1

lsPAYLOAd

1 2 3 4 5

BASIC EMPTY MASS (BASIC MASS) : is an aeroplane’s mass plus standard items
such as:
 Unusable fuel and other unusable fluids
 Lubricating oil in the engine and auxiliary units
 Fire extinguishers
 Pyrotechnics
 Emergency oxygen equipment
 Supplementary electronic equipment
 2

BASIC EMPTY MASS (BEM). OR TARE WEIGHT

The mass of the aircraft with all its basic equipment plus a declared quantity
unusable fuel and oil.
DRY OPERATING MASS (DOM).
The total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type operation, excluding all
fuel and traffic load. This mass includes items such as :
BEM + Variable Load = Dry Operating Mass
1. Crew and crew baggage.
2. Catering and removable passenger service equipment.
3. Portable water and lavatory chemicals.

TRAFFIC LOAD
The total mass passengers, baggage and freight including any non-revenue load
USEFUL LOAD
The total of Traffic Load plus Useable Fuel. (PAYLOAD+FOB)
FUEL ON BOARD
Total Fuel = Burn Off (Flt. Fuel) + Reserve
ZERO FUEL MASS (ZFM)
The total mass of the Dry Operating Mass plus the Traffic Load.
MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL MASS (MZFM)
The maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no useable fuel. The mass of
fuel contained in particular tanks must be included in the ZFM when specified in
the AFM limitations.
 3

Take-Off Mass (TOM)

The Mass of an aeroplane including everything and everyone in it at the start of
the take-off run.
Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass (MTOM) (Regulated TOW)
The maximum permissible total aeroplane mass at the beginning of the take-off
run.
Performance Limited Take-off Mass-it is take off mass limited due to
performance factors such as wet runway, high temperature.
Regulated take off mass- it is lowest of take off mass and performance limited
take off mass.
Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MLM).
The maximum permissible total aeroplane mass upon landing under normal
circumstances.
Maximum ramp mass. (Max. Structural Taxi Mass).
The maximum approved mass fr commencement of ground manoeuvres. A mass
greater than the Maximum Take Off Mass, to allow for fuel used in start up and
taxi.
To Calculate the Payload
RTOW
MLW + [Link] Minimum Value
MZFW + FOB

Lowest of the three = A.P.S + F.O.B + PAYLOAD

 4

PAYLOAD THEORY QUESTION

DGCA

1) The operating mass of an aircraft is:

a. The dry operating mass plus the take off fuel mass
b. The empty mass plus the take off fuel mass
c. The empty mass plus crew, crew baggage and catering
d. The empty mass plus the trip fuel mass

2. What effect has a centre of gravity close to the forward limit?

a. A better rate of climb capability
b. A reduction in the specific fuel consumption
c. A reduce rate of climb
d. A decreased induced drag

3. The DOM of an aeroplane is:

a. TOM minus Operating Mass
b. LM plus Trip Fuel
c. Useful Load minus Operating Mass
d. TOM minus Useful Load

4. The traffic Load of an aeroplane is:

a. TOM minus Operating Mass
b. LM plus Trip Fuel
c. Useful Load minus Operating mass
d. TOM minus Useful Load

5. The Dry Operating Mass is the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of
operation and includes:
a. Crew and passenger baggage, special equipment, water and chemicals.
b. Crew and their hold baggage, special equipment, water and contingency fuel
c. Crew baggage, catering, and other special equipments, potage water and laboratory chemicals.
d. Crew and baggage, catering and passenger service equipment, potable water and laboratory
chemicals.

6. The Maximum Zero Fuel Mass is the maximum permissible mass of the aeroplane:
a. with no useable fuel
b. with no useable fuel unless the Aeroplane Flight Manual Limitations explicitly include it
c. including the fuel take up for the take off
d. including the all useable fuel unless the aeroplane flight operations manual explicitly excluding it.

7. The Maximum Structural Take-Off Masses:

a. The maximum permissible total aeroplane mass on completion of the refueling operations
 5

b. the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass for take-off subject to the limiting conditions at
the departure airfield.
c. the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass for take-off but excluding fuel.
d. the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass at the start of the take-off run.

8. The Regulated Take-Off Mass:

a. is the lower of maximum structural take-off mass and the performance limited take-off mass.
b. is a higher of the maximum structural zero fuel mass and the performance limited take-off mass.
c. the maximum structural take –off mass subject to any last minute mass changes.
d. the maximum performance limited take-off mass subject to any last minute mass changes.

9. The Take-Off Mass:

a. the maximum permissible totalaeroplane mass on completion of the refueling operation.
b. the mass of the aeroplane including everyone an everything contained with it at the start off the
take-off run.
c. the maximum permissible total aeroplane for take-off but including fuel.
d. the maximum permissible totalaeroplane mass at the start of the take-off run.

10. The Operating Mass:

a. is the lower of the structural mass and the performance limited mass.
b. is the higher of the structural mass and the performance limited mass
c. is the actual mass of the aircraft on take-off.
d. is the dry operating mass and the fuel load.

11. The Basic Empty Mass is the mass of the aeroplane:

a. plus non standard items such as lubricating oil, fire extinguisher, emergency oxygen equipment,
etc.
[Link] non-standard items such as lubricating oil, fire extinguishers, emergency oxygen equipment
etc.
c. plus standard items such as unusable fluids, fire extinguishers, emergency oxygen equipment,
supplementary electronics etc.
d. minus non-standard items such as unusable fluids, fire extinguishers, emergency oxygen and
supplementary electronic, etc.

12. The Traffic Load:

a. includes passenger masses and baggage masses but excludes any non-revenue load.
b. includes passenger masses, baggage masses and cargo masses but excludes any nonrevenue
load.
c. includes passenger masses, baggage masses, cargo masses and non-revenue load.
d. includes passenger masses, baggage masses and any non-revenue load but excludes cargo.
 6

13. The Operating Mass:

a. is the take-off mass minus the traffic load.
b. is the landing mass minus the traffic load.
c. is the maximum zero fuel mass less the traffic load.
d. is the take-off mass minus the basic empty mass and crew mass.

14. The Traffic Load is:

a. The Zero Fuel Mass minus the Dry Operating Mass
b. The Take-Off Mass minus the sum of the Dry Operating Mass and the total fuel load.
c. The Landing Mass minus the sum of the Dry Operating Mass and The Mass of the Remaining Fuel.
d. all the above.

15. The Basic Empty is the:

a. MZFM minus both traffic load and the fuel load
b. Take-Off Mass minus the Traffic Load and the Fuel Load.
c. Operating Mass minus the Crew and the Fuel Load
d. Landing Mass less Traffic Load

16. Is It possible to fly a certified aircraft at a Regulated Take-Off Mass with both a full Traffic
Load and a full Fuel Load?
a. Some aircraft some of the time
b. All aircraft all the time
c. No, it is not possible
d. Only if the performance limited take off mass is less than the structural limited take-off mass.

17. It is intended to fly a certified aircraft with both a full traffic load and a full fuel load.
a. The CG might be in limits all of the flight.
b. The CG limits will be in limits all off the flight.
c. The CG might not be in limits any of the time during the flight.
d. The CG will not be within the limits during the flight.

18. The term ‘baggage’ means:

a. Excess freight
b. Any non-human, non-animal cargo
c. Any freight or cargo not carried on the person
d. personal belongings
 7

ANSWERS:

1. A
2. C
3. D
4. A
5. D
6. B
7. D
8. A
9. B
10.D
11.C
12.C
13.A
14.D
15.C
16.A
17.B
18.D
 8

PAYLOAD QUESTIONS

1. Given:
MTOW = 45000 KGS
APS WEIGHT = 22,000 KGS
MLW = 35,000 KGS
MZFW = 33,000 KGS
FLT TIME = 3 hr 30 min
F/C = 1500 kg/hr
Reserve Fuel = 45 min
Calculate max payload

2. Given
MTOW= 48,000 LBS
APS WEIGHT= 24,000 LBS
MLW= 37,000 LBS
MZFW= 36,000 LBS
FLT TIME= 4 hr 15 min
F/C= 1600 LBS/HR
RESERVE= 10% OF FLT FUEL
FUEL FOR TAXI, T/O= 400 LBS
FUEL FOR DIV.= 30 MIN
Find max payload

3. Given
RTOW= 50T, MZFW= 39.1 T
MLW= 43.25 T, TRIP FUEL= 4.2 T
RESERVE FUEL = 1 T
APS = 27.5 T
Calculate a Payload b. Extra fuel that can be carried with same payload.

4. Given
Max TOW= 82,000 LBS
FLIGHT FUEL A TO B= 16,000 LBS
RESERVE FUEL= 1500 LBS
MLW= 64500 LBS
A/C without fuel and payload= 50000 lbs
Calculate payload if a/c is allowed to use 700 lbs from reserve fuel after reacing
destination.
 9

5. Given
Basic operating wt.= 27000 kgs
Trip fuel= 3000 kgs
Total fuel= 7000 kgs
Max TOW= 49000 kgs
MLW= 45000 kgs
Max operating weight without fuel= 40000 kgs
Calculate max payload that can be carried?

6. MTOW= 55,000 KGS

WT LESS FUEL AND PAYLOAD= 29000 KGS
DISTANCE A TO B= 1550 NMS
F/C= 1600 KGS/HR
AVERAGE TAS= 260 K
RESERVE FUEL UNUSED= 2750 KGS
MLTW= 42500 KGS
MZFW= 38000 KGS
Calculate max payload in nil winds/90 ktshwc
a. 13710/10750
b. 10750/8660
c. 9000/8660
d. 8660/9000
Answers:

1. 11000 kgs
2. 11520
3. 11.6 T; 3.15 T
4. 13700 LBS
5. 13000 KG
6. C
 10

VOLUMETRIC AND MASS CONSERVATIONS

Specific Fuel Consumption(SFC): is defined as the weight of fuel (Kgs) required to fly one ground nautical
mile (gnm). The lower the SFC the more economical the filght

To calculate Kgs per gnm:

SFC = Fuel Flow (kgs/hr)

Groundspeed(gnm/hr)

Thus an aircraft flying at a groundspeed of 400kts using 6000 Kgs/hr would have an SFC of 6000/400
= 15 kgs per gnm. ( Although kgs are normally used, other units can be used eglitres, gallons, lbsetc).

Specific Ground Range (SGR) is defined as the ground range (gnm)covered per Kg of fuel used. The
higher the SGR the more the economical flight.

To calculate ground nautical miles per Kg

SGR = Groundspeed (gnm/hr)

Fuel flow (Kgs/hr)
 11

CRTICAL POINT (CP)/ POINT OF EQUAL TIME (PET)

EQUITIME POINT

 The point along the track from which flying time to two selected bases will be same.
 Required in the event of emergency in aircraft which requires landing to be made as soon as
possible.

(a) In case of engine failure

(b) Passenger falls seriously sick (Heart Attack)

DISTANCE TO PET (X) = D X H

O+H

 Where D is the total distance between two bases

 H is reduced Ground Speed Home (departure)
 O is reduced Ground speed Out (destination)

TIME TO PET = Distance to PET (X)

Normal Ground Speed Out
Remember

 Distance to Pet is calculated with reduced ground speed if single engine

 For time to PET Normal Ground Speed is used

IMPORTANT FACTS

1. PET will always be on track and upwind or into te wind

2. PET will normally be somewhere near midpoint when
(a) O = H
(b) Nil winds
(c) Beam winds (winds 90 deg. to track)
3. In case of HW dist. To CP or CP shift towards destination. In case of TW, dist. to CP
shifts towards departure.
4. When TAS is reduced, PET will move further into Wind
5. PET is independent of FUEL/ENDURANCE.
6. Effect of increasing TAS is same as that of reducing wind and PET always moves
towards Departure i.e. Base Airfield
 12

7. In beam winds i.e. 90 degree to track TCP increases as is a little of headwind to crab
into the wind and DCP is same as in nil winds since there is a little of headwind.
8. Beam winds are winds to track
9. If the fuel consumption increases or the flight fuel reduces, distance to CP will remain
same.
10. If beam winds doubles, dist. to CP will remain the same but TCP increases.

