
recommended despite the prevalence of the practice in generations past.
Since handedness is influenced by the brain, you should be aware that
babies who show an exclusive hand dominance before the age of 18 months
might have a motor development problem. Children who have had injuries to
the right side of the brain may show a preference for using the left hand, so
preference for the right hand could signal injury to the left side of the brain
that‘s previously gone undetected. Any concerns should be addressed with
your pediatrician.

Interesting Research

While most scientists believe that there is no difference in intelligence

between left-handed or right-handed people, Chris McManus, author
of Right-Hand, Left-Hand believes that the left-handed population is
growing, and that throughout history this population has produced a
proportionately greater level of high-achievers. Researchers from Johns
Hopkins University and Lafayette College found that among those who had
post-secondary education, left-handers earned 10% to 15% more than their
right-handed contemporaries with the same level of education. They also
found that regarding the general population, however, there is no significant
difference in income between the two.
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
WHAT IS LEARNING ACQUISITION?

• Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the

capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce
and use words to communicate. The capacity to successfully use
language requires one to acquire a range of tools including syntax,
phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. This language might be
vocalized as with speech or manual as in sign. Language acquisition
usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants'
acquisition of their native language.

• This is distinguished from second language acquisition, which deals

with the acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional
languages.

Hypothesis on the Critical Period for Language Acquisition by E.H

• LEARNING /EMPIRICIST PERSPECTIVE Children acquire language as

they IMITATE other‘s speech and are REINFORCED for grammatically
correct utterances, but this is unsupported by research.

• Adults use child-directed speech and reshape their primitive sentences

with expansions and recasts.

• Children will acquire language as long as they have partners with

whom to converse, even without these environmental supports.

• B.F. Skinner

Evaluation of the LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

• Imitation and reinforcement do play some part in language

development. Certainly, it is no accident end up speaking the same
language their parents speak, down to the regional accent. In addition,
young children whose parents are quicker to acquire and use the
proper names of novel toys when reinforced for doing so by receiving
the toys to play with. (Whitehurst & Valdez- Menchaca, 1988)
Evaluation of the LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

 Imitation and reinforcement do play some part in language

development. Certainly, it is no accident end up speaking the same
language their parents speak, down to the regional accent. In addition,
young children whose parents are quicker to acquire and use the
proper names of novel toys when reinforced for doing so by receiving
the toys to play with. (Whitehurst & Valdez- Menchaca, 1988)
 Children whose parents frequently encouraged them to converse by
asking questions and making requests are more advanced in their
early language development than their age-mates whose parents are
less conversational. (Bohannon & Bonvillian, 1997; Valdez &
Whitehurst, 1992).
 If parents really ―shaped‖ grammar, as Skinner claimed, they ought to
reliably praise or otherwise reinforce the child‘s grammatical
utterances.
 Yet, careful analyses of conversations between mothers and young
children reveals that a mother‘s approval or disapproval depends far
more on the truth value (semantics) of what a child says, not on the
statement‘s grammatical correctness. (Baron ,1992; Brown, Cazden &
Bellugi,1969)
 The way children seem unable to imitate adult grammatical
constructions exactly.

THE NATIVIST PERSPECTIVE

 Limitations of Behaviorist view of language acquisition led in 1960‘s to

the alternative generative‘ account of language
 Human beings are innately endowed biological linguistic processing
capabilities ( a language acquisition device (LAD) or language –making
capacity (LMC) that function most efficiently prior to puberty.
 This means that children require nothing more than being exposed to
speech in order to learn to speak the language they hear.
 Nativist‘s identify linguistic universals and observe that language
functions are served by Broca‘s and Wernicke‘s areas of the brain.
 Deaf children of hearing parents and other children exposed to
ungrammatical pidgins
 may create a language n their own.
 Broca-
 Wernicke -
THE INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

• Claims that language development reflects an interaction of nature and

nurture.

• Proponents of the interactionism viewpoint believe that both learning

theorists and nativists are partially correct.

• Children are biologically prepared to acquire language.

• Instead of specialized linguistic processes being innate, humans have a

nervous system that gradually matures and predisposes them to
develop similar ideas about the same age.

• Biological maturation affects cognitive development, which in turn,

influences language development.

• Environment plays a crucial role in language learning, for companions

continually introduce new linguistic rules and concepts.
Lenneberg’s Sensitive-Period Hypothesis

 Studied the CPH in his book ―Biological foundations of language‖.

 Children having a certain amount of time to acquire a language
 Until the age of 13 language is present in both hemisphere.

THE SENSITIVE- PERIOD DEVELOPMENT

• The notion that human beings are most proficient at language learning
before they reach puberty.

• If language input does not occur until after this time, the individual will
never achieve a full command of language especially grammatical
systems.
GENIE

• She was locked away from normal civilization and was undeveloped
physically and emotionally.

• Genie was an infant who trapped in a 13 year old body, because she
could only make infant like sounds and no words or sentences.

