Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94

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Brain and Cognition

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Default mode network activation and Transcendental Meditation

practice: Focused Attention or Automatic Self-transcending?
Frederick Travis PhD ⇑, Niyazi Parim MA
Center for the Brain, Consciousness, and Cognition, Maharishi University of Management, 1000 North 4th Street, Fairfield, IA 52557, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study used subjective reports and eLORETA analysis to assess to what extent Transcendental
Received 11 June 2016 Meditation (TM) might involve focused attention—voluntary control of mental content. Eighty-seven
Revised 26 August 2016 TM subjects with one month to five years TM experience participated in this study.
Accepted 31 August 2016
Regression analysis of years TM practice and self-reported transcendental experiences (lack of time,
space and body sense) during meditation practice was flat (r = .07). Those practicing Transcendental
Meditation for 1 month reported as much transcending as those with 5 years of practice.
Keywords:
The eLORETA comparison of eyes-closed rest/task and TM practice/task identified similar areas of
DMN
Transcendental Meditation
activation: theta and alpha activation during rest and TM in the posterior cingulate and precuneus, part
eLORETA of the default mode network, and beta2 and beta3 activation during the task in anterior cingulate, ventral
Frontal lateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices, part of the central executive network. In addition, eLORETA
Theta comparison of rest and TM identified higher beta temporal activation during rest and higher theta orbi-
Automatic Self-Transcending tofrontal activation during TM.
Focused Attention Thus, it does not seem accurate to include TM practice with meditations in the catgory of Focused
Attention, which are characterized by gamma EEG and DMN deactivation. Mixing meditations with
different procedures into a single study confounds exploration of meditation effects and confounds appli-
cation of meditation practices to different subject populations.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction closed rest, to simple eyes-open, and to eyes-open simple fixation

(Raichle et al., 2001; Yan et al., 2009).
The brain exhibits a large-scale intrinsic network, which is more The default mode network comprises sub-systems that interact
active during periods of rest and is deactivated during cognitively and contribute to cognitive functioning. Medial temporal areas add
demanding tasks (Golland et al., 2007). This network, called a details from past experiences. Ventral-medial prefrontal areas use
default mode network (DMN), includes ventral medial prefrontal past details to construct the ongoing self-relevant narrative. Out-
cortices, the medial temporal lobe, the precuneus, and the poste- put from both of these areas are integrated in the precuneus and
rior cingulate gyrus (Greicius, Krasnow, Reiss, & Menon, 2003; posterior cingulate cortex (Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, & Schacter,
Raichle et al., 2001). 2008).
DMN activation is lower during goal-directed behaviors requir- DMN activation patterns could give insight into the mental pro-
ing executive control (Gusnard, Raichle, & Raichle, 2001; Raichle & cedures during different meditation practices. To date, research
Snyder, 2007), and higher during self-referential mental activity reports that most meditation practices—Mindfulness meditation,
(Gusnard et al., 2001; Kelley et al., 2002; Vogeley et al., 2001), focused attention, Loving-Kindness, and Choiceless Awareness—
higher during tasks involving self-projection (Buckner & Carroll, lead to deactivation of the anterior (medial prefrontal) and
2007), and higher when attending to stories containing 1st person posterior (posterior cingulate cortices) subsystems of the DMN in
pronouns (Decety, Chaminade, Grezes, & Meltzoff, 2002; Kjaer, experienced meditators (Brewer et al., 2011; Simon & Engstrom,
Nowak, & Lou, 2002). DMN activation systematically varies with 2015). Deactivation of the DMN is consistent with the understand-
level of cognitive load—systematically decreasing from eyes- ing that these meditation procedures involve goal-oriented atten-
tional control.
⇑ Corresponding author at: 1000 North 4th Street, MR 683, Fairfield, IA 52557,
In contrast, DMN activity is reported to remain high during
United States. practice of the Transcendental MeditationÒ (TMÒ) technique,
E-mail address: ftravis@[Link] (F. Travis). compared to eyes-closed rest (Travis et al., 2010). Also, unique to

[Link]
0278-2626/Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
 F. Travis, N. Parim / Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94 87