PNR
POINT OF SAFE RETURN(PSR) OR POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR) OR RADIUS OF ACTION (ROA)
 PSR is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly out and still be able to return to selected
base within SAFE ENDURANCE OF AIRCRAFT
 Required if both the destination and the destination alternate are not available
TIME TO PSR = E X H
O+H
 Where E is safe endurance
 H is reduced ground speed home
 O is normal ground speed out
Distance to PNR = EOH = O X Time to PNR
O+H

STILL AIR RANGE

 Max distance an aircraft can fly in still air
 Is equal to the Total Endurance X TAS

FACTORS AFFECTING PNR (PSR)

1. Greatest distance from departure point to PNR occurs in still air
2. Any wind component, no matter it is Head or tail wind will cause PNR to be closer to departure
point or distance to PNR will decrease in wind.
 13

3. Abeam wind also reduces distance to PNR

4. If headwind changes to tailwind, distance to PNR will remain same.
5. Constant Wind reduces distance to PNR from still air conditions
6. Distance will vary directly with Endurance
7. Carriage of extra fuel- distance to PNR increases- distance to CP remains same
8. Any improvement in performance will increase distance to PNR
9. If fuel flow decreases, distance to PNR will increase
10. If fuel carried is only fit fuel + reserve (Safe endurance = Flight Time). CP and PNR will Coincide
11. PNR will usually be beyond PET
 14

PET/CP/PNR QUESTIONS
DGCA QUESTIONS (1 marks)
Q1. Compared with a still air condition the CP with strong wind 90 deg. To track will be
a. In the same position with an earlier ETA
b. In the same position with an later ETA
c. At a greater distance with a same ETA
d. At a shorter distance with a same ETA

Q2. Flying across North Atlantic with usual westerly winds the CP will be
[Link] to the [Link] when flying eastwards
b. Nearer to the [Link] when flying westwards
c. Always nearer to the [Link]
d. Always nearer to Europe

Q3. The effect on CP reducing TAS is to

a. Always increases the distance to CP
b. Always reduces the distance to CP
c. Always move along the track further away from the mid-point
d. Have no effect in case of zero wind or at 90 deg. To the track

Q4. To calculate the sitance to CP in case of engine failure use

[Link] TAS for all calculations
b. Reduced TAS for distance calculations
c. Reduced TAS for G/S
d. Full TAS for nil

Q5. In the event of return to the departure point 10000 lbs of fuel is available, when back
over the departure point. The flight reserves being carried are 15000 lbs. The average fuel
flow is 5000 lbs/hr. TAS 400K & there is a dead headwind of 100K. The position of PNR is
relation to the CP will be
a. 200 nm. Further
b.250 nm further
c. 188 nm further
d.188 nm less

Q6. If the HW component increases then the distance to CP from the base will
[Link] change
[Link]
c. Decrease
 15

Q7. For a 1500 nm flight, assuming 50K of head wind outbound & 50K of tail wind
inbound, CP is calculated to be 825 nm. But it is discovered in flight that the winds are
other way round the correct to CP will be
a.675 nm
b.825 nm
c. 750 nm

Q8. Flying from A to B, a better performance is obtained as the aircraft climbs up. What is
the effect on C if the original wind was tail wind
[Link] moves closer to A
[Link] moves closer to B
c. CP does not change
d. Insufficient data

Q9. If Beam wind speed doubles the distance to CP will

a. Not change
[Link]
c. Decrease

Q10. When you have beam winds

[Link] = G/S
[Link] < G/S
c. TAS >G/S

Q11. The CP is exactly halfway when

a. O = H
b. In nil wind conditions
c. In beam wind conditions
d. All are correct

Q12. The CP is more than halfway when

a.O = H
b. In nil wind conditions

c. In beam wind conditions

[Link] are correct
 16

Q13. The CP is less than halfway when

a.O = H
b. In nil wind conditions
c. In beam wind conditions
d. All are correct

Q14. The CP and PNR are collocated when

a.O = H
b. In nil wind conditions
c. In tail wind conditions
d. Fuel on board is just sufficient for flight

Q15. The distance to PNR

a. Is maximum in nil wind conditions
b. Increases with increases in the tail wind
c. Decreases wit decrease in tail wind
[Link] not affected by wind velocity

Q16. With a fuel 10000 lbs the PNR is calculated to be 880 nm. Other factors remain
constant. If fuel is increased by 11000 lbs, tile distance to PNR will be
a.928 nm
b.968 nm
c. 950 nm
d. 920 nm

Q17. On a flight an aircraft is found to be achieving a G/S 10% higher than the planned G/S
assuming all other conditions to be same the revised distance to PNR will be
[Link]
[Link]
c. No change
d. Impossible to say
Q18. The distance to PNR with 50 K head wind is 1200 nm. The distance is PNR with 50K
tail wind will be
 17

[Link] than 1200 nm

[Link] than 1200 nm
c. 1200 nm
d. It could be any value

Q19. TAS – 100 K in still air the distance to PNR is 1200 nm. If W/V is 90 deg. to track at 40
K. the distance to PNR will be
a.1194 nm
b.1206 nm
c. 340 nm
d.1200 nm

Q20. The primary emergency for which distance to PN with engine failure is computed is
a. Engine failure
[Link] at the destination requiring landing as early as possible
c. Any emergency n board requiring landing as early as possible
d. Fuel shortage

Q21. The inflight checks reveal that the fuel consumption is 4% greater than expected at a
pre-flight planning. If everything else is expected the distance to PNR will be
a. 4% more
b.4%less
c. Unchanged
d.2% less

Q22. The effect on the position of CP with reducing TAS if there is head wind component is
[Link] the distance
[Link] the distance
c. Leave the distance unchanged

Q23. While flying at a planned TAS, it is found that the aircraft s achieving faster stage
times than planned. Presuming that the stage remains unchanged, the CP position will be

[Link] the distance

[Link] the distance
 18

c. Leave the distance unchanged

ANSWERS
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. A
10. C
11. D
12. D
13. D
14. D
15. A
16. B
17. A
18. C
19. A
20. B
21. B
22. A
23. B

PSR/PET
 19

Q1. What is the distance to the point of safe endurance if an aircraft has a TAS of 300 knots
and a safe endurance of 10 hours, if the wind component on the outbound leg is 50 knots
headwind?
a. 1458nm
b. 1505 nm
c. 1554 nm
d. 1625 nm

Q2. What is the time to the point of a safe return (PSR) if the distance from A to B is 2368 nm,
the outbound groundspeed is 365 knots, the outbound groundspeed is 480 knots, and safe
endurance is 8 hours and 30 minutes?
a. 190 min
b. 209 min
c. 219 min
d. 290 min

Q3. What is the distance from ‘Q’ to the Point of Safe Return (PSR) for an aircraft that was over
‘Q’ at 1320 hours flying direct to ‘R’ given the following data? Distance ‘Q’ to ‘R’ 3016 nm, True
airspeed 480 kt, Safe endurance 10 hours, if the mean wind component ‘outbound’ -90 k, and
the mean wind component ‘homebound’ is +75 kt.
a. 1320 nm
b. 1530 nm
c. 2290 nm
d. 2375 nm

Q4. What is the distance to B from the equal-time point given the following data?
Distance A to B is 360 nm Wind component A-B is -15 kt
TAS is 180 kt Wind component B-A is +15 kt
a. 165nm
b. 170 nm
c. 175 nm
d. 195 nm

Q5. An aircraft is flying at a TAS of 300 knots over a stretch of water between 2 airfields 500
nm apart. What is the distance from the first airfield to the equal time point (ETP) if the wind
component is 60 knots head?
a. 200 nm
b. 250 nm
c. 280 nm
d. 300 nm

Q6. How far can the aeroplane fly out from its base and return in one hour, when flying at TAS
180 kt on a track of 90°, if the W/V is 45°/50 kt?
a. 58 nm
b. 85nm
c. 88nm
d. 175 nm
 20

Q7. For a distance of 1860 nm between Q and R, a ground speed “out” of 385 kt, a ground
speed “back” of 465 kt and an endurance of 8 hours (excluding reserves) the distance from Q
to the point of safe return (PSR) is?
a. 1685 nm
b. 1532 nm
c. 930 nm
d. 1865 nm

Q8. Two points A and B are 1000 nm apart. TAS = 490 kt. On the flight between A and b the
equivalent headwind is -20 kt. On the return leg between B and A, the equivalent headwind is
+40 kt. What distance from A, along the route A to B, is the Point of Equal Time (PET)?
a. 470 nm
b. 455 nm
c. 500nm
d. 530 nm

Q9. An aeroplane is flying at TAS 180kt on a track of 90°. The W/V is 45°/50 kt. How far can the
aeroplane fly out from its base and returns in one hour?
a. 85 nm
b. 88nm
c. 56nm
d. 176nm

Q10. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ‘B’ is 2346 nm, groundspeed ‘out’ 365kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 480
kt. The time from ‘A’ to the Point of Equal Time (PET) between ‘A’ and ‘B’ is?
a. 167 min
b. 219 min
c. 290 min
d. 197 min

Q11. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ‘B’ is 2346 nm, groundspeed ‘out’ 365kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 480
kt. Safe endurance 8 hrs 30 mins. The time from ‘A’ to the Point of Safe Return (PSR) ‘A’ is?
a. 290 min
b. 219 min
c. 197 min
d. 209 min

Q12. An aircraft was over ‘A’ at 1435 hours flying direct to ‘B’. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ‘B’ 2900
nm, True airspeed 470 kt, mean wind component ‘out’ +55 kt, Mean wind component ‘back’
-75 kt, the ETA for reaching the Point of Equal Time (PET) between ‘A’ and ‘B’ is?
a. 1744
b. 1846
c. 1721
d. 1657

Q13. An aircraft was over ‘A’ at 1435 hours flying direct to ‘B’. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ‘B’ 2900
nm, True airspeed 470 kt, mean wind component ‘out’ +55 kt, Mean wind component ‘back’
-75 kt, Safe endurance 9 hr 30 min. The distance from ‘A’ to the Point of Safe Return (PSR) ‘A’
is?
 21

a. 2844 nm
b. 2141 nm
c. 1611 nm
d. 1759 nm

Q14. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ’B’ 2484 nm, Groundspeed ‘out’ 420 kt, groundspeed ‘back’ 500 kt.
The time from ‘A’ to the Point of Equal Time (PET) between ‘A’ and ‘B’ is?
a. 193 min
b. 163 min
c. 173 min
d. 183 min

Q15. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ’B’ 2484 nm, Groundspeed ‘out’ 420 kt, groundspeed ‘back’ 500 kt.
Safe endurance is 8 hr 30 min. the distance from ‘A’ to the Point of Safe Return (PSR) between
‘A’ is?
a. 1630 nm
b. 1940nm
c. 1908 nm
d. 1736 nm

Q16. An aircraft was over ‘Q’ at 1320 hours flying direct to ‘B’. Given: Distance ‘Q’ to ‘R’ 3016
nm, True airspeed of 480 kt, Mean wind component ‘out’ -90 kt, Mean wind component ‘back’
+75 kt, Safe endurance 10:00 hr. the distance from ‘Q’ to the Point Of Safe Return (PSR) ‘R’ is?
a. 1510 nm
b. 2290 nm
c. 2370 nm
d. 1310 nm