Receptive language, holophrase, telegraphic speech

The Prelinguistic Period: Before Language

• Infants are well prepared for language learning:

– Development during the pre-linguistic phase allows them to

discriminate speech- like sounds and become sensitive to a
wider variety of phonemes than adults are.

– They are sensitive to intonational cues.

– By 7 to 10 months of age, infants are already segmenting

others‘ speech into phrases and word like units

• Infants begin cooing by age 2 months and start to babbling by age 4to
6 months.
Coos - vowel like sounds that young infants repeat over and over during
periods of contentment.

Babbling – vowel/ consonant combination that infants begin to produce at

about 4 to 6 months.

• They later match the intonation of their babbles to the tonal qualities
of the language they hear and may produce their own vocables to
signify meaning.

• Infants less than 1 year old have already learned that people take
turns while vocalizing and that gestures can be used to communicate
and share meaning with companion.

• Once begin to understand individual words, their receptive language is

ahead of their productive language.

Receptive Language - in which the individual comprehends when listening

to other‘s speech.

Productive Language- that which the individual is capable of expressing

(producing) in his or her own speech.

The Holophrase Period:One Word at a Time

• Holophrase (or one-word) phase:

 Infants speak in holophrases and spend several months spending

their vocabularies one word at a time.

 Infants talk mostly about moving or manipulative objects that interest

them.

 Infants show a vocabulary spurt (naming explosion) between 18 to 24

months of age.

• Toddlers use social and contextual cues to fast map words onto
objects, actions, and attributes.

• Toddler‘s one-word utterances are called holophrases because they

often seem less like labels and more like attempts to communicate an
entire sentence‘s worth of meaning.
From Holophrase to Simple Sentence: The Telegraphic Period

• At 18 to 24 months of age, toddlers begin to produce two- and three

word sentences known as telegraphic speech because they omit
grammatical markers and smaller, less important words.

• Although telegraphic sentences are not grammatical by adult

standards, they are more than random word combinations.

• In their earliest sentences, children follow certain rules of word order

when combining words and also express the same categories of
meaning (semantic relations).

• Toddlers are also becoming highly sensitive to pragmatic constraints,

including the realization that speakers must be directive and elaborate
when a listener doesn‘t share their knowledge.

• Young children are also learning certain sociolinguistic prescriptions

such as need to be polite when making requests.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

-is the emergence of child experience, expression, understanding, and

regulation of emotions from birth to late adolescence.

We are all born with the capacity to respond emotionally, to laugh, to cry,
and to feel afraid. But what will make us laugh, cry, or afraid is not inborn;
But a product of learning.

General Excitement
-One of the very first emotional response the infant makes at birth.
-This can be aroused by any intense stimulus to which the infant
respond with mass activity.
2 CATEGORIES OF GENERAL EMOTIONAL RESPONSES

 PLEASANT RESPONSES

-The response of pleasure is shown by relaxation of the

body and cooing.

 UNPLEASANT RESPONSES

-The baby registers his displeasure through tenseness of

the body and restraint in movement.

REACTIONS TO REACTIONS TO UNPLEASANT

PLEASANT

AFFECTION FEAR
CURIOUSITY SHYNESS
JOY EMBARASSMENT
PLEASURE ANXIETY
DELIGHT WORRY
HAPPINESS ANGER
JEALOUSY
GRIEF

 CATEGORIES OF GENERAL EMOTIONAL

 EMOTIONAL SELF-REGULATION
-where a major part of emotional development in children and adolescents is
how children recognize, label, and control the expression of their emotions in
ways that generally are consistent with cultural expectations.
-It includes recognition and delineation of emotions. Once a child can
articulate an emotion, an articulation already has somewhat regulatory
effect.

3 PERSPECTIVE VIEWS ON EMOTIONAL REGULATION

1. FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE-Emphasizes that emotions serves a

function of focusing action to achieve personal goals

2. DISCRETE PERSPECTIVE-Based on understanding emotions as

patterns of configurations in the brain.

3. PROCESS VIEWPOINTS/SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE- Do not claim

the functional utility of emotions or their grounding in discrete feeling
states but focus on how emotions emerge from one‘s tendency to self-
organize various interacting components such as felt experiences,
cognitive appraisals, motivations, functions, and control elements.

 Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

-is an emotional disability characterized by a consistent or chronic
inappropriate type of behavior or feelings under normal conditions.

-an emotional disorder characterized by excesses, deficits or disturbances of

behavior.

