“Political science begins and ends with state itself”
Modern concept of state has evolved from treaty of Westphalia, 1648
The term nation comes from the Latin word NASCI which means race
The concept of nation came in French revolution, so it’s a concept of
modern Times
In a particular geography a particular way of life or culture evolves.
The strongest medium to express culture is language. Thus ethnicity,
language, culture, religion becomes the basis of recognition of oneness
or nation.
The above idea of nation is European in origin. It is based on the idea
of unity in uniformity. This theory of nationalism is the theory of
cultural nationalism.
In the Indian context, the idea of nation propounded by Jinnah and
Savarkar were based on western or European idea. In modern times
nation was made the unit of state, ie, if people can establish
themselves as a nation they become eligible for the recognition as a
state. The leaders of Indian National Congress were not of cultural
nationalism but rather it was the idea of political nationalism, ie, the
idea of unity in diversity. This idea is based on Indian civilization values
of pluralism and tolerance
In non-Western world, most of the states are facing the crisis of
nation building as modern states are product of colonialism and
imperialism
Supranationalism means existence of authority that is higher than that
of nation states and capable of imposing the will on member states.
Supranationalism thus transfers sovereignty and decision-making
authority from constituent body to an international or regional
organization.
Global poltics =International politics +global governance
International politics is interstate politics- States interacting with
each other independently
Global governance is a dynamic and complex process of interactive
decision making that involves formal and informal mechanism. Though
States or government remains the primary institution but the global
governance also involve supranational bodies, example UN
Left wing and right wing politics
LEFT WING RIGHT WING
Left-wing politics is more Right-wing politics are more conservative.
liberal in its approach and
outlook
Left-wing economics policies Its economic policies involve low taxes, less
involve reducing income regulation on businesses by the
equality, increasing tax rates government
for the wealthy, and
government spending on
social programs and
infrastructure
Those belonging to the left- Right-wing ideologies believe that the best
spectrum of politics believe outcome for society is delivered when
that society will benefit individual rights and civil liberties are
from an expanded role for paramount with limited involvement of
the government the government
Left-wing politics is Right-wing politics is characterized by
characterized by an emphasis ideas of authority, hierarchy, tradition,
on equality, fraternity, and nationalism
progress, and reform
Left-wing nationalism is Right-wing nationalism is influenced by
based on social equality, Romantic Nationalism where the state
popular sovereignty, and derives its legitimacy from the culture it
national-determination. It governs, including, language, race, and
associates itself closely with custom “born” within this culture
national liberation
movements
Left-wing politics is Right-wing politics have always found
traditionally against religious supporters who believe that religion should
institutions and believe that play an expanded role in society.
state and religion must be
separate from each other
(Secularism)
What are the main reasons for weak national identities in India?
Historical and geographical isolation
Lop-sided development
Continuous neglect of a region
Insider-outsider complex that nurturers nativism and son-of-the-soil
ideology
Internal colonialism, i.e., despite being rich in natural resources some
regions remain economically underdeveloped.
The reasons being either ill-conceived top-down approach or survival
of one region at the cost of the other region. Chhota Nagpur plateau
is an example of this type of underdevelopment.
Political vested interests can accentuate and exploit regional
loyalties.
Reaction to an imposed ideology that can make its appearance as a
reaction against the perceived imposition of a particular ideology,
language or cultural pattern on all people and groups.
Linguistic aspirations that have remained a formidable basis of
regionalism.
Expression of ethnicity.
Difference between state and nations
STATE NATION
The State has four elements— Common territory, common race,
population, territory, common religion, common language,
government, and sovereignty. In common history, common culture
the absence of even and common political aspirations are the
one element, a State cannot elements which help the formation of a
be really a State. nation, and yet none of
these is an absolutely essential element
The State is a political Nation is a united unit of population
organization which fulfills the which is full of emotional, spiritual and
security and welfare needs of psychological bonds.
its people
It is essential for each State But for a nation territory is not an
to possess a fixed territory essential requirement
Sovereignty is an essential It is not essential for a nation to possess
element of the State sovereignty
The State is limited to a fixed Obviously its boundaries can easily extend
territory beyond the boundaries of the State
The State uses police power Nation is bound by
(force) for preserving its unity strong cultural and historical links
and integrity
State is less stable than nation Nation is more stable than State
Palestine is in observer status acquired it in 2012
India supported the resolution in United Nations.
India supports the statehood of Palestine
Types of states in global system
A territory having all the determinants of a state that is population,
sovereignty, territory, government, international recognition is known
as legal juridical state.