Q17. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ‘B’ 1973 nm, Groundspeed ‘out’ 430 kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 385 kt.
The time from ‘A’ to the Point of Equal Time (PET) between ‘A’ and ‘B’ is?
a. 130 min
b. 145 min
c. 162 min
d. 181 min

Q18. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ‘B’ 1973 nm, Groundspeed ‘out’ 430 kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 385 kt.
Safe endurance is 7 hr 20 min. The distance from ‘A’ to the Point of Safe return (PSR) ‘A’ is?
a. 1664 nm
b. 1698 nm
c. 1422 nm
d. 1490 nm

Q. 19 Given: Distance ‘Q’ to ‘R’ 1760 nm, groundspeed ‘out’ 435 kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 385 kt.
Safe endurance 9 hr. the distance from ‘Q’ to the Point of Safe Return (PSR) between ‘Q’ and
‘R’ is?
a. 1467 nm
b. 1642 nm
c. 1838 nm
d. 1313 nm
 22

Q20. Given: Distance ‘Q’ to ‘R’ 1760 nm, groundspeed ‘out’ 435 kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 385 kt.
The time from ‘Q’ to the Point of Equal Time (PET) between ‘Q’ and ‘R’ is?
a. 110 min
b. 106 min
c. 102 min
d. 114 min

Q21. Given: Distance ‘A’ to ‘B’ 3623 nm, Groundspeed ‘out’ 370 kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 300 kt.
The time from ‘A’ to the Point of Equal Time (PET) between ‘A’ and ‘B’ is?
a. 238 min
b. 263 min
c. 288 min
d. 323 min

Q22. Given: Distance ‘Q’ to ‘R’ 2467 nm, groundspeed ‘out’ 500 kt, Groundspeed ‘back’ 400 kt.
Safe endurance 9.5 hr. the distance from ‘Q’ to the Point of Safe Return (PSR) between ‘Q’ and
‘R’ is?
a. 2111 nm
b. 2001 nm
c. 2175 nm
d. 2167 nm

Q23. What is the distance point of safe endurance if an aircraft has a TAS of 350 knots and safe
endurance of 10 hours, if the wind component on the outbound leg is 50 knots headwind?
a. 1714 nm
b. 1750 nm
c. 1754 nm
d. 1725 nm

Q24. What is the time to the Point of Safe return (PSR) if the distance from A to B is 300 nm ,
the outbound groundspeed is 350 knots, the homebound groundspeed is 460 knots, and safe
endurance is 8 hrs 30 minutes?
a. 209 min
b. 190 min
c. 229 min
d. 290 min

Q25. Q4. What is the distance to B from the equal-time point given the following data?
Distance A to B is 560 nm Wind component A-B is -15 kt
TAS is 280 kt Wind component B-A is +15 kt

a. 265 nm
b. 270 nm
c. 275 nm
d. 280 nm

Q26. An aircraft flying at a TAS of 500 knots over a stretch of water between 2 airfields 700 nm
apart. What is the distance from the first airfield to the Equal Time Point (ETP) if the wind
component is 50 knots head?
a. 300 nnm
 23

b. 350 nm
c. 380 nm
d. 392 nm

Q27. How far an aeroplane can fly out from the base and return in one hour, when flyng at TAS
260 kt on a track of 90°, if the W/v is 45°/50kt?
a. 158 nm
b. 128 nm
c. 188 nm
d. 175 nm

CP (CRITICL POINT)/ PET [POINT OF EQUAL TIME]/ ETP [EQUI TIME POINT]

Q1 Distance A to B = 600 nms, track = 080 [T], w/v = 020/30, TAS = 250k,
calculate CP.

Q2. Distance to CP is 600 nms with 30 k hwc and total ditace is 1000 nms. If hwc
changes to 30 k twc DCP will be.
a. 600 nms
b. 500 nms
c. 700 nms
d. 400 nms

Q3. Aircraft departs point A on 135°at 200k TAS for place B 600 nms away. W/V
= 080/35. Calculate dCP and tCP in the case of engine failure with reduced TAS
= 180k

Q4. An a/c flies from A to B on track 150 [T] n distance 1000 nms with TAS =
330k. W/v upto CP is 190/10 and 220/35 thereafter, calculate a)dCP b)tCP
 24

ANSWERS

1. 318 NMS
2. 400
3. 334 NM; 1 HR 52 MIN
4. 516; 1 HR 36 MIN

PNR[POINT OF NO RETURN]/ PSR [POINT OF SAFE RETURN]/ ROA [RADIUS OF

ACTION]

Q1. Distance A to B = 500 nms, track 060 [T], W/V = 300/30, TAS = 250k, Safe
endurance = 3 hrs. calculate dPNR.

Q2. The distance to PNR, 500 nms is calculated with 5 hrs endurance and 30k head
wind before the flight, the pilot experiences unexpected 30 k tailwind during flight,
the new distance to PNR will be.

Q3. FOB= 6500 kgs

Reserve fuel 45 min [assume unused]
Aircraft TAS = 250 k
Find dPNR, tPNR

Q4. An ac fuel consumption is 2000 gph on 4 engines with 220 kts TAS and 1800
gph on 3 engines and the TAS is 200 k with 20 k hwc on outbound. Calculate FOB
with 1000 gallons reserve if dPNR is 600 nms.

Q5. PNR is 720 Nms with 10,000 lbs FOB. Calculate PNR with 10,500 lbs fuel.

Q.6 FOB= 2200 lbs including 10% of flight fuel as reserve, Fuel flow normal 500
lbs/hr and 450 lbs/hr on reduced power. TAS normal 240 k reduces TAS = 210k.
Winds = 10 k hwc on outbound. Calculate dPSR and tPSR.
 25

PNR DGCA ANSWERS

1. 372 Nm, 750 NM

2. 500 NM
3. 1512 NM, 5 HRS 27 MIN
4. 11909
5. 756 NM
6. 474 NM, 2 HRS 4 MIN

BASIC NAVIGATION
 26

SHAPE OF EARTH

 Oblate Spheroid/ Ellipsoid

 Equitorial Diameter is more than Polar Diameter

COMPRESSION

Equitorial Diameter – Polar Diameter

Equitorial Diameter

 Value of Compression is 1/297 or 1/300 approx…

 Compression ratio as percentage % =
 ROTATION OF EARTH WHEN VIEWED FROM NORTH AND SOUTH POLE?

 EARTH IS ROTATING WEST TO EAST OR EAST TO WEST?

 INCLINATION OF EARTH IS HOW MANY DEGREES FROM THE ORBITAL

PLANE AND NORMAL PLANE?
 27

 The Equator: The Great Circle whose plane is at 90° to the axis of
rotation of the earth (the polar axis) is called the Equator. It lies in an
East-West direction and divides the earth equally into two hemispheres
 The Meridians: Meridians are semi- Great circles joining the North and
South poles. All meridians indicate True North-South direction. Ever
Great Circle passing through the poles forms a meridian and its anti
meridian. The meridians cross the Equator at 90°.
 The Prime (or Greenwich) Meridian : The meridian passing through
Greenwich is known the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is the
datum for defining longitude.
 Small Circles: A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and
radius are not those of the earth is called a Small Circle. The main small
circles of relevance to position are the parallels of latitudes.
 Parallels of Latitudes: The Parallel of Latitudes are small circles on the
surface of the earth whose plains are parallel to the Equator. They lie in
an East-West direction. There function is to indicate position North or
South of the Equator.

Special Small Circles

1. Arctic Circles the parallel of 66½°N (note that 66 ½° is the value of the
Earth’s tilt)
2. Antarctic Circle the parallel of 66 ½° S
3. Tropic of Cancer the parallel of 23 ½ ° N ( the sun is overhead the Tropic
of Cancer on mid-summers day in the Northern Hemisphere)
4. Tropic of Capricorn the parallel of 23 ½° S (the sun is overhead the Tropic
of Capricorn on mid-winters day in the Southern Hemisphere)

MERIDIAN
 28

 Any line joining North pole and South Pole

LATITUTTE
 Arc of meridian intercepted between equator and the place
 Latitude is termed North if place is north of Equator and temed
South if place is south of Equator
 Maximum latitude can be 90° N/S

LONGITUDE
 Shorter arc of equator intercepted between Prime/Greenwich/
Zero Meridian and the passing through the place.
 Termed East if the place is east of Prime Meridian
 Termed West if the place is West of Prime Meridian
 Maximum longitude can be 180° E/W

GRATICULE
Network of latitudes and longitudes

CH LAT (Change Of Latitude) or

D LAT (Difference Of Latitude)
 29

 Is the difference in latitude of two places

 Termed North or South depending on whether the change is towards
North or South
 D Lat between 30°S and 20°N is 50°N
 D Lat between 10°N and 35°S is 45°S
 D Lat between 85°S and 10°N is 75°N

DIVISION OF DEGREE

 1 degree = 60 minutes
 1 minutes = 60 Seconds
 Please note they are not minutes and seconds of watch.

CH LONG (Change Of Longitude) or D Long (Difference of Longitude)

 Is the difference in longitude between two places

 Termed East or West depending on whether the change is to East or
West
 Ch Long between 30°E to 70°E is 40°E
 Ch Long between 10°E to 15°W is 25°W
 Ch Long between 165°E to 175°W is 20°E
 Ch Long between 130°W to 140°E is 90°W

ChLat/Ch Long Questions

Q1. What is Ch Lat between the following positions:

a. 52°15’N to 39°35’N
b. 49°35’N to 60°20’S
 30

c. 74°20’N to 74° 30’S

d. 23°56’ S to 13°56’N

Q2. What is the ChLong Between the following position:

a. 075°40’W to 125°35’W
b. 001°20’E to 004°20’W
c. 150°40’E to 179°30’E
d. 162°36’W to 140°42’E

Q3. Give the Direction and Change of latitude and longitude from X to Y in Each
Case:

XY
(a) 50°31’N 006°30’W 52°00’N 008°35’W
(b) 47°32’N 002°46’W 43°56’N 001°33’W
(c) 61°47’N 003°46’W 62°13’N 001°36’E
(d) 31°27’S 091°47’E 35°57’N 096°31’E
(e) 51°05’N 177°42’E 51°06’N 167°42’W

GREAT CIRCLE
 Largest possible circle that can be described n the surface of Earth which
divides the Earth in two equal half’s.
 It has same radius and centre as the earth
 It is shortest distance on the surface of the earth
 Unless two points are diametrically opposite to each other, it will be only be
possible to draw one GC between them
 Radio Signal (waves) follow GC path
 Example- Equator, meridian and anti-meridian
 31

RHUMB LINE or LOXODROME

 Regularly curved line on the surface of the earth which cuts all
meridian at same angle
 Line on earth’s surface which have a constant true direction
 All parallels of latitudes are Rhumb line
 Rhumb Line distance is greater than GC distance
 RL tracks spirals upto nearest poles
 EQUATOR is a GC as well as RHUMBLINE

SMALL CIRCLE
 Any circle on the surface of the earth which is smaller than GC
 Example parallels of Latitude
 32

NAUTICAL MILE- The ICAO defintion of the nautical mile is that it is a

measure of distance of 1852 meters.
 ARC of Great Circle/Meridian which subtends an angle of 1
minute at the center of the earth
 Length of Nautical Mile is more at Pole than equator 6046 feet
(1843 meters) at equator and 6108 feet (1862 meter) at poles
 Length of Nautical mile is more at height
 1 NM = 6080 feet
 1 NM=1.852 kilometers 1852 meters=185200 cms
KILOMETER
 Is one by 10,000th part of average distance between equator and
either Pole (DGCA)
 Length between equator and pole is 10000 kms
 1 KM= 3280 feet
 1 Meter = 3.28 feet
STATUTE MILE
 1 sm = 5280 feet
 Not normally used in aviation
DISTANCE ON THE EARTH
 1 NM = 1.852 KM = 6080 ft = 1.15 SM
 1 SM = 1.61 KM= 5280 ft
 1 KM = 3280 ft
 1 meter(m) =100 centimeters (cm)= 1000 milimeters (mm)
 1 centimeter (cm)=10 milimeters(mm)
 1 meter(m)=3.28 feet(ft)
 33

 1foot(ft)=12 inches (‘in’ or “)

 1 inch (“)=2.54 cms

GEOGRAPHIC OR GEODETIC LATITUDE

 Is the angle between the normal to the observer’s horizontal
plane and the equitorialplane
GEOCENTRIC LATTUDE
 Is the angle between the line joining the observer to the
Geocenter of the [Link] is the point where earth’s axis
crosses Equitorial plane
 GEOGRAPHIC Latitude will always exceed geocentric latitude
 There will be no difference between them at equator and poles
and maximum difference is at 45° lat.

One minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile (nm)

One degree of latitude= 60 minutes = 60 nm
BUT
One minute of latitude = 1nm at the equator only

DEPARTURE
 34

Distance between two meridians along a specified parallel of latitude

 Also called Rhumb Line Distance
 Maximum at equator and zero at poles, therefore varies at cosine of
latitude
 Departure = chlong (Dlong) in minutes X Cos Of Latitude

Departure (nm)= Ch Long (in degree) x60 x Cos Lat

Example 1. Same meridian, same hemisphere.

 35

What is the shortest (i.e. great circle) distance between (A) (5137N
00012W) and (B) (0648N 00012W)? ANS – 2689 nms.

Example 2. Same meridian, different hemispheres.

Whatis the shortest distance between (D) (2930S 03030E)and (E)
(5947N03030E)? ANS – 5357 NM.

Example 3. Meridian and anti-meridian, same hemisphere.

 36

What is the shortest distance between (F) (4155N0111 OE) and G)

(2117N 16850W)? ANS -7008 nm
The initial direction from F to the pole is North and then south from the
Pole to G.

Example 4. Meridian and anti-meridian, different hemispheres.

What is the shortest distance between (J) (3557N 13535E) and (K)
(2210S 04425W)? ANS – 9973 nms

Example 5. Two points on the equator

 37

What is the shortest distance between (L) Dakar (0000N 01635W) and
(M) Singapore (0000N 10355E) ANS- 7230 nm

Example 6. A special Case!

What is the shortest distance between (N) Greenwich (5130N 0000E)
and (P) Antipodes island (5130S 18000E)? ANS- 10,800 nm

Q. 1 YOU ARE AT POSITION “A” AT 54°20’N 002°30’W. GIVEN A ChLaT OF

16°20’N AND A ChLong OF) 020°30’W, WHAT IS THE POITION OF “B”?
 38

Q. 2 GIVE THE SHORTEST DITANCE IN NAUTICAL MILES AND IN KILOMETERES

BETWEEN THE FOLLOWING POSITIONS:

AB
a) 52° 06’ N 002°32’E 53°36’N 002° 32’E
b) 04°41’S 163° 36’W 03°21’N 163°36’W
c) 62°00’N 093°00’E 62°00’N 087°00’W
d) 00°00’N 176°00’E 00°00’N 173°00’W
e) 43° 57’N 071°37’E 43°57’S 108°23’W

Q.3 WHAT IS THE SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN “A” (5130N 00000E)

AND “B” (5130S 18000E)

CONVERGENCY
 39

 Angle of inclination between two meridians over a particular

latitude
 Convergency = Chlong (D Long) in degrees X Sine Mean Latitude
 Higher the latitude, more the convergency
 More Chlong, more is convergency

CONVERSION ANGLE (CA)

 Is the angular distance between Great Circle and a Rhumb Line
bearing
 CA= ½ convergency
 CA = ½ Chlong (D long) in degrees X Sine Mean Latitude

NEED TO APPLY CONVERSION ANGLE

 On Earth GC is a straight line and Rhumb Line is a curved line
 Radio signals follow GC bearing
 Plotting isdone on Mercator chart, on which RL is a straight line
and GC is a curved line convex nearer to pole
 To plot radio position lines on Mercator chart, GC bearing will
have to be converted in to RL bearing and is achieved by
applying CA

ON MERCATOR CHART
 GC is a curve convex nearer to pole and is concave t equator
 RL is always nearer to equator

In The Northern Hemisphere

 40

The direction of the westerly great circle decreases.

The direction of an Easterly great circle increases.

In The Southern Hemisphere

The direction of the westerly great circle increases.
The direction of an Easterly great circle decreases.

GC READINGS EAST WEST

NH I D
SH D I

DIRECTION

 N, E, W, S are cardinal points

 NE, SE, SW, NW are quadrantal points

BEARING

 Direction of one point from another

 Always measure from North
 Always measured clockwise
 Increases in clockwise direction
 Decreases in anticlockwise direction

RELATIVE BEARING

 Measured from Fore & Aft axis of Heading Of A/C

 Always measured clockwise
 Increases in clockwise direction
 Decreases in anti-clockwise direction

HEADING
 41

 Direction in which the fore and aft axis of the aircraft in pointing
 Always measure from North
 Always measured clockwise
 True if measured from True North
 Magnetic if measured from Magnetic North
 Compass if measured from Compass North

TRUE NORTH
 Geographical North

MAGNETC NORTH
 Earth is magnet
 Due to earth earth’s magnetic field, a freely suspended magnetic
needle will point towards magnetic North
 This may or may not be same as geographical North

COMPASS NORTH
 Freely suspended magnetic needle in an aircraft maynot point
towards magnetic North
 This is due to aircrafts magnetism
 Compass North may not be same as Magnetic or True North
 42

VARIATION
 Difference between True and Magnetic North
 Termed east when Magnetic North is East of True North
 Termed West when Magnetic North is West of True North
 Maximum Variation can be 180°E or W

AGONIC LINES
 Lines joining place of zero variation

ISOGONALS
 Lines joining places of equal variations
 VARIATION EAST- MAGNETIC LEAST
 VARIATION WEST- MAGNETIC BEST

DEVIATION
 Difference between magnetic and Compass North
 Termed East if Compass North is East of Magnetic North
 Termed West if Compass North is West of Magnetic North
 43

 DEVIATION EAST – COMPASS LEAST

 DEVIATION WEST – COMPASS BEST

EASTERLY VARIATION OR “+” variation

WESTERLY VARIATION OR “-“ variation
C D M V T

CDMVT Exercise – COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TABLE

COMP DEVN MAG VARN TRUE
5W 291 3E
085 10W 8W
17W 11W 357
20W 359 18E
2W 4E 350

TRACK (Path)
 Direction which aircraft follows on ground
 Can be True or Magnetic
 44

REQUIRED TRACK
 Track which you want aircraft to follow
 Required Track from Delhi to Jaipur is 213

TRACK MADE GOOD (TMG)

 Actual path followed on ground
 TMG may differ from required track due to factor like wind

WIND VELOCITY
 Is wind direction and speed wind direction is the direction from which wind is
blowing (coming) and not be direction to which it is going
 Wind blowing from East to West- Direction is Westerly
 If aircraft flying from West to East Direction is Easterly

DRIFT
 Angular difference between Heading (T) and TMG
 Termed Right (starboard) if TMG is Right of heading
 Termed Left (port) if TMG is left of heading

TRACK ERROR
 The angular distance between Required Track and Track
Made Good
 Track error is starboard if TMG is starboard of required Track
Track error is port if TMG is port of required of Track
EXAMPLES
HDG DRIFT TMG TE TR
 45

100 103 5P
3S 183 179
4P 5P 275

CALCULATE GS AND HDG

HDG°T W/V TRACK°T TAS GS

040/40 155 140
280/27 226 94
320/14 198 136
190/52 284 260
270/83 132 544
310/105 262 572

CALCULATE TRACK AND GS

HDG°T W/V TRACK°T TAS GS

273 230/40 150
181 150/30 90
054 350/28 88
084 255/55 210
141 280/35 190
274 030/40 150
 46

CALCULATE CAS FOR GIVEN CONDITIONS

RAS kt. Pressure Temp°C TAS kt.

Altitude ft

140 10000 -10

175 8000 +5

220 15000 -22

300 30000 -40

180 12500 -25

CALCULATING W/V

HDG°T W/V TRACK°T TAS GS

209 219 150 134
270 266 180 202
223 224 206 246
069 079 138 124
299 293 125 120
167 162 202 190
 47

Tr W/V Hdg Var Hdg Dev Hdg RAS Height/ TAS GS Dis Time
T M C temp

315 045 7w 2E 190 3000 88

/ 33 +15

324 6E 1W 320 205 9000 105 30

-10

030 11 1W 071 142 14000 80

/ 55 W +5

300 190 8E 3E 132 4000 332

/ 25 -10

019 9W 2E 014 130 3500 110 54

-17

*342 130 3E 1W 160 7500 0 26

/ 40

POS °GRID CONV °TRUE VAR GRIV °MAG

A 066 8W
B 6W 090
C 099 4W
D 0 117
E 133 2E

CHECK: GRID + GRIV = MAG

 48

TRUE + VAR = MAG

NORTHERN VERTEX AND SOUTHERN VERTEX

 49

DEPARTURE PRACTICE (DGCA) SET-1

1 . What is the Change of Latitude between the following positions:

a) 52 15’N to 39 35’N
b) 49 35’N to 60020’S
c) 74 20’S to 34 30’S
d) 71 20’N to 86 45’N over the north pole.

2. What is the difference in Nautical miles and a kilometer from position. A (41 25’N) to
position B (79 30’N). Both are on the same meridian

3. What is the Change of Latitude between the following position

a) 075 40’W to 125 35’W
b) 001 20’E to 004 20’W
c) 150 40’E to 179 30’E
d) 162 36’W to 140 42’ E

4. Any Meridian Line is a:-

 50

a) Rhumb line
b) Semi Great Circle
c) Rhumb Line and A Semi Great Cirlcle

5. A Graticule is the name given to :-

a) A series of line drawn on a chart
b) A series of latitude and longitude line drawn on a chart or map
c) A selection of small circles as you get nearer to either pole

6. A Rhumb line cut all meridians at the same angles. This given :-
a) The shortest distance between two points
b) A line which could never be a great circle track
c) A line of constant direction

7. Given the Direction and the Change Of Latitude And Longitude from X to Y in each case:-

X Y
a. 50031’N 006 30’W to 52 00’N 008 35’W
b. 47 32’N 002 46’ W to 43 56’N 001 33’W
c. 61 47’N 003 46’W to 62 13’N 001 36’E
d. 31 27’S 091 47’E to 35 57’N 096 31’E
e. 51 05’N 177 42’E to 51 06’N 167 42’W

8. Give the shortest distance in nautical miles and kilometeres between the following
positions:
a) 52 06’N 002 32’E and 53 36’N 002 32’E
b) 04 41’S 163 36’W and 03 21’N 163 36’W
c) 62 00’N 093 00’E and 62 00’N 087 00’W
d) 00000’N 176 00’E and 00000’N 173 00’W
e) 45 37’N 071 37’W and 45 37’S 108 23’E

9. An aircraft is to fly from position 72 00’N 002 30’E to position 72 00’N 177 37’W onte
shortest possible route.
a) Give the initial (True) track direction
b) With the track direction remaining the same for whole flight?
c) Give a reason for the answer given in b above.

10. You are at position A at 54 20’N 002 30’W. Given a [Link] of 16 20’N and a [Link] of 020
030’W to B, What is the position of B?
 51

11. You are at position C at 36 47’S 179 21’E. Given a [Link] of 46 47’N and a [Link] of 20
30’E to D, What is the postion of D?

12. What is the potion between Rhumb Line between two points relative to the Great Circles
between the same points if the points are
a) in the Northern Hemisphere ?
b) in the Southern Hemisphere?