POSSIBLE CAUSES FOR EBD

Biological factors:
Genetics
Abnormalities in the neurological and biochemical development of the child
Injuries to the central nervous system

Psychoanalytical factors
Traumatic childhood experiences
 Behavioral factors
Lack of adaptive behaviors
Exposure to maladaptive behaviors
Exposure to poor environmental stresses that lead to maladaptive behaviors

Phenomenological
Improper use of defense mechanisms
Failure to learn about oneself

Sociological/Ecological
Destructive family life
Poor living conditions
Rejection by peers
Expectations of the child that cause a lot of stress on the child
Labeling of the child
Culture

Emotional and behavioral disorders are classified into two types which
are internalizing and externalizing. Internalizing behaviors are what
the child feels inside such as worry, fear, self-consciousness, sadness,
and happiness. Externalizing behaviors are what the child displays to
others such as disobedience, aggressiveness, and hyperactivity. There
are several different types of emotional/behavioral disorders that fall in
one or both of these two categories. It is not uncommon for a child to be
diagnosed with more than one disorder at a time. A few of the disorders
are as followed….

 Separation Anxiety

 Excessive fear and anxiety that children experience when separated

from their parents or caregivers.

• Usually begins when the child is 8 or 9 months old, peaks at about 14

months and then gradually subsides.

 Speech Disorder
 Because speech is a learned function, any interference with learning
ability may be expected to cause speech impairment
 Hesitations and repetitions in speed are normal (ages 2) as speech is
developing; they are usually gone by the age of 6 except for
occasional episode that may recur during times of stress.

 Depression

 Symptoms of depression can vary by age. In younger children,

depression may include physical complaints such as stomachaches and
headaches, as well as irritability, ―moping around‖, social withdrawal
and changes in eating habits.

 Bipolar Disorder

 Is a disorder that affects child‘s mood. Recognized by mood swings,

from extremely high marked by hyperactivity, little sleep and careless
judgment and low moods marked by depression.

 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

 A disorder that affects the way a child is able to focus. Characterized

by a persistent inability to sit still, focus attention on specific tasks and
Control impulses.

 Autism

 Disorder that severely impairs development of person‘s ability to

communicate, interact with other persons and maintain normal contact
with the outside world.
  Aggression/Disobedience/Tantrums

 Form of animal behavior.

 Violent behavior or feelings.

 Mental Retardation

 Disorder in which a person‘s overall intellectual functioning is below

average.
 Down syndrome is a form of mental retardation.

 Unwanted Habits: Nail biting,Thumb sucking, Head knocking

 Common for babies.

 *(Nail biting/head knocking) A person who is stressed typically has
anxious thoughts and difficulty concentrating or remembering.
Stress can also change outward behaviors.

 Why kids bite their nails. Your child may bite his nails for any
number of reasons – curiosity, boredom, stress relief, habit, or
imitation. Nail-biting is the most common of the so-called
"nervous habits," which include thumb-sucking, nose picking, hair
twisting or tugging, and teeth grinding. It's also the one most likely
to continue into adulthood.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND PLAY PATTERNS OF

BABYHOOD

Two weeks to two years of age

 Responds to name.
 Imitate your sounds, actions and expressions.
 Becomes attached to toys.
 Watches self in mirror.
 Show separation anxiety.
  Becomes attached to favorite toys or blanket.
 Offers toys to others.
 Is afraid of strangers.

PERIOD STAGE POSITIVE CHARACTERISTIC GAINED

AND TYPICAL ACTIVITIES

 Wants caregiver in constant sight.

 Claps alone to music.
 Can play alone.
 Likes to make animal sounds and enjoys audience.
 Likes adult attentions and uses the word ―mine‖.
 Insist on doing tasks without help.
 Needs time to change activities has tantrums.
 Tries to brush own teeth.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES

BIRTH TO 1 YEAR TRUST VS. HOPE: Trust in primary caregiver and in
MISTRUST one‘s own ability to make things happen.

1 TO 3 YEARS OF AGE AUTONOMY WILL: New physical skills lead to demand

VS. SHAME for more choices, most seen as saying
AND DOUBT ―NO‖ to caregivers, child learns self-care
skills such as toilet training.

Freud's Psychosexual Theory of Development

Suggest that children develop through a series of stages related to

erogenous zones:
 Summarize Freud's structural model of personality and the stages of
his psychosexual theory of development
 Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development is based on the
idea that parents play a crucial role in managing their children's sexual
and aggressive drives during the first few years of life to foster their
proper development.
 Freud's structural model posits that personality consists of three
interworking parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.
 The five stages of Freud's psychosexual theory of development include
the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.
 According to his theory, each stage of psychosexual development must
be met successfully for proper development; if we lack proper
nurturing and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck in, or
fixated on, that stage.
 Freud's psychosexual theory has been seriously criticized for the past
few decades and is now considered largely outdated.
Conscience
  A personification of the moral sense of right and wrong, usually in the
form of a person, a being, or merely a voice that gives moral lessons
and advices.
Psychosexual
 Of or relating to the psychological aspect and aspects of sexuality.

SIGMUND FREUD
 Sigmund Freud was a Viennese physician who developed his
psychosexual theory of development through his work with
emotionally troubled adults. Now considered controversial and largely
outdated, his theory is based on the idea that parents play a crucial
role in managing their children's sexual and aggressive drives during
the first few years of life in order to foster their proper development.