Even after being a legal juridicial State, if state do not have a strong
political institution where non state actors are more violent and more
powerful than the state or where state itself threatens its people are
known as Quasi States, example -Afghanistan, where Taliban is more
powerful than the state, Pakistan-military supremacy over civilian
prevails
Legal juridical States having strong political institution, no major
secessionist movement, smooth transfer of power, regular election or
where rule of law prevails and constitution is supreme is called a called
strong States, example India
Note- the probability of solving the Kashmir issue will increase if
Pakistan become strong empirical State, a vibrant responsible
democracy. At present Pakistan is a Quasi state, where there is a
multiple centers of power
Origin or emergence of state
1. Divine theory
[Link] theory (Aristotle, Plato)\
[Link] contract theory -according to this theory State is outcome of
contract between humans. The main scholars who supported this
theory are Hobbs, John Locke and Roussea
Evolution of modern Europe
Ancient times
In ancient Greek, there were City States - Athens and Sparta
Greece was not a nation; it was a geographical entity with many cities
States.
People were the citizens of Athens or Sparta; they were not Greek
citizens. Greece was a agrarian society in which there was a system of
slavery
RELATED INFORMATION
Land -Capability found in natural resources of the state is known as land
Labour-Physical capability found in human resources is labour
Capital-Capability found in man-made resources is known as capital
There are three types of capitals- physical, financial and intellectual
capital
Machines are physical capital of a country.
Money is financial capital.
Capability found in ideas is intellectual capital
Three types of ideas- business, scientific and literary ideas.
Ownership right of a business idea is trademark.
Ownership right of scientific ideas is patent.
Ownership right of literary is called is copyright.
Together these three are known as intellectual property rights
Entrepreneurship -Ability to generate new idea is known as entrepreneur
who will optimally utilize that other three factors of production land,
labour and capital
Socialism suppress entrepreneurship in capitalism promotes
entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is the most dynamic factor of
production in economics sector
It led to the failure of socialism and success of capitalism
It was a patriarchal society.
They believe that inequality is natural. God has created two types of
people -master and slaves.
They were ethnocentric people as Greek used to call others barbarians.
In ancient Greece there was no Central authority, it was extremely
decentralized as the city was state itself.
Greek scholars made no difference between politics and ethics and their
world view was not compartmentalized, as the issue of best political
life was not separated from issue of best life in general. Difference
between ethics and politics was started by Machiavelli in modern Times.
Ancient Greek scholars were rationalist scholars and their belief was in
the philosophy of humanism -in humanism man is the major of all
things, man is the center of the universe
During mediaeval Times city-states came to an end and Europe became
a confederation known as Roman empire.
Since the Roman empire was too big, hierarchy of rulers or lords
emerged.
There were also struggle between churches and the rulers. Over the
time, the authority of the Empire become nominal and the churches
started dominating all age of life. Hence medieval age is also known as
age of religion or dark ages. The philosophy was overshadowed by
religion.
The economic system was feudalism.
Feudalism is a system based on birth. The term feudal lord represents
the owner of the land. In feudalism, there used to be two classes
-lords and serves. Whether a person is lord or serve depends on his
birth, rather than worth. The situation of serve is like a bonded
labour. They had to work in the field of particular feudal lord
Difference between totalitarian and authoritarian regimes
Difference between left and right ideology
Comparison between feudalism and capitalism
In feudalism, there is no freedom but in capitalism, there is a concept
of freedom
Feudalism is based on barter system, whereas capitalism is based on
money economy.
Feudalism means bonded labour, capitalism means waged labour
Feudalism is based on birth whereas capitalism is based on achievement
Modern Time
Started from the age of renaissance which led to the rebirth of
humanism and rationalism.
Industrial revolution started in Europe
For industrialization, work force was required to work in industries and
people were working as serves in the field
So capitalist started talking about liberty and freedom
They said that serve should revolt against the feudal lords as they can
work anywhere
Machiavelli was the scholar of emerging capitalist class
Capitalist felt the need of supreme authority and capitalist started to
join hands with the monarchy that led to centralization of authority.
Since capitalism is not based on birth, in capitalism the relationship
between capitalist and the worker has to be based on contract and
there was in need of some authority, whose law can be considered as
supreme and which can be given power to enforce the contract as
during mediaeval times there was multiple centers of authority
Hence capitalist who had the economic power supported the king who
had the political power. Together they laid the foundation of modern
state
Modern state has been constituted on the line of nation. People
belonging to one nation were treated as one political unit for
administrative convenience
Since the rise of capitalism, the history of the east and the west
interlinked.
For many Marxist scholars, globalization is a kind of neo imperialism.
The colonial masters divided the territories not on the basis of nation
or ethnicity but on the basis of administrative convenience. Hence
difference ethnic communities are either combined in one state or some
ethnic communities are divided in different states. Hence secessionist,
ethnic or sub national movements are regular feature in these state
Positives and negatives of globalization
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the
people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process
driven by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology
Change in Political role
Globalization has changed the role of the state politically because of
strengthened interstate relationships and dependence on one another.