13. A great Circle has its North vertex at 70N 130E. What is the position of its South vertex?

14. In question 13, at what latitudes and in what direction would the Great Circle cross the
equator assuming :
a) Initial direction is East from the Northern Vertex?
b) Initial direction is West from the Northern Vertex?

ANSWERS
1. a 12° 40’ S
b 109° 55’ S
c 39° 50’ N
d 21° 55’

2. 2285 nm is 4224 km or 4236 km using a calculator or 4230 km

3. a 49°55’ W
b 05°40’ W
c 28°50’ E
d 56°42’ W (not 303 18’ – we want the smaller arc).

4. e
5. b
6. c
7. a 01° 29’N 002° 05’W
b 03° 36’ S 001° 13’ E
c 00° 26’N 005° 22’ E
d 67° 24’N 014° 44’E
 52

e 00° 01’ N 014° 36’ E

8. a 90nm 166km
B 482nm 890km
c 3360nm 6228
d 660nm 1220km
e 10800nm 20000km

9. a. 360° T
b. No
c. Route over the North Pole, initial track True North, then once over the pole
true South.

10. 70° 40’N 023°00’W

11. 10° 00’ N 160° 09’ W
12. a Nearer the Equator (South of the Great Circle)
b Nearer the Equator (North of the Great Circle)
13. 70 S 050W
14. a 140W 160° T b 040E 200 °T

QUESTIONS- DEPARTURE SET 2

Q.1. Position of A is 20N 160 W; position of B is 20N 20E. Which track will give the
shortest distance between A & B?
a. 270
b. 090 or as in a
c. 360
d. 180

Q.2. What is the longitude of a position 6nm to the East of 58 42 N 094,00 W

a. 093 degree 53.1 min W
b. 094 degree 12.0 min W
c. 093 degree 48.5 min W
d. 093 degree 54.0 min W

Q.3. The great circle bearing of B (70 degree S 060 degree E), from ‘A’ (70degree S
030 degree W), is approximately
a. 150 degree (T)
 53

b. 090 degree (T)

c. 315 degree (T)
d. 135 degree (T)

Q.4. The departure between positions 60 degree N 160 Degree E and 60 degree N
‘x’ is 1200 nm. What is the longitude of x?
a. 160 degree W
b. 140 degree W
c. 145 degree E
d. 175 degree E

Q.5. Parallels of latitude except equator, are?

a. rhumb lines
b. great circles
c. both rhumb lines and great circles
d. neither rhumb lines nor great circles

Q.6. An ac takes off from 47° 15’ N 174° 23’E and flies due east direction for 862
nms. Find lat/long of destination?

Q.7. An ac undergoes d long change of 12 in 2:45 at ground speed of 180k. Find

the latitude of ac?

Q.8. Two ac A & B leave position X (51N 02 E) for Y (56 N 12W). Aircraft A travels
due north until 56 N and then flies west to Y. Aircraft B flies West till 12 W long &
then flies due North to Y. Which sc flies the shortest distance & by how much
distance?

Q.9. How long will it take to go around the earth at a parallel of 60 45’ S lat at a
ground speed of 430 k?

Q.10. An ac takes off from 3030n 193E to 3030N 0630W. Find

a. shortest distance
b. difference between RL and GC distance
c. initial track or the shortest distance

Q.11. An ac travels from 40N 20 E to 80 N 160 W by shortest route. The initial track
to follow will be
 54

a. 000
b. 270
c. 180
d. 090

Q.12. Two ac takes off from 20N 20W and fly to position 40N40W. 1 st ac flies via
40N 20W and second via position 20N 40W
a. distance flown by both is same
b. 1 is less then 2nd
c. 1 is less then 2nd

Q.13. An ac takes off from 3030S 04523E and flies in true east direction for 600 nm,
then true south direction for 600 nm, then true west direction for 600 nm and
thereafter in true north direction from 600 nm. Find the final position of ac in nms
and in east/west direction of starting poitions

Convergency

Q1. G/C bearing of B from A is 138. G/C bearing of A from B is 30 find.

a) CA
b) Hemisphere in which ‘A’ and ‘B’ are located
c) What is RL bearing of A from B
August 98, January 10

Q2. G/C bearing of A from B is 060. CA is 4° if both place are N/H frind.
a) R/L bearing of A from B
b) R/L bearing of B from A
c) G/C bearing of B from A

Q3. G/C bearing of O from P is 040. R/L bearing of O from P is 042°find.

a) CA
b) Hemisphere in which ‘O’ and ‘P’ are located
c) G/C bearing of P from O

Q4. G/C bearing of B from A is 280. R/L bearing of A from B is 096 deg. Find
 55

a) CA
b) Hemisphere in which ‘A’ and ‘B’ are located
c) What is the G/C bearing of A from B

Q5. R/L bearing of P from Q is 050. G/C bearing of Q from P is 228. Find
a) CA
b) Hemisphere of the two places
c) G/C bearing of P from Q

Q6. P & Q are on a parallel of Lat 30N. P is at 8 W longitude & G/C bearing of Q
from P is 087. What is the lngitude of Q
October 09

Q7. ‘X’ is at 45 S 175 W. Convergency between X and Y is 7 deg. If Y is due west of X

find.
a) G/C bearing of Y from X
b) Long of Y

[Link] convergency between two points 8 deg long apart is 7.2 deg. On the same
parallel of Lat P is 173W & Q is 176 E find.
(a) G/B Bearing of P from Q in NH
(b) G/C Bearing of Q from P in SH

Q9. R/L bearing A from B = 055 what is R/L bearing B from A in northern hemisphere
and southern hemisphere?

Q10. G/C bearing A from B - 090

Convergency = 4, find G/C bearing B from A in N-hemisphere

And S –hemisphere?
 56

ANSWERS
1. CA = 9, SH, 309
2. 64, 244, 248
3. CA=2, NH, 224
4. CA=4, NH, 92
5. CA=2, SH, 52
6. Long of Q is 4E
7. 266.5, Long 175 Deg 6 min E
8. 85.4 Deg, 265.4deg
9. 235 in both hemisphere
10. NH=274, SH=266
11.

CONVERGENCY & CA

1. The Great circle from A to B measures 227 T at and 225 T at B. What is the convergency
from the meridians through A and B and which hemisphere are they?

2. The convergency of the meridian through M and N which are in the Southern
hemisphere is 12. If the rhumb line track frm M to N is 294 T, What is the great circle
bearing of:
a) N from M
b) M from N
3.
a) In what latiude is the convergency between two meridians on the earth equal to
twice their convergency in latitude 20 N?
b) Is there latitude where the convergency would be three times the value at 20 N
 57

4. a) A and B are in the same hemispere. The great Circle bearing of A from B is 268 T and
great circle bearing of B from A is 092 T
i. In which hemisphere are A and B?
ii. What is rhumb line bearing of B from A?

b) C and D are in the same hemisphere.

The great circle bearing of D from C is 063 t and the rhumb line bearing og C from D is
240 T.
i. In which hemisphere are C and D?
ii. What is the approximate great circle bearing of C from D?

5. Position X 64 00’S 11 50’W. Position Y 64 00’S 05 10’W

Give
a) The convergency between the meridians of X and Y
b) The approximate great circle bearing of X and Y.
c) The Rhumb line t rack from X to Y.

6. a) Calculate the convergency between positions A (55 30’N 04 35’ W) and B (64 00’N 22
37’W).

b) If the rhumb line track from A to B is 313 T what is the approximate great circle
bearing of A from B?

7. The great Circle bearing of A from B is 245 Tandrhumb line bearing of B from A is 060 T.
if the mean latitude between A and B is 53 and the longitude of B is 02 15’E, what is the
longitude of A?

8. A and B are both in the southern hemisphere and the convergency of their meridians is
8 . The Great Circle bearing of B from A is 094 T.

If the position of B is 23 00’S 20 00’W, what is the position of A?

ANSWERS

1. (2 of convergency and in northern hemisphere)

2. a) N from M (243 T)
 58

b) N from M (075 T)

3. a) latitude 43 N
b) (No., as 3 timeconvergency value would be greater than longitude change)

4. (Southern Hemisphere)
(090 T, as A and Bon same latitude)
b) (i) (Southern Hemisphere)
(ii) (237 T)

5. (a) the convergency between the meridians of X and Y. (6 )

(b) The approximate great circle bearing of X from Y (267 T)
(c) the rhumb line track from X to Y. (090 T)

6. (15.5 convergency call it 16 )

(125 T)

7. (010 15’W)
8. (Position A is at 23 00S0 040 28.5’W, rhumb line is 090 T)
MAPS AND CHARTS (DGCA)

MAP

Is a flat sheet of paper having a graticule on which natural ground features,

hills, river, road, rail, etc. are shown (Map Reading ).

CHART

It is a flat sheet of paper having a graticule on which barest minimum

ground feature like mountain, rivers and lakes, etc. are shown. (plotting)

REDUCED EARTH

Earth reduced to a smaller scale.

CLASSIFICATION OF
PROJECTIONS
 59

PERSPECTIVE NON
PERSPECTIVE

PROPERTIES OF IDEAL PROJECTION

 Scale should constant and correct

 Orthomorphic
 RL should be a straight line
 GC should be a straight line
 Shapes should be correct
 Worldwide coverage
 Adjacent sheets should fit each other

SCALE

SCALE = Chart Length (in same unit)

Earth Length

Three ways of indicating scale

1. RF ( Representative Factor) -1 : 1,00,000

2. Statement in words 1” = 1 mile
3. Graduated scale – provided on maps & charts

LARGE SCALE MAP – SMALLER THE DENOMINATOR LARGER THE SCALE

 60

SCALE FACTOR = CHART LENGTH

REDUCED EARTH

Stated scale X SF = Scale At That Point

Scale factor 1 means correct scale
If SF 1.01 represents a scale that is 1% too large
SF .99 means scale is 1% too small

SCALE ERRORS
Difference between Scale Factor and 1
SF = 1.1, Scale Error = 1.1 -1 = +0.1

Or, if SF = 99, Scale Error = -0.01

ORTHOMORPHISM (Conformal)

The projection in which bearings are correctly represented. Following two

properties are required for a projection to be orthomorphic

a) Scale at any point in all directions must be the same and not
necessarily correct.

b) Parallels and meridians must cut each other at right angles

Orthomorphic projections will automatically have correctness of shapes.

Conversely the projection on which shapes are correct will be Orthomorphic.

Thus Orthomorphism and Correctness of shapes are Complementary to each

other

EQUAL AREA
 61

Equal areas on the earth are represented by equal are on the projection

Orthomorphic Projection cannot be equal area or vice versa

Scale can never be constant and correct

SIDs & STARs are Non-Conformal

At point of tangency scale will be same RE and Meridians and Parallels

will cut at 90°.

STANDARD MERCATOR PROJECTIONS

CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS

 It is a Perspective Projection and is a mathematical modification to

simple Cylindrical Projection

 Point of projection is the centre of the earth and line of tangency is the
equator

PROPERTIES

1. Scale is correct along the equator. Scale expands at secant of latitude from
equator towards the poles
2. It is an orthomorphic projection
3. Rhumb line is a straight line (unique property of this projection)
4. Great Cyccle is a curve Concave to the Equator Convex to the nearer Poles
5. Shapes are correctly represented. But in higher Latitudes due to greater
scale expansion the shapes tends to get distorted.
6. Equal Area- it is not an equal area projection
7. Coverage is limited to 70 to 75 North and South of Equator
8. Adjacent sheet will fit

USES
 62

 As a plotting chart. As a map upto about 50 N & S only.