Sigmund Freud

Freud's Structural Model

Freud believed that the human personality consisted of three

interworking parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. According to his
theory, these parts become unified as a child works through the five stages
of psychosexual development. The id, the largest part of the mind, is related
to desires and impulses and is the main source of basic biological needs.
The ego is related to reasoning and is the conscious, rational part of the
personality; it monitors behavior in order to satisfy basic desires without
suffering negative consequences. The superego, or conscience, develops
through interactions with others (mainly parents) who want the child to
conform to the norms of society. The superego restricts the desires of the id
by applying morals and values from society. Freud believed that a struggle
existed between these levels of consciousness, influencing personality
development and psychopathology.

The id, ego, and superego

Freud believed that we are only aware of a small amount of our

mind’s activities and that most of it remains hidden from us in our
unconscious. The information in our unconscious affects our
behavior, although we are unaware of it.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

 For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior
as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that
each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood and that if
we lack proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we may become
stuck in, or fixated on, that stage. According to Freud, children‘s pleasure-
seeking urges (governed by the id) are focused on a different area of the
body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Oral (0-1 years of age):

 During this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for development.
Freud believed this is why infants are born with a sucking reflex and
desire their mother's breast. If a child's oral needs are not met during
infancy, he or she may develop negative habits such as nail biting or
thumb sucking to meet this basic need.

Anal (1-3 years of age):

 During this stage, toddlers and preschool-aged children begin

to experiment with urine and feces. The control they learn to exert
over their bodily functions is manifested in toilet-training. Improper
resolution of this stage, such as parents toilet training their children
too early, can result in a child who is uptight and overly obsessed with
order.

Phallic (3-6 years of age):

 During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and,

according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the
opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For boys,
this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy's desire for his
mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the
mother‘s attention. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will
punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castrationanxiety.
The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud‘s protégé Carl Jung,
involves a girl's desire for her father's attention and wish to take her
mother‘s place.

Latency (6-12 years of age):

  During this stage, sexual instincts subside, and children begin to
further develop the superego, or conscience. Children begin to behave
in morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their parents and
other important adults.

Genital (12+ years of age):

 During this stage, sexual impulses reemerge. If other stages have

been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate sexual
behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth.

Criticism of Freud's Theories

Freud's psychosexual theory is controversial and has been thoroughly

criticized. First, even though Freud's stages are related to children, he based
most of his theory on his work with troubled adults; he in fact never worked
with children. Second, many believed his work was too focused on
human sexuality, especially his focus on the Oedipus complex and children's
sexual desire for parents. Some critics of Freud believe the memories and
fantasies of childhood seduction Freud reported were not real memories but
constructs that Freud created and forced upon his patients. Finally,
supporters of feminist theory believe Freud's theory to be sexist and overly
reliant upon a male perspective (for example, his belief that girls developed
sexual libido due to "penis envy").

SOCIO-CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

(LEV VYGOTSKY)
 The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social
interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition.
Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level;
first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical
memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate
as actual relationships between individuals." (p57).

A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for
cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development"
(ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social
behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction.
The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer
collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.

Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end

product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first
utterances with peers or adults is for the purpose of communication but once
mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech".

Vygotsky's theory is complementary to Bandura's work on social

learningand a key component of situated learning theory as well. Because
Vygotsky's focus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare
his views with those a constructivist (Bruner) and a genetic
epistemologist (Piaget).

APPLICATION

This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work

was done in the context of language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962),
although later applications of the framework have been broader (see
Wertsch, 1985).

EXAMPLE

Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially,

this behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people
react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In
particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection
between individuals.

PRINCIPLE

1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.

2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

(ALBERT BANDURA)
 In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the
behaviorist learning theories of classical and operant conditioning. However,
he adds two important ideas:

Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of

observational learning.

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become

perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While
rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura
believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.

While the behavioral theories of learning suggested that all learning

was the result of associations formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and
punishment, Bandura's social learning theory proposed that learning can
also occur simply by observing the actions of others.

His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new
information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational
learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide
variety of behaviors.

Important Concepts in Social Learning Theory

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory.

1. First is the idea that people can learn through observation.

2. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of
this process.
3. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been
learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

Bandura explained:
 "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if
people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them
what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally
through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action."
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning:

In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that

children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The
children in Bandura‘s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a
Bobo doll.

When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo
doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously
observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or

acting out a behavior.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and
explanations of a behavior.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying
behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the

only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic
reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a
sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions
helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While
many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories,
Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in

behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new
information without demonstrating new behaviors.

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways.

This is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).

Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children

are surrounded by many influential models, such as parents within the
family, characters on children‘s TV, friends within their peer group and
teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe
and imitate, e.g. masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social etc.

Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their
behavior. At a later time they may imitate (i.e. copy) the behavior they
have observed. They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is
‗gender appropriate‘ or not, but there are a number of processes that make
it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society deems
appropriate for its sex.