States were created to be sovereign but now, due to globalization,
often give their sovereignty away to ‘pooling’ in conventions,
contracting, coercion and imposition. This has led to increasingly
similar jurisdictions across states and to power being seen as an
economic rather than political progress because states now make
political progression and regression together, causing states to
become more developmental.
Change in Economic role
Globalized economic changes have a substantial effect on the state’s
role. The global economy has been created by online banking, stock
markets and, largely, global franchises. The state no longer controls
currency because of intangible assets and importation as well as
online and electronic banking and a shared currency between many
states, like in much of Europe.
International organizations like WTO have a dominant role in
influencing countries to adopt certain market initiatives.
Social dimension
Social globalization has created greater social awareness of human
rights violations, child labour abuses and corruption. These challenges,
in turn, affect public administration and the role of government.
The major change in the configuration of the public-private spheres
in favor of globalizing the corporate sector has changed the leading
role of government
in the allocation of resources, the distribution of wealth, the
stabilization of the economy and economic growth.
Advantages
By economic integration, it helps the government of developing
countries to deal with major problems by increasing their economic
growth, solving the poverty problems etc.
The model of state and its functioning also evolves as a result of
the free flow of political ideas.
The government takes policy initiatives in the field of health,
education and technology which are the direct result of globalization.
Recent verdicts on the rights of the LGBTQ community in India are
the perfect example of the changing role of the state in providing
rights to its citizens.
Disadvantages
Matters related to India's subsidy regime at WTO shows too much
interference by the dominant powers at the world stage.
Globalization facilitates the spread of new diseases in developing
nations by travelers between countries, and states in developing
countries have to rely on developed countries due to lack of
capabilities of tackling these problems.
Decrease in skilled labor in the developing countries because of easy
mobility of skilled manpower to other countries having higher
opportunities.
Globalization has led to economic inequality in developing countries.
Nature of Political Science
What is a political theory?
Theory means explanation of a phenomenon. And political theory means
explanation of political phenomenon, example –BREXIT, rise of ultra-
nationalism
Theories are of two types- philosophical or normative theories and
empirical or scientific theories
Scientific theories are limited in number. The feature of scientific
theories are - observation of fact, collection of data, experimentation,
use of mathematical analysis. Scientific theory focus on what is rather
than what ought to be. The. scientific theories are value free approach
The philosophical or normative theory focuses on what ought to be. In
philosophical theories we study the idea. Philosophy is the study of
Idea
Happiness = hope – present condition
Philosophical methods are most suitable for the subject of political
science as in this subject we are dealing with more normative aspects
Nature of political science
Political science is one of the oldest discipline. Over the years there has
been revision, expansion or at times its boundaries have also been
narrowed down
We trace the origin of political science in ancient Greece.
It started as a part of political philosophy (study of political ideas)
The purpose was how to give the best possible life to the people.
During Greek time, the issue of best political life was not separated
from the best life itself
During medieval ages religion came to acquire the dominant space in all
spheres of human life and even the study of politics was subordinated
to the [Link] the political works were produced by religious
scholars
During modern times, especially with the works of Machiavelli, political
science as a discipline got its autonomy from religion. The sphere of
politics was separated from that of ethics and religion
Political science becomes the history of the state. Scholars like Garner
defined political science is the study of state and the government.
Garner said political science begins and ends with state itself
Scholars in political philosophy can be categorized into two schools of
thought – idealist and materialist.
Idealist- idea is real for them, what we see is not real
Materialist- those who believe that matter is real
For materialist, the world in which we live is a real world, material
pleasure are real pleasure. Marx, Hobbs, Machiavelli are materialist
For idealist, the world is filled with illusion; the real world is the
world of thought. Real happiness lies in thought. Real happiness is
not accumulated through material but real happiness lies to the
satisfaction of the soul
Materialist are seen as realist
In terms of power-
Idealist Realist
Means are more important than Goals are more important than
goals means
Means and ends should be Only concerned with the ends
compatible
Ex - Gandhi Ex – Subash Chandra Bose
Ethics are not separated from Politics is only pursue of power
politics
Socrates
He was considered as the wisest man as he accepted that ‘he knew
nothing’ .He is considered as the father of ethics. Ethics is the branch
of philosophy that talks about the art of living, that is how we ought
to live
The myth does prevails that Socrates was not a real person. He was
just an imagination of Plato. Plato was just giving his own ideas by
creating an imaginary person
Before Socrates, there were scholars who were trying to understand
the physical properties of the universe and composition of life
Socrates believed that it is not enough to know what constitutes a
life. It is more important to know the purpose of life on what
constitutes a good life or virtuous life
According to Socrates, the purpose of life is happiness. it is a source
of satisfaction. To gain happiness one needs excellence. Thus he defined
excellence as virtue. It means the purpose of life is to have virtuous
life. In order to live a virtuous life, we should have the knowledge of
that
According to Socrates, the source of knowledge lives within ourselves.