 Rhumb Line Sailing
DISADVANTAGES
 Plotting of a Radio bearings is difficult
 Great Circle track cannot be flown
 Constant scale cannot be used for measurement of distances
 Cannot be used in higher latitudes

MERCATOR

Charts can be said to have a constant scale if max error is 1%

 Mercator chart can be treated as Constant scale from 8 N to 8 S. 480 nm

either side of equator
 With modification can b constant scale upto 11 42, 702 nm either side of
equator.

MERCATOR CHARTS – BASIC PROPERTIES

a) Orthomorphism

The chart is orthomorphic- conformal by mathematical construction

(Mercator’s adjustment of the parallels of latitude). The projection is non-perspective
b) Graticule

The graticule is rectangular. Meridians are equally spaced parallel lines. Parallels of
latitudes are unequally spaced parallel lines.

c) Rhumb line

Because the meridians are parallel lines, a straight line track drawn on the chart will cut
all meridians at the same angle. A straight line track on a Mercator chart is a Rhumb line
 63

d) Great circles

“The Rhumb line between two points will always be nearer to the equator than the
Corresponding Great Circle. Conversely, the Great Circle between two points will always
lie nearer the Pole than the Rhumb line”.

Chart Convergence
1. Earth Convergency (EC) was defined as the angle of inclination between two
selected meridians on the earth measured at a given latitude.

2. On navigation charts the equivalent is Chart Convergence (CC). Chart

convergence is the angle of inclination between two selected meridians on the
chart, measured at a given latitude.

3. On a Mercator Chart, Chart Convergence (CC) is zero all over the chart (the
meridians are parallel)

4. At the Equator on the Earth, Earth Convergency is zero. Elsewhere on the

Earth: Earth Convergency: ch long x sin mean lat

Earth Convergency is always greater than zero except at the Equator. Thus, we can say
that :

(a) On a Mercator Chart at the Equator, Chart Convergence is equal to Earth

Convergency is equal to zero.
(b) Chart Convergence on a Mercator Chart is “correct” at the equator.
(c) At all latitudes apart from the Equator, Chart Convergence on a Mercator Cart is
less than Earth convergency.

Conversion Angle (CA) = ½ Earth convergency (EC)

Conversion Angle (CA) = ½ x ch long x sin Mean Lat.

(d) Scale
Scale on a Mercator Chart is correct at the Equator. Scale expands away from the
Equator. The scale expands at a rate proportional to the secant of latitude
 64

On a Mercator chart, scale expands away from the Equator. The scale
expansion is proportional to the secant of the latitude.

“Correct” Scale
Scale is “correct” wherever the projection surface touches the Reduced Earth. In
the case of Mercator projection, this occurs at the Equator, hence, scale on a
Mercator chart is correct at the Equator.

Scale Factor (SF)

At the equator on a Mercator chart, the scale factor is 1. This is an alternative

way of saying that scale is “correct” at the Equator.

Scale Factor = Chart Length

Reduced Earth length

Mercator scale expansion formula

Using the previous arguments, we can write a formula for scale on a Mercator
chart at a given latitude as:

Scale at Latitude- = Scale at Equator x Secant Latitude

Example 1. If the scale of a Mercator chart at the Equator is 1:1,000,000 what is the scale at
60°N (orS)

a) 1: 2,000,000
b) 1: 1,000,000
c) 1: 866000
d) 1: 500,000

Dₐ = cos A
Dʙcos B
 65

IS THE SOLE FORMULAE TO SOLVE ANY “…..” QUESTION BASED ON

MERCATOR SCALE

MERCATOR PROJCTION- Summary

 Chart convergence is zero

 Chart Convergence is equal to the Earth Convergence only at the Equator
 Scale is correct only along the equator
 Scale varies least at the point of tangency at the equator, then expands with
the secant of latitude
 Great circles are concave to the equator
 Rhumb lines are straight lines
 This type of projection is used for plotting chart and sum topographical charts
are for areas close to the Equator
 Cannot be used for latitudes greater than 70° N and 70° S

TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
 Used when latitude coverage is more and longitude coverage is less
 Very useful close to Datum Meridian (DM)and its Anti-meridian
 Can be regarded as constant scale
 Great circles are practically straight lines. NoCA required for plotting

TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION

 Chart Convergence is correct at the equator and the poles

 Scale is correct at the contact meridian and its anti-meridian
 Scale expands as the secant of the great circle distance from the contact
meridian
 Great circles appears as straight lines where they cut the contact meridian at
90° and when they are very close to the contact meridian
 Rhumb lines appears as curves concave to the nearest poles
 66

 Used for polar plotting and also for topographical charts of countries with a
large change of latitudes, but only a small change in longitudes
 Best accuracy is achieved within 5° of the Datum Meridian

OBLIQUE MERCATOR

 Line of contact is not along a meridian or parallel of latitude

 Useful close to datum GC (DGC) and its Anti-Meridian
 Can be regarded as constant scale and GC are practical straight lines.
 Used for a particular route

OBLIQUE OR SKEW MERCATOR PROJECTIONS

 The circle along which the paper cylinder touches the reduced earth is
called dare great circle.
 Chart Convergence is correct when close to the datum great circle.
 Scale is correct along the datum great circle.
 Most other great circles appear as the curves concave to the datum
great circle.
 Those great circles that cut the datum great circle at right angles
appear as straight lines.
 Rhumb line appears as concave curves
 Used for great circle routes
 Best accuracy is within 5 degrees of the datum great circle

SIMPLE CONICAL

Projection will be perfect along the parallel on which the cone s resting.
 67

PARALLEL OF ORIGIN

Parallel at which cone is resting.

Scale will be correct along this parallel

STANDARD PARALLEL

Parallel on which scae is correct

On simple conical projection

It is same as the parallel origin

CONSTANT OF THE CONE

Sine of parallel of origin is called constant of cone and is represented

by “n”.

APPEARANCE

 Parallel of latitudes are arc of concentric circles

 Meridian are converging straight lines towards the pole

PROPERTIES

SCALE

 Correct at two standard parallels. It contacts between two standard

parallels and expand outside them
 Smallest scale at parallel of origin vehicles approx half between two
standard parallel

GREAT CIRCLES

 Can be treated as straight lines

 68

 Exactly a straight line at parallel of origin

 Great circle is a curve concave to the parallel of origin

RHUMB LINE

 Is a curve concave to the nearer pole (pole of projection)

ORTHOMORPHIC – Yes

EQUAL AREA- No

CHART CONVERGENCY

 Correct at parallel of origin

 Is equal to sin lat of parallel of origin

USES

 Commonly used in middle latitudes as topographical maps

 Jeppesen route charts
 Met charts

IDEAL SPACING OF STANDARD PARALLEL

 Is one sixth and five sixth of the total latitude coverage

 24° latitude coverage standard parallel will be 4° and 20°
 10 latitude coverage 1°40’ and 8°20’

CONVERGENCY ON EARTH

Chlong X sine mean latitude

CHART CONVERGENCY

ON MERCATOR
 69

 Zero everywhere
 Correct at equator
 Constant across the chart

ON LAMBART

 Sine of parallel of origin is called constant of Cone and it is

represented by ‘n’
 Chart convergence is n x Chlong
 Doest not change with latitude

ON POLAR SETEROGRAPHIC

 Correct at pole
 Constant across the chart
 Is equal to change of longitude, since n=1

LAMBERT CONICAL PROJECTION- Summary

 Chart Convergency = Chlong x sin of parallel origin

 Chart convergency = Earth convergency at the parallel of origin
 Scale is correct at the standard parallels only
 Scale varies least at the parallel of origin then expand with increases
distance with that parallel
 Great circles appear as straight lines between two places on the
parallel of origin
 Great circles at all other points appear as curves concave parallel to the
parallel of origin
 Rhumb line appear as concave to pole/arc of concentric circle
 70

 Used for plotting and topographical charts

POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

 Only true perspective projection

 Parallels of latitude are concentric circles with centre at pole
 Meridians are straight lines radiating from pole

PROPERTIES

SCALE

 Correct at pole

 Expands away from it at sec^2 ½ co-lat

ORTHOMORPHIC- yes

EQUAL AREA- No

GREAT CIRCLES

 Curves concave to pole of projections

 May be treated as a straight line in polar region

RHUMB LINE

 Curves concave to pole of projection

CHART CONVERGENCY

 Correct at poles
 Equal to Chlong
 Reduces away from poles
 71

USES

 Ideal for aviation use in polar regions. 70° and above

IDEAL PROJECTION FOR MAPS

 10°N to 10°S – Mercator

 10° N to 70°S – Lambert
 70°n to 90°N – Polar stereographic

POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

 Chart converency = change in longitudes

 Chart convergency = earth’s convergency only at the nearest pole
 It is possible to project only the area of the earth that are close to the
nearest [Link] is impossible to project the equator
 Scale is correct only at nearest pole
 Scale varies least at the point of tangency (nearest pole) then varies as
the secant square of half the colatitudes
 Rhumb lines appear as curves concave to the pole of projection
 Used for polar plotting chart
 Can be used for areas from the pole of tangency down to about 60°
latitude.
 72

MERCATOR
Origin of Cylindrical
Projection The cylinder touches the reduced earth at the equator
 73

Projection in from the centre of the sphere

Graticule Meridians
Parallel straight lines, equally spaced
Parallels of latitude
Unequally spaced parallel straight lines, with the spacing increase
away from the equator
Scale Correct at the equator
Expands away from the equator as the secant of the latitude
Convergence Correct at the equator
All other latitudes, chart convergence is less than earth
convergence
Rhumb line Straight line

Great circle Curves convex to the nearer pole and concave to the equator
Equator and meridians are straight lines

TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
Origin of Cylindrical
Projection The cylinder touches the reduced earth at the selected meridian
Graticule Meridians
 74

The datum meridian, the equator, and meridians at 90° to the datum
meridian are straight line
Other meridians are complex curves
Parallels of latitudes
Ellipses, except the equator
Close to the pole, early circular
Scale Correct at the datum meridian
Expands aways from the datum meridian as secant of reat circle distance
from the datum meridian
Convergence Correct at the equator and poles
Rhumb line Complex curves
Datum meridian, meridian at 90° to the datum meridian are straight line
Great circle Complex curves except the datum meridian
Datum meridian, equator, and the meridian at 90°to the datum meridian can
be taken as straight lines
Any straight line right angle to the datum meridian is a great circle

OBLIQUE MERCATOR
 75

Origin of Cylindrical
Projection The cylinder touches the reduced earth along the selected great circle route
Graticule Meridians
Curves concave to the datum great circle. The meridian passing through the pole
of the datum great circle is a straight line
Parallels of latitude
Complex curve cutting the meridians at 90°

Scale Correct at the great circle of tangency

Expands as secant of great circle distance from the great circle of tangency
Within 500 nm of great circle of tangency may be used as a constant scale chart
Convergence Correct along the great circle of tangency, at the poles, and at the equator
Rhumb line Complex curves
Great circle Complex curves
Close to the great circle of tangency may be interpreted as a straight line

LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL
Origin of Conical
Projection The cone touches the reduced earth at the parallel tangency
Projection from the center of the sphere
Graticule Meridians
 76

Straight line converge towards the pole of projection

Parallels of latitude
Arcs of circles, nearly equally spaced, with their centre at the pole of
projection
Scale Correct at the standard parallels
Expand outside the standard parallels and contracts between the standard
parallels
Is at a minimum at the parallel of origin
Convergence Correct at the parallel of origin
Chart convergence is equal to the ChLong x in Parallel of origin
Rhumb line Curves concave to the pole of projection
Meridians are straight lines
Great circle Curves concave to the parallel of origin
Are closest to a straight line at the parallel of origin

POLAR STEREOGRAPHICAL
Origin of Azimuthal
Projection The flat plate touches the reduced earth at the pole
Projection is from the opposite pole
Graticule Meridians
Straight line radiating from the pole
Parallels of latitude
 77