 First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it
perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate
behavior modeled by people of the same sex.
 Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it
imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a
 model‘s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is
likely to continue performing the behavior. If parent sees a little girl
consoling her teddy bear and says ―what a kind girl you are‖, this is
rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat
the behavior. Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e. strengthened).

Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or

negative. If a child wants approval from parents or peers, this
approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about being
approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way
which it believes will earn approval because it desires approval.

Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the

reinforcement offered externally does not match with an individual's
needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important
factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.
 Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other
people when deciding whether or not to copy someone‘s actions. A
person learns by observing the consequences of another person‘s (i.e.
models) behavior e.g. a younger sister observing an older sister being
rewarded for a particular behavior is more likely to repeat that
behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

This relates to attachment to specific models that possess qualities

seen as rewarding. Children will have a number of models with whom
they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as
parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in
the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that
they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.

Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves

taking on (or adopting) observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of
the person with whom you are identifying.

The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to

the Freudian term related to the Oedipus complex. For example, they both
involve internalizing or adopting another person‘s behavior. However,
during the Oedipus complex the child can only identify with the same sex
parent, whereas with Social Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can
potentially identify with any other person.

Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of

behaviors being adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single
behavior

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES

SLT is often described as the ‗bridge‘ between traditional learning

theory (i.e. behaviorism) and the cognitive approach. This is because it
focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.

Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are

active information processors and think about the relationship between their
behavior and its consequences. Observational learning could not occur
unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors mediate (i.e.
intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is
acquired.

Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a

model and imitate it. There is some thought prior to imitation and this
consideration is called mediational processes. This occurs between observing
the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response)

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving

both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is
successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The
following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling
process:
 There are Four Mediational Processes proposed by Bandura:
1. ATTENTION:

 The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behaviour. For a

behaviour to be imitated it has to grab our attention. We observe
many behaviours on a daily basis and many of these are not
noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a
behaviour has an influence in others imitating it.
 In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that
distracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on
observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel
aspect of the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full
attention to learning.
2. RETENTION:

 The ability to store information is also an important part of the

learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors,
but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to
observational learning.
 How well the behaviour is remembered. The behaviour may be
noticed, but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents
imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behaviour is
formed to be performed later by the observer.
 Much of social learning is not immediate so this process is especially
vital in those cases. Even if the behaviour is reproduced shortly after
seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.

3. REPRODUCTION:

 This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. We see much behaviour on a daily basis that we would
like to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are
limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to
reproduce the behaviour, we cannot.
 This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not.
Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk
watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a
desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she
physically cannot do it.
 Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the
information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed.
Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill
advancement.

4. MOTIVATION:

 The will to perform the behaviour. The rewards and punishment that
follow behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived
rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any) then the
 behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the
vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the
observer then they will not imitate the behaviour.
 Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have
to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been
modeled. Reinforcement andpunishment play an important role in
motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly
effective, so can observing other experience some type of
reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student
rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start
to show up a few minutes early each day.

CRITICAL EVALUATION:
The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and
acknowledges the role that they play in deciding if a behaviour is to be
imitated or not. As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of
human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.

However, although it can explain some quite complex behavior it

cannot adequately account for how we develop a whole range of behavior
including thoughts and feelings. We have a lot of cognitive control over our
behavior and just because we have had experiences of violence does not
mean we have to reproduce such behavior.

It is for this reason that Bandura modified his theory and in 1986
renamed his Social Learning Theory, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), as a
better description of how we learn from our social experiences.

Some criticisms of social learning theory arise from their commitment

to the environment as the chief influence on behaviour. It is limiting to
describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture, and attempts
to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more likely
that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture
(environment).

Social learning theory is not a full explanation for all behaviour. This is
particularly the case when there is no apparent role model in the person‘s
life to imitate for a given behaviour.
 The discovery of mirror neurons has lent biological support to the
theory of social learning. Although research is in its infancy the recent
discovery of "mirror neurons" in primates may constitute a neurological basis
for imitation. These are neurons which fire both if the animal does
something itself, and if it observes the action being done by another.

FINAL THOUGHTS
In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning
theory has had important implication in the field of education. Today, both
teachers and parents recognize important modeling appropriate behaviors.
Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-
efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

JEAN PIAGET
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Refers to the manner in which people learn to think, reason, and use
language.
 It represents a progression of mental abilities from illogical to logical
thinking, from simple to complex problem solving, and from
understanding concrete ideas to understanding abstracts concept.
 Is an orderly, sequential process in which a variety of a new
experiences must exist before intellectual abilities can be develop

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
( Birth- AGE 2)
During this stage, the child begins to develop:

 REFLEXES
 HABITS
 HAND-EYE COORDINATION
 OBJECT PERMANENCE
 Experimentation and creativity
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (AGE 2-7)

During this stage, the child begins to develop:

 Ability to represents objects w/ images & words.