Our soul is the ultimate guider. The soul can resolve the dilemmas and
to listen to the voice of the soul, he has proposed the method of the
DIALECTICS.
Socrates is known as the father of dialectics. Dialectics can be called
as logical reasoning. The term dialectics denotes dialogue, means
debates. Dialectics is a process through which our belief gets
transferred into true knowledge.
Socrates has categorized knowledge into two types of -opinion or
believes and knowledge
Type 1 -opinion or beliefs
According to Socrates, it give the illusion of knowledge. This
knowledge is shakable. In the words of Socrates, we should
not use the term knowledge for this type of knowledge,
rather it is just belief
Type 2 -true knowledge/ conceptual knowledge
This knowledge is unshakable. It is a product of dialectics.
Hence dialectics is a process through which our opinion get
filtered and we are able to get true knowledge. So it is
uniform and universal
The biggest contribution of Socrates is his theory of knowledge in
which he established that knowledge of idea superior to the knowledge
of matter
And according to him it is not enough to know what is life rather it
is more important to know what good life is. That is why he is
considered father of philosophy
“Knowledge is virtue”
This is statement is from Socrates theory of knowledge. He is known
as the father of philosophy and Plato considered him the wisest man.
This statement comes in the context of Socrates explanation of good
life. According to Socrates, it is not enough to live a life, it is more
important to live a good life. Good life means a happy and satisfied life
In order to live a good and satisfied Life, one should have knowledge of
good life and he believed that knowledge is virtue. Knowledge is a
source of excellence and excellence is a source of happiness
He gives the example of shoemaker who gains happiness when he makes
good shoe. Just like making a good shoe, we should gain excellence in
the art of making shoe. Similarly, we should know art of living, hence
he believed that knowledge is virtue and unexamined life is not worth
living
There was a huge influence of Socrates on Plato
Plato’s theory of idea is based on Socrates theory of knowledge.
Plato’s justification of the rule of philosopher king is also based on
Socrates view that knowledge is virtue.
If Athens had to become a virtuous state, it has to be ruled by
knowledge. Plato strongly believed that until philosophers are the rulers
or rulers learned philosophy, there is no end to the predicament of
human life.
Note - This idea is relevant in the Indian context where many
outdated and inhuman custom and traditions are still prevalent
among certain sections of the society. When we critically examine
such institution, only then we will be able to reject illogical and
inhuman practices and able to move towards social progress.
“Unexamined life is not worth living”
This statement is also from Socrates theory of knowledge
Scholars before Socrates were trying to understand what constitutes
life. But Socrates held that it is more important to understand what
constitutes good life
According to Socrates, precondition for good life is the knowledge
about good life. Person should look for true knowledge, which is
different from opinion and beliefs. He proposed dialectics or logical
reasoning as a method to gain knowledge of good life. Hence he
suggested that unexamined life is not worth living
Not only Socrates but many Indian philosophers like Swami
Vivekananda, Gandhi, Aurobindo Ghosh also emphasized for the need of
mental revolution. Hence Socrates truly deserved to be known as the
father of philosophy because he was the first person to emphasize on
the need for good life
Who were Sophists?
The terms of Sophism come from the words SOPHIA denoting
knowledge
Sophists were also teachers considered as first teachers on politics,
considered as the first political educationist
They were teaching how to acquire power
They believed that matter has primacy over ideas
They believed that the source of good life is money and power
Sophist believed that the coming to politics one must gain master over
rhetoric.
Sophists believed that individual has priority over society, that is part
is more important than the whole
Belief of Socrates tradition
Socrates believed that sophists are misleading the youth
Socrates held that when we consider our self-interests have a primacy
over the interests of the society, it is because of our ignorance
Socrates was ordered to drink hemlock, that is poison, against the
charges that he was misleading the youth and his teaching was
dangerous for the state.
As per tradition, he had an opportunity to escape. However, he
preferred to drink poison rather than escaping
It denotes that he wants to show that life carries no meaning, if you
cannot live according to the ideas we subscribe to.
He wanted to give the message that it is the duty of all citizens to
obey the orders of the states even when it appears against our
interest
From Socrates point of view, it appears against our interest because
we are ignorant
Socrates believed that money and power is not the source of good life
rather honesty and knowledge is the source of good life
Socrates criticized rhetoric and proposed dialectics
He believes man is social by nature- which is more important than
part. so society is natural. He believed in organic theory.