Circles centered on the pole

The spacing increases away from the pole
The equator can be projected
Scale Correct at the pole
Expand away from the pole as sec² ½ Co lat
Scale is correct to within 1% to 78°N/S
Scale is correct to within 3% to 70°N/S
Convergence Correct at pole
At all points Chart convergence is equal to the ChLong
Rhumb line Curves concave to the pole of projection
Meridians are straight lines
Great circle Curves concave to the pole
Meridian are straight lines
Close to the pole may be considered a straight line for plotting purposes

MAPS AND CHARTS

1. A negative(westerly) variation signifies that?

a. True north is the east of magnetic  north
b. True North is the west of magnetic north
c. Magnetic North is West of compass  north
d. Magnetic North   is east of compass north

2. The nominal scale of a Lambert conformal conic chart is the?

a. Scale at the standard parallels
b. Scale at the equator
c. Scale at the Midway point between the two standard parallels
d. Everywhere on the chart

3. A positive (easterly) magnetic variation signifies that?

a. True North is the east of magnetic north
b. True North is a west of magnetic north
c. Magnetic North is West of compass
d. Magnetic North is east of compass

4. The charge that is generally used for navigation in polar areas is based on?
a. Lambert’s conformal
b. Transverse Mercator
c. Stereographic projection
 78

d. Direct Mercator

5. On a lamberts conformal conic chart the convergence of the Meridian is?

a. The same as Earth convergency at the parallel of origin.
b. The same as scale
c. The most accurate at the standard of parallels
d. Least accurate at the parallel of origin

6. On direct on a direct mercator chart, Rhumb line appears as a?

a. Curve concave to the nearer pole  
b. Curve convex to the nearest pole
c. Straight line
d. Curve convex to the equator

7. On a Lambert conformal conic projection, with two standard parallels, the quoted scale is
correct?
a. Midway between the two standard parallels  
b. Only along the two standard parallels
c. Only at the parallels of origin
d. Only at the centre of the chart.

8. On a direct Mercator chart,a great circle will be represented by a?

a. Straight lines
b. Curves convex to the equator
c. Curves concave to the equator
d. Curves concave to the nearest pole

9. On the Lambert conformal conic chart earth convergency is most accurately represented at
the?
a. Standard parallels
b. Outside the standard parallels
c. At all points between the standard parallels
d. Parallel of origin

10. On a transverse Mercator chart, scale is exactly correct along the?

a. Median of tendency
b. Prime Meridian
c. Standard latitudes
d. Latitude of origin
 79

11. The angular difference,on a Lambert conformal conic chart, between, the arrival and
departure track is equal to?
a. Departure angle
b. Map convergence
c. Secant of half latitude
d. Secant of  longitude

12.   Parallels of latitude, except of equator, are?

a. Rhumb lines
b. Great circle
c. Curves convex to the nearest pole
d. Curves concave to the nearest pole

13. On a direct Mercator chart, meridians are?

a. Parallel,equally spaced,horizontal straight lines
b. Converging curved lines
c. Parallel,equally spaced, vertical straight lines
d. Diverging curved lines

14. On which of the following chart projections is it not possible to represent the north or south
poles?
a. Polar stereographic
b. Transverse Mercator
c. Lambert’s conical
d. Direct Mercator

15. On a direct Mercator, rhumb lines are?

a. Straight lines
b. Curves concave to the nearest pole
c. Curves convex to the nearest pole
d. Curves convex to the equator

16. How are great circles shown on a direct Mercator chart?

a. Curves concave to the nearest pole
b. Curves convex to the nearest pole
c. Straight line
d. Rhumb lines

17. The scale on a Lambert’s conformal conic chart?

a. Is constant
 80

b. Is constant along a parallel of latitude

c. Is constant along a meridian of latitude
d. Varies slightly as a function of latitude and longitude.

18. The scale is correct on a transverse Mercator chart?  

a. Along the datum meridian and meridians at 90° to it.
b. At the Prime Meridian
c. Along the Great circle of tangency
d. At the poles and the equator

19. The “departure” between positions   60°N 160°E and 60 °N “x” 900 nm. What is the
longitude of “x”?
a. 170 °W
b. 140 °W
c. 145 °E
d. 175° E

20. What is a rhumb line?

a. The vertex of conformal polyformic projection
b. The shortest distance between any two points on the earth’s surface
c. A straight line on Lambert’s conformal chart
d. A line on the earth which cuts all the meridians at the same angle

21. A rhumb line is?

a. A lineconvex to the nearest pole on a Mercator projection
b. A line on the surface of the earth cutting all meridians at the same angle
c. The shortest distance between two points on a polyconic projection
d. Any straight line on Lambert projection

22. Parallels of latitude, except the equator are?

a. Rhumb line
b. Great circles
c. Both rhumb line and great circles
d. Neither rhumb line or Great circles

23. Given: the coordinates of the heliport at A are N 48°50’E220°16.5’ the coordinates of the
antipodes are?
a. S41°10’ W 177°43.5’
b. S41°10 ’E 177°43.5’
 81

c. S48°50’ W177°43.5’
d. S48°50’ E177°43.5’

24. On a Lambert conformal conic chart great circles that are not meridians are?
a. Curves concave to the poles of projections
b. Straight lines within the standard parallels
c. Curves concave to the parallel origins
d. Straight lines regardless of distance

25. On a direct Mercator chart, a rhumb line appears as a?

a. Curves convex to the equator
b. Curves concave to the nearest pole
c. Straight line
d. Complex curves concave to the equator
ANSWERRS

1. A
2. A
3. B
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. B
8. C
9. D
10. A
11. B
12. A
13. C
14. D
15. A
16. B
 82

17. B
18. C
19. A
20. D
21. B
22. A
23. C
24. C
25. C

THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND TIME

CELESTIAL SPHERE

 All heavenly bodies like Sun, planets, Stars appear to be located on a huge sphere
 This imaginary sphere known as celestial sphere

DECLINATION

 Is latitude of heavenly bodies

 During the year Sun’s declination varies from 23 ½° N to 23°½ S

HOUR ANGLE

 Is the longitude of heavenly bodies

 It is the angle measured westwards from a particular meridian to meridian of
body

LOCAL HOUR ANGLE(LHA)

 When the measurement is made from local observer’s meridian

GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE

 When measurement is made with respect to Greenwich meridian

ZENITH

 The point celestial sphere directly above the observer’s

CELESTIAL HORIZON
 83

 Is the circle on the CS 90 removed from the ZENITH

KEPLERS LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION

FIRST LAW

 Each planet follows an elliptical path with the Sun at one of the foci

SECOND LAW

 The line joining planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times
 As he distance from the Sun varies the speed of the planet along its orbit will vary
 Speed will be lowest when the lanet is furthest from the Sun and faster when it is
closer
 84

DAY AND NIGHT

 Formed since earth rotates from its axis on west to East direction
 Earth completes one rotation in 24 hours
SEASONS are formed
 Earth revolves in its orbit around the Sun in 365 days
 Earth axis is inclined at an angle of 66 ½ to ecliptic and 23 ½ to the axis

SIDEREAL DAY
 The period between successive transits of star over a particular meridian
 It is approx 23 hours 56 minutes
 No practical application since not related to day and night

APPARENT SOLAR DAY

 Due to kepler’s second law, the speed of earth around the ecliptic varies as the
distance from the sun varies
 Apparent solar will not be a constant value
 Length differs from 23 hours 44 minutes to 23 hours 14 minutes

MEAN SOLAR DAY

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 Speed of true sun varies

 Mean sun is an imaginary sun which revolves around the earth at uniform
speed which is the average speed of the true sun
 So Mean Solar Day is an interval between two successive transists of mean sun
over a particular meridian
 It has exact 24 hours
 APPARENT SOLAR DAY IS SMALLER AND LONGER THAN MEAN SOLAR DAY

EQUATION of TIME
 True sun will be sometimes ahead and sometimes behind
 Max difference is about 16 minutes in November and is known as E of T

YEAR

SIDERIAL YEAR

 Is the period between two successive transits of Earth Sun and a fixed point in space i.e. star
 It is equal to 365 days 6 hours 09 mts

TROPIC YEAR

 Is the period between two successive transits of earth, Sun and aries
 Aries processes Westward @ 50 26 sec/year
 So the length of Tropic Year is is365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes

A Sidereal Yearis the time taken by the earth to complete an orbit of the Sun measured against a distant
star. Its length is 365 days 6 hours
A Tropical Year(an apparent solar year) is the length of one cycle of the seasons. Its length is 365 days, 5
hrs and 48.7 minutes.
A Calendar Yearis normally 365 days. It is kept in step with a tropical year by adding a day every 4 th year,
a ‘leap year’. A fine adjustment is made on the occasions every 400year
TROPICAL YEAR IS SHORTER THAN SIDERIAL DAY BY ABOUT 20 MINUTE
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CIVIL YEAR HAS EXACT NUMBER OF DAYS AND IS BASED ON TROPICAL YEAR

Hour Angle

 The declination of celestial body (In our case, the Sun) was shown to be similar (analogous) to
latitude. In the same way, Hour angle can be shown to be analogous to longitude.
 The earth spins in the easterly direction, 360° in every 24 hours.
 The Hour Angle of a celestial body is defined as the arc of the Equator (equinoctial) intercepted
between the meridian of a datum and the meridian of the body, measured westwards from 0° to
360°
 When the celestial body transits a given meridian, its Hour Angle is 000°. When the body transits
the anti-meridian, its Hour Angle is 180°.
 If the given meridian is Greenwich, the Hour Angle is known as Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
which is directl analogous to longitude. A body with GHA of 050° will be transiting the 0500W
meridian. A body with GHA of 180°will be transiting the 1800W meridian.

TWILIGHT

 Before sunrise, there is a period when it becomes light, and after sunset there is a period when
it becomes light. These periods are generally called “TWILIGHT”.
 ‘VISUAL’ horizon is below the ‘SENSIBLE’ horizon.
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TWILIGHT

CIVIL

 Sun 6° or less below sensible Horizon (duration 21 mts near Equator)

NAUTICAL

 Sun 6° - 12 ° below Horizon

ASTRONOMICAL

 Sun 12° - 18° below Horizon

FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

 In the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is labelled the ‘Plane of the
Elliptic’.
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 The plane of the equator of te equator is called the ‘Plane of the Equinoctial’.
(equal day/night)
 The plane of the elliptic and the Plane of the Equator are inclined to each other at
an angleof 23.5°
 The angle that the Sun is above or below the equator determines the season and
affects the length of daylight/ night.
 The angle is known as DECLINATION. Declination is analogous in the sky to
latitude on the Earth.
 The Sun’s declination changes annually between 23.5°N (Sun overhead the tropic
of Cancer) through 0° (Sun overhead the Equator) to 23.5°S (Sun overhead the
Tropic of Capricorn) and then back through 0° to 23.5°N.
 DGCA SUN CROSSES EQUATOR TWICE IN A YEAR…
TIME
GMT (UTC) (ZULU TIME)
Local mean time at Greenwich Meridian is GMT
 UTC and GMT is same for all practical purposes
 When flying GMT is maintained
 It remains same all over the world at a particular time
 Long East – GMT Least, Long West – GMT Best

LOCAL MEAN TIME

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 All places on same meridian will have same LMT

 LMT changes with change of meridian
 LMT uses local meridian of longitudes as its reference point
 Further east to the place is further ahead is LMT
 LMT is te time kept using the observer’s local anti-meridian and the mean
sun
 Local day commences when the sun is on anti-meridian

ARC OF LONGITUDE TIME

360° 24 Hours

15° 1 Hour

1° 4 minutes

15’ minutes 1 Minute

1’ 4 Seconds
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LONGITUDE LMT UTC LONGITUDE LMT