 Language skills
 Imagination

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (AGE 7-12)

During this stage, the child begins to develop:

The Fundamentals of Logic

> Ability to sort objects

> Ability to classify objects

> Understanding of conservation (physical quantities do not change on the

arrangement and/ or appearance of the object)

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (AGE 11-15)

 The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve and

lasts into adulthood.
 During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract
concepts.
 Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic
planning also emerge during this stage.
Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development
Moral Development

 Moral development
is the gradual development of an individuals concept of right or wrong
– conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain behaviour.

Moral Dilemmas

 Social issues with 2+ solutions

Kohlberg's theory

 This theory is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes through

the stages sequentially without skipping any stage.

 However, movement through these stages are not natural, that is

people do not automatically move from one stage to the next as they
mature. In stage development, movement occurs when a person
notices inadequacies in his or her present way of coping with a given
moral dilemma.

 According to stage theory, people cannot understand moral reasoning

more than one stage ahead of their own. For example, a person in
Stage 1 can understand Stage 2 reasoning but nothing beyond that.
KOHLBERG’S SIX STAGES
Level 1: Preconventional Morality 0-9 years

Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing
this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and
absolute.

 Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment

 Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what

is not punished

 Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules,
especially if that authority has the power to inflict pain

 Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being

Stage 2 – Naively egotistical

at this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of
view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.

 Is motivated by vengeance or ―an eye for an eye‖ philosophy

 Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous

 Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of

need

 Believes that the end justifies the means

 Will do a favor only to get a favor

 Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does

Level 2: Conventional Morality 10-15 years

Stage 3 - "good boy-good girl" orientation
This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social
expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice,"
and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
  Finds peer approval very important

 Feels that intensions are as important as deeds and expects others to

accept intentions or promises in place of deeds

 Begins to put himself/herself in another‘s shoes and think from

another perspective

Stage 4 – Law and Social Order

At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order
by following the rules, doing one‘s duty, and respecting authority.

 Is a duty doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed

 Respects authority and obeys it without question

 Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the
minority

 Is part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past
stage 4

Level 3: Post conventional Morality – 16+

Stage 5 - Legalistic Social Contract
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and
beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society,
but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

 Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the

greatest number of people

 Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule

 Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the

individual

 Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the system
Stage 6 – Universal ethical Principles
Kolhberg‘s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

 Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented
by social rules and customs

 Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social

rule he/she has rejected

 Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans
have value

The Heinz Dilemma:

A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a
druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive
to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to
produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose
of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to
borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half
of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to
sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered
the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and
broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's

theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference
between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions.

 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider?

Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development
 overemphasizes the concept as justice when making moral choices.
Other factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal
feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.

 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy?

Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivist
cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern
cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does
not account for.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner
• Born in Russia
• Immigrated to the US at age 6
• Enlisted in the US army immediately after completing his PhD
• Co-founder of the Head Start program
– Designed to serve at-risk nursery students to prepare them for school

Ecological Systems Theory

• Development is the result of the relationships between people and their environments
– Cannot evaluate a child’s development only in the immediate environment
– Must also examine the interactions among the larger environments that a child
develops in
• Key Question: How does the world around the child help or hinder development?
• Four layers of relationships that influence a child’s development
– Microsystem: Relationships with direct contact to the child
– Mesosystem: Connection between relationships of child’s microsystem
– Exosystem: Structures in which child the child does not have direct contact
– Macrosystem: Cultural context

Microsystem

• Microsystem: Variables that the child is directly exposed to

– Relationships: Family, school, religious institution, neighbors
• Family: Most influential and durable influence on child
– Environment: Geographic, Material structures
– Child’s body
 • General health
• Brain functioning – physiological and psychological
• Emotions
• Cognitive System
• Most of the child’s behavior is learned in the microsystem.
• The microsystem consists of bi-directional influences
– Parents actively shape the development of the child
– Children actively shape their environment
• Personal attributes influence responses from other people
• Children actively select and avoid specific environments
– Bi-directional relationships are the foundation for a child’s cognitive and
emotional growth

Mesosystem
• Mesosystem: Interconnections between the microsystems
– Examples
• Interactions between the family and teachers
• Relationship between the child’s peers and the family

Exosystem

• Exosystem: Institutions of society that indirectly affect a child’s development

– Examples
• Parent’s workplace
• Funding for education
• Impacts a child’s development by influencing structures in the microsystem

Macrosystem
• Macrosystem: Cultural context
– Provides the values, beliefs, customs, and laws of the culture in which a child grows up
• Influences how parents, teachers, and others raise a child
• May be conscious or unconscious
– Influences the societal values, legislation, and financial resources provided by a society
to help families function
– Influences the interactions of all other layers

Ecological Systems Theory

 • Properties of the four layers of relationships
– Each layer of the environment is complex
– Each layer has an effect on a child’s development
– Conflict within any layer ripples throughout other layers
• As a child develops, interaction within environments becomes more complex
– Complexity is the result of the maturation of a child’s physical and cognitive structures

Ecological Systems Theory

• Five propositions that describe how home and school relationships work together for positive
development
1. Child must have an ongoing, long-term mutual interaction with an adult characterized
by unconditional love and support
2. The child-adult relationship provides the pattern of interpersonal relationships with all
of the child’s other relationships. The confidence from this relationship allows a child to
explore and grow from other activities.

Critique
• Strengths
– Integrates multiple influences on child development
• Weaknesses
– Does not provide detailed mechanisms for development

Implications for Education

• Primary relationship must be intended to last a lifetime
– Teachers need to work to support the primary child-adult relationship
– Schools should create an environment that welcomes and nurtures families
– Education should foster societal attitudes that value all work done on behalf of children
• More research is needed to examine interactions between different levels of relationships in a
child’s development
– Bronfenbrenner states that there is little conflict between families and the school.
 SEX ROLE TYPING

Differentiating sex and gender:

SEX

>Biological Fact

>Uses terms like male and female

>Fixed. Sex roles can be performed by only the male or the female

>Sex characteristics are universal. Constant regardless of time place

GENDER

>Socially and culturally constructed

>Uses terms like masculine and feminine

>Interchangeable. Gender roles can be performed by both sexes

>Gender characteristics are not universal. It may differ from society to

society. Time and place-bound

SEX-ROLE TYPING
  Babyhood is the beginning of sex-role typing
 From the moment of birth, boy is treated as boys and girls as girls.
 Sex- role typing is a part of girl‘s early training and the pressures on
her to be sex appropriate even as a baby or not as strong as on the
boy. Indirectly, girls are sex-role type in babyhood by being permitted
to cry and show other signs of female weakness which are discouraged
in boy babies.

GENDER ROLE CONCEPTIONS

>Gender roles are the way people act, what they do and say, to express
being a girl or a boy, a woman or a man.

>Gender roles vary greatly from one culture to the next and from one ethnic
group to the next and from one social class to another.

>Gender roles: reflection of gender stereotypes in everyday behavior

>Every Culture has gender roles- they all have expectations for the way
women and men, girls and boys, should dress, behave and look.

>Children learn gender roles from an early age- from their parents and
family, their religion, and their culture, as well as the outside world,
including television, magazines, and other media.

>As children grow, they adopt behaviors that are rewarded by love and
praise. They stop or hide behaviors that are ridiculed, shamed, or punished.
This happens early in life. By age three, children have usually learned to
prefer toys and clothes that are "appropriate" to their gender

STEREOTYPES OF FEMININE AND MASCULINE TRAITS

>A stereotype is a widely accepted judgment of bias regarding a person or

group- even though it is overly simplified.

>Stereotype about gender can cause unequal and unfair treatment because
of a person's gender. This is called sexism.
>Gender stereotypes are generalizations about the roles of each gender.

FEMALE GENDER STEREOTYPES

 All women want to marry and have children

 Women are supposed to have "clean jobs" such as secretaries,
teachers, and librarians
 Women are nurses, not doctors
 Women are not as strong as men
 Women are supposed to make less money than men
 The best women are stay at home moms
 Women don't need to go to college
 Women don't play sports
 Women are not politicians
 Women are quieter than men and not meant to speak out
 Women are supposed to cook and do housework
 Women are responsible for raising children
 Women do not have technical skills and are not good at "hands on"
projects such as car repair
 Women are not meant to be damsel in distress; never the hero
 Women are supposed to look pretty and be look at
 Women love to sing and dance
 Women do not play video games
 Women are never in charge
 Women are flirts


MALE GENDER STEREOTYPES

 All men love sports

 All men enjoy working on cars
 Men are not nurses, they are doctors
 Men do "dirty jobs" such as construction, and mechanics; they are not
secretaries, teachers, or cosmetologist
 Men do not do housework and they are not responsible for taking care
of children
 Men play video games
 Men play sports
  Men enjoy outdoor activities such as camping,fishing and hiking
 Men are in charge; they are always at the top
 As husband, men telltheir wives what to do
 Men are lazy and/or messy
 Men are good at Math
 It is always men who work in science, engineering, and other technical
fields
 Men do not cook, sew, or do crafts

Can you see how many of these actually are true of many men or
women that you know?

>They may be true for you personally, but they do not apply to every single
man or woman [Link] is what makes them stereotypes; the fact that
these things are considered, "the norm" and expected of every male or
female.

>Each person is an individual and it is perfectly normal for a woman to run

her own business while a man stays home with the kids. On the other hand,
it is also perfectly acceptable for a man to be nurse or hate sports, or enjoy
cooking.

>Men and women are individuals; they are more than just male or female.
Our gender is only part of who we are; it does not define us as people.