75 00’W 030150 30 00’ E

62 15’ E 172315 146 30’ E

147 23’ W 230046 168 56’ W

84 37’ W 282216 12 52’ W

159 19’ W 280902 110 53’ W

111 31’ W 060446 158 17’ E

163 19’ W 280902 178 43’ E

STANDARD TIME

 Every Longitude will have a different LMT

 Not practical to maintain different timing at different Longitudes in a country
 Each country maintains same time irrespective of change of longitudes and is called
Standard Time
 India maintains LMT at 82 30’ E as standard time and is termed INDIAN STANDARD TIME
(IST)

IST = GMT + 5 Hours 30 Minutes

ZONE TIME (ZT)

 Globe is divided in to 24 zones each 15 of longitude
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 East is Minus and West in Plus

 Central meridian of each zone is 15 or a multiple of 15 removed from
Greenwich Meridian
 Zone time in each zone is LMT of central meridian so in any zone ZT and LMT
can not differ by more than 30 Minutes
 Zone Number is the correction in hours to be applied to ZT to give LMT

Zone Number + Zone Time = GMT

TRAVELLING ON EASTERLY
ZONE TIME 100600 150900
TRACK
LONG 78° W 115° E WEST
153° W TO EAST 52° E

GMT 250800 060630

IST

LMT

TRAVELLING ON WESTERLY
TRACK
EAST TO WEST
LOOSE A DAY GAIN A DAY
DATE [Link] BY 1 DAY DATE IS LESS. DECREASES BY 1 DAY
LMT IS LESS. DECREASES LMT IS MORE. INCREASES
 92

TIME THEORY

1. When does perihelilon occur?

a) Early January
b) Mid March
c) Early July
d) September 21
2. When does aphelion occur?
a) Early January
b) Mid March
c) Early July
d) September 21
3. Viewed from the North Celestial Pole (above the North Pole), the Earth orbits the Sun
a) Clockwise in a circular orbit
b) Anti-clockwise in a circular orbit
c) Clockwise in an elliptical orbit
d) Anti-clockwise in an elliptical orbit
4. When do “equinoxes” occur?
a) December and june
b) February and November
c) March and September
d) January and July
5. When it is the Winter Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, the Declination of the Sun is
a) 0° N/S
b) 23 ½ ° N
c) 66 ½ °N
d) 23 ½ °S

6. In the situation given above in question 5, the Sun will be overhead?

a) The Arctic Circle
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b) The Tropic of Capricorn

c) The Equator
d) The tropic of Cancer

7. What is the angle between the Equinoctial and the Ecliptic?

a) 66 ½ °
b) 23 ½ °
c) Varies between 23 ½ N and 23 ½ S
d) Varies between 66 ½ N and 66 ½ S

8. The Declination of celestial body (the Sun) measured on the celestial Sphere is
analogous (equivalent) to on the Earth?
a) Latitude
b) Longitude
c) Altitude from the body measured from the sensible horizon
d) Co-latitude
9. “The length of daylight/ night depends upon the declination of the Sun and the latitude
of the observer”. When is the rate of change of the length of daylight greatest?
a) February/November
b) January/ July
c) At the equinoxes
d) At the solstices
10. A sidereal day is?
a) Longer than an apparent solar day
b) Longer than a real solar day
c) Shorter than an apparent solar day
d) Equal to a real solar day
11. The maximum difference between mean noon (1200LMT) and real/apparent noon
occurs in----?
a) January/ July
b) March/September
c) November/February
d) December/June
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12. The maximum difference between Mean time and Apparent Time is:
a) 21 minutes
b) 16 minutes
c) 30 minutes
d) There is no differences
13. What is the length of a Sidereal year?
a) 365 days
b) 366 days
c) 365 days 6 hrs
d) 365 days 5 hrs 48.75 minutes
14. “The Calendar Year and the Tropical Year are of different lengths The difference is
adjusted partly by using leap years every fourth calendar year. However, some years are
not designated as leap years”. Which of the following years will be a leap year?
a) 2001
b) 2100
c) 2300
d) 2400
15. The Hour Angle (Greenwich Hour Angle) of a celestial body is analogous/equivalent on
the Earth to?
a) Latitude
b) Longitude
c) Co-latitude
d) UTC
16. A star has a Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) of 220°. Which meridian is the star transiting
(crossing)?
a) 040W
b) 040E
c) 140W
d) 140E
17. Without using Air Almanac, convert 153°30’ of arc of longitude into time
a) 10 hrs 24 mins
b) 10 hrs 22 mins
c) 10 hrs 14 mins
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d) 10 hrs 08 mins
18. The definition of Local Mean Time (LMT) is:
a) Time based upon the average movement of the Earth around the Sun.
b) When the Mean Sun is transiting (crossing) your meridian, it is 1200 hrs LMT.
c) When the Mean Sun is transiting (crossing) your anti- meridian, it is 0000 hrs LMT
(2400 hrs LMT, previous day)
d) All of the above
19. Local Mean Time (LMT) always changes by day when Crossing ______ ?
a) The Greenwich meridian
b) 1800E/W
c) The International date Line
d) The Equator
20. Zone Time (ZT) is used?
a) By aircraft on trans-oceanic routes
b) As legal time in all countries
c) By ships at sea
d) In polar regions
21. What is the Zone Number for longitude 127°30’W
a) +8
b) +9
c) -8
d) -9
22. A ship at longitude 83°E observes sunrise at a Zone Time of 0500 ZT on Zone Date 15
May. What is the UTC?
a) 2300 UTC 14 May
b) 1100 UTC 15 May
c) 2328 UTC 14 May
d) 1032 UTC 15 May
23. On mid-summer day in the Southern Hemisphere, the sun will be overhead
a) 66 ½ S
b) 23 ½ N
c) 23 ½ S
d) The Equator
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24. On mid-winter day in the northern Hemisphere, the sun will be overhead
a) 66 ½ S
b) 23 ½ N
c) 23 ½ S
d) The Equator
25. Nautical twilight and Astronomical Twilight are the twilight periods that follows Civil
Twilight. Nautical Twilight occurs when the sun is between and below the Sensible
Horizon?
a) 0°/6°
b) 6°/12°
c) 12°/18°
d) 18°/24°
26. Between 60°N and 60°S, the minimum duration of Civil Twilight is?
a) 21 minutes
b) 16 minutes
c) 14 minutes
d) 30 minutes

27. Sunrise/Sunset Twilight Tables in the Air Almanac are listed for a sea level situation. An
aircraft flying at FL350 would experience sunrise? , Sunset? And the length of twilight
would?
a) Later earlier be longer
b) Earlier later not change
c) Later earlier not change
d) Earlier later be shorter

28. At 3000N 4630°E the time is 0300LMT. What is the time at 6000°N 1615°W in:
a) UTC?
b) LMT?

ANSWERS:

1. A
2. C
3. D
4. C
5. B
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6. D
7. B
8. A
9. C
10. C
11. C
12. B
13. C
14. D
15. B
16. D
17. C
18. D
19. B
20. C
21. B
22. A
23. C
24. C
25. B
26. A
27. D
28. 2354 UTC previous day
2249 LMT previous day

FLIGHT PLANING
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FLIGHT PLANNING
1. Distance A to B = 600nms, climb 30 mins @160k GS, cruise GS = 250 k
descent 20 minutes@180 kts GS, filght time is equal to
a) 2:21
b) 2:25
c) 2:30
d) 2:41

2. During climb from 1000 feet PA to 900 feet PA, 50 air nms are covered in
20 mins, 090 [T] W/V 270/30, calculate ROC and distance covered

3. Given Climb = fuel 1500kg, distance =130nms

Descent =fuel 500 kgs, distance = 120 nms
TOW = 55 tons landing weight = 49 tons
 99

Calculate mid cruise weight.

4. An a/c climbs under following conditions

Set course at = 4000 feet PA level out at =16000 feet PA
ROC = 500 fpm CAS =130 K
Temp at set course PA = ISA + 15 and at 16000 feet ISA-5
Find time and distance climb under nil wind

5. An a/c descends to the airport under following conditions

Cruising altitude 6500 ft airport elevation 700 ft
Descent to 800 ft agl ROD 500 fpm
Average TAS 110 kts track 335
Average W/V 060/15 VAR/DEV 3W/+1
Average fuel Consumption 8.5 gph
Calculate time, Co[c] distance and fuel consumed during descent
a) 12 min, 348, 7nms, 1.8gals
b) 10 min, 345, 18nms, 1.4 gals
c) 10 min, 346, 16 nms, 1.4 gals

6. Given
Trip fuel = 9000lbs tolerance =10% of trip fuel
Alternate fuel = 3000 lbs holding ½ hr = @2000 lbs/hr
Taxi/circuit/ldg = 800 lbs
Calculate total fuel required in imp. Gals [sg = 0.72]

7. Given
Total fuel =12000 lbs reserve =25% of Flight fuel
Avg fuel consp. = 15000 lbs/hr TAS = 180 k
Safe distance to fly under nil wind is

8. Distance to go 68 nms PA /temp 7000 ft/+10C

Track 175[T] W/V 295/25,___ kts
 100

9. Track 220 [T] W/V=220/30 TAS=250 K,FUEL FLOW =8200 KG/HR. FIND
GROSS FUEL FLOW/NM
a) 37.27 kg
b) 32.7 kg
c) 290.4 kg
d) 327 kg

10. Convert 1000 lts of fuel [sg= 0.8]

IMP GALS USG WT IN KGS
a) 264 220 800
b) 220 264 800
c) 125 150 8000

11. Climb time =40 mins with fuel flow = 3000 lbs/hr, cruise 130 mins with
fuel flow = 2000 lbs/hr, descent 30 mins fuel flow =1000 lbs/ hr. Trip
fuel=
a) 7500 lbs
b) 4833 lbs
c) 4583 lbs
d) 6833 lbs
12. Descend from FL 150 to PA 1000 feet at CAS 180 k hwc 20 k, temp at mid
latitude = ISA +20. ROD = 500 fpm. Descent distance = _____ nms
____mins
a) 88/20
b) 75/28
c) 88/28

Answers

1. D
2. 6 NM,400FPM
3. 51.5 T
4. 24 MIN, 61 NM
5. B
 101

6. 2042
7. 1152
8. D
9. A
10. B
11. D
12. C
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 104

FUEL PLANNING

PISTON PROP AIRCRAFT TUROJET AIRCRAFT (TURBINE

ENNGINE)

WHEN ALTN AERODROME IS REQUIRED WHEN ALTN AERODROME IS REQUIRED

IFR FLIGHT IFR FLIGHT

 FUEL TO DSTN + FUEL TO ALTN + 45 FUEL TO DSTN +FUEL TO ALTN + 30 MIN

MIN OF HOLDING FUEL OF HOLDIN FUEL OVER ALTERNATE
AERODROME @ 1500 FT AGL + 5% OF
TRIP AS CONTINGENCY FUEL

WHEN ALTN IS NOT REQUIRED (VFR WHEN ALTN IS NOT REQUIRED (VFR
FLIGHT) FLIGHT)

FUEL TO DSTN + 45 MIN OF HOLDING FUEL TO DSTN + 30 MIN OF HOLDING

FUEL FUEL @ 1500 FT AGL

WHEN ALTN IS NOT AAILABLE (ISOLATED WHEN ALTN IS NOT AAILABLE (ISOLATED
AERODROME) AERODROME)

FUEL TO DSTN + 45 MIN OF FUEL AND 15 FUEL TO DSTN + 2 HOURS OF FUEL AT

% OF TRIP FUEL NORMAL CONSUMPTION

OR

2 HOURS OF FUEL AT NORMAL

CONSUMPTION

(WHICH EVER IS LESS)