GENDER ROLE SOCIALIZATION

SOCIALIZATION

 Is a lifelong process that begins during infancy in the complex

interaction between parent and child. As parents respond to a baby's
physical requirements for food and shelter, they are also beginning to
teach the baby what to expect from their environment and how to
communicate their needs. The action-reaction cycle of smiling, cooing,
and touching is the child‘s earliest interaction with the society. It is
believed that these early interaction during infancy play a major role
in future social adjustment. Consistent, responsive care helps lead to
healthy relationships with others and normal personal development.
 Caretakers who neglect an infant's needs or otherwise stifle early
attemps at communication can cause serious damage to the child's
future social interaction.
 Starts at birth and it is a process of learning cultural roles according to
one's sex.
 It is a process by which people learn to behave in a certain way, as
directed by societal beliefs, values, attitudes and examples.
 It continues throughout the life cycle.

“Gender roles in our society are acquired via the process of

socialization rather than biologically determined.”

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

 perpetuates the assignment of characteristics associated with women

and men
 influences gender roles socialization
 serves as a mechanism that maintain gender roles

Social Institution: Family

Has the most influence because the formative years of every individual
is almost always spent with and developed by the family.

Child-rearing

* Color-coding (blue for boys and pink for girls)

* Gendering processes:

 Manipulation (handling infants)

 Verbal appellation (telling them what they are) ―brave boy‖ or ―pretty
girl,‖ or what is expected of them: ―boys don‘t cry,‖ ―girls don‘t hit
their playmates.

Social Institution: Education/School

 The formal school system promotes and encourages the different gender
roles between men and women.

 Sex segregation system promotes role differentiation in high school,

boys are taught carpentry and horticulture while girls take up
cooking and childcare.
 Courses that is appropriate to perceived roles and characteristics.
 Textbooks depicts stereotype roles

Social Institution: Mass Media

Media portray images of women which are often negative.

 Ads use stereotype images to attract consumers.

 Women are depicted as docile homemakers, are shown as sexy come-
ons to promote liquor, cigarettes, cars, and other male-specific
products

Social Institutions: Religion

 Religious teachings depicts women as martyrs, self-sacrificing and

conservatives further reinforces that ―women‘s place is in the home,‖
submission of women to men;
 Gender differentiation and inequality between man and woman is
preached and conveyed in religious doctrines and symbols that implies
the subordinated position of women particularly in marriage.

Social Institution: The State

 Creates laws and policies that ensure the maintenance of the system.
 Instrumental in passing laws that are discriminatory to women

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
“What comes to your mind if you hear the word personality”?

 Is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes

that makes a person distinctive.

 People‘s personalities continue to develop throughout their lifetimes.

Specific traits change at different rates and to different degrees.

 Some personality traits seem to remain constant throughout a

person‘s life, while others undergo dramatic changes.
 Personality development is more obvious during childhood, when
people are experiencing rapid physical, emotional and intellectual
growth.

THREE COMPONENTS OF CHILD’S PERSONALITY:

[Link]

 is a set of genetically determined traits that determine the

child’s approach to the world and how the child learns about
the world.

2. ENVIRONMENT

3. CHARACTER

 the set of emotional, cognitive and behavioral patterns

learned from experience that determines how a person
thinks, feels and behaves.

NATURE VS. NURTURE

 Sociologists debate what determines personality and social behavior

 Some argue that it is hereditary.

 Others suggest that the social environment contact with other people

THE NATURE VIEWPOINT

  Since the 1800s this viewpoint states that much of human behavior is
instinctual in origin.

 An instinct is an unchanging behavior pattern.

 Supporters of this viewpoint claim biology as the basis for human

behavior.

 From this viewpoint a person‘s behavior and personality are the result
of his or her social environment and learning.

 The work of Ivan Pavlov helped this viewpoint gain acceptance.

 From this viewpoint a person‘s behavior and personality are the result
of his or her social environment and learning.

 The work of Ivan Pavlov helped this viewpoint gain acceptance.

STAGES SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCE PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT
1st stage- “Infancy”

 Learning basic trust or mistrust (Hope).

2nd stage- “ Toddlerhood”

 deals with Learning Autonomy or Shame (Will).

3rd stage- “Preschool”

 Learning Initiative or Guilt (Purpose).

4th stage- “School age”

 Learning Industry or Inferiority (Competence)

5th stage- “Adolescence”

 Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)

Principal Factors that Influence Personality and Behavior

[Link]

 Certain characteristics that are presents at birth.

 Include certain aptitudes.

 Provides with certain biological needs, but culture determines how to

meet those needs.

2. BIRTH ORDER

 Our personalities are influence by whether we have brothers, sisters,

both, or neither.

 The order in which we are born into our families also influences our
personalities.

 People born first or last in a family have a different perspective than

do people in the middle.

3. PARENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Parents influence their childrens‘ personalities.

 Other parental characteristics like level of education, religious

orientation, economic status, occupation, and cultural heritage.

4. CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

 Culture has a strong influence on personality development. The

cultural environment determines the basic types of personalities that
will be found in a society.

 Each culture gives rise to a series of personality traits- model

personalities- that are typical of members of that society.