Transcendental Meditation practice are the findings that frontal attention, then we hypothesize that (1) the subjective ratings of
alpha coherence and power are reported to be higher, and beta transcendence during TM practice should increase as the person
and gamma power are reported to be lower during TM compared masters the practice over time—with practice controlled cognitive
to rest (Travis & Wallace, 1999; Travis et al., 2010). Based on anal- processes can be transformed to an automatic process, (2) greater
ysis of the EEG research literature, Transcendental Meditation has cortical deactivation of the default mode network during Transcen-
been placed by some authors in the category of Automatic Self- dental Meditation, as compared to eyes-closed rest, and (3) little or
Transcending (Travis & Shear, 2010). Other authors have placed no differences in cortical activation in the task/TM comparison.
this technique into the category of Focused Attention (Raffone &
Srinivasan, 2010). This paper was designed to clarify this issue. 2. Materials and method
Superficially, Transcendental Meditation can be described as
‘‘thinking” a mantra—a meaningless sound—and going back to it 2.1. Subjects
when the mantra is forgotten. This process could be understood
as focused attention. However, Transcendental Meditation practice At Maharishi University of Management, students have been
is not a technique of keeping the mantra clearly in awareness. encouraged to have their EEG recorded as freshman and as seniors.
Rather, one learns how to use the mantra as a vehicle for tran- This research initiative was started in 2010. Presentations are
scending. The sound of the mantra is such that the attention easily made during orientation meetings to invite students to have their
entertains it, and one learns during TM how to appreciate the man- EEG recorded. Data from 87 individuals who participated in this
tra at ‘‘finer” levels in which the mantra becomes secondary in research and so were part of the database in the Center for Brain,
experience and ultimately disappears, while self-awareness Consciousness and Cognition in Fairfield, Iowa were used for this
becomes more primary (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1969;Travis & study. This included all subjects, who had both freshman and
Pearson, 2000). Thoughts other than the mantra can arise during senior recordings and had been practicing TM from one month to
TM practice. They are part of the process of exploring deep inner five years. Their mean age was 30.3 ± 9.4 years, and their mean
silence. During TM practice, thoughts are not actively suppressed, years Transcendental Meditation practice was 1.3 ± 0.9 years.
and losing track of the mantra is not seen as a failure. TM does There were 42 females and 45 males. The research was compliant
not involve contemplation, focused attention, or monitoring ongo- with the Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association and the
ing experience. Rather, TM practice is the process of transcending, study was approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board.
coming out onto thought, and transcending again using the ‘‘natu- All subjects signed consent forms before beginning the study.
ral tendency of the mind” (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1969; Travis &
Pearson, 2000). (The concept of the natural tendency of the mind is
2.2. Procedure
discussed in detail in the discussion, Section 4.1.)
Subjects quickly master Transcendental Meditation practice.
A standard protocol is used to record EEG at the Brain Center.
While significant differences are reported in brain patterns during
Participants come in the late afternoon after their classes. After
meditation practice in novice and expert Buddhist meditators
completing consent and demographic forms, 32 active-sensors
(Brefczynski-Lewis, Lutz, Schaefer, Levinson, & Davidson, 2007),
are applied in the 10–10 system with a forehead ground, and left
no significant differences are reported between novice and expert
and right earlobe sensors for re-referencing offline. Resistance
TM subjects during the meditation session, as suggested by data
was <10 kX at each sensor. Subjects complete the Survey of Peak
from an one-year longitudinal study (Travis & Arenander, 2006),
Experiences to measure frequency of transcending while sensors
and from two cross-sectional studies: one comparing individuals
were applied.
with 4-months’ versus 8-years’ Transcendental Meditation practice
EEG was recorded with the BIOSEMI ActiveTwo System (www.
(Travis & Pearson, 2000), and the other comparing individuals with
[Link]) during (1) five minutes eyes-closed rest when they
7 years’ versus 32 years’ Transcendental Meditation practice
were told to ‘‘Close the eyes and sit easily, and not begin their TM
(Travis, Tecce, Arenander, & Wallace, 2002). While no differences
practice,” (2) a 4-min choice reaction-time task, and (3) a five-
are reported during the practice, novice/expert differences are
minute Transcendental Meditation session. All signals were digi-
reported during tasks after Transcendental Meditation practice.
tized on line at 256 points/s, with no high or low frequency filters,
Namely, the high levels of EEG alpha coherence seen during the
and stored for later analyses using eLORETA.
session begins to be integrated and displayed with waking EEG
There were natural breaks between each condition. The instruc-
after the meditation session (Travis & Arenander, 2006; Travis
tions and 10 practice trials for the choice reaction-time task gave a
et al., 2002).
natural 4–5 min break between eyes-closed rest and the reaction-
The current study explores whether and to what extent focused
time task. Between the reaction-time task and TM practice, the
attention may be part of Transcendental Meditation practice as
subject discussed their experiences during the task and any strate-
evidenced by subjective experience and brain patterns. This study
gies they used to perform at their best (3–4 min).
explores subjective ratings of the frequency of transcendence in
subjects with a range of Transcendental Meditation experience.
In this research, transcendence is described as a perfectly peaceful 2.2.1. Choice reaction-time tasks
state in which the mind is very awake, but still—a state in which The choice reaction-time task included 24 trials. Each trial
awareness seems expanded beyond the boundaries of thought, included a one or two-digit number (150 ms duration, 1 cm in
beyond the limits of time and space, without the sense of body height), a 1.5-s blank screen, and another one- or two-digit number
or environment. Also, this study explores brain patterns during (150 ms duration, 1 cm in height). Subjects were asked to press a
Transcendental Meditation practice and two comparison condi- left- or right-hand button to indicate which number was larger
tions, namely an eyes-open choice reaction-time task, which is in value, i.e. a 10 is larger than a 5.
reported to lead to default mode network deactivation, and eyes-
closed rest, which is reported to lead to default mode network acti- 2.2.2. Survey of peak experiences
vation. These data were analyzed with eLORETA to compare 3-D This survey consists of four items that assess frequency of expe-
cortical activation during these three conditions with special atten- riences of transcendence during eyes-closed rest, during waking
tion to frontal and posterior areas included in the default mode activity when engaged in tasks, during sleep, and a question on
network. If Transcendental Meditation practice involves focused luck. Subjects were asked to circle the frequency of each
88 F. Travis, N. Parim / Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94

tials in eight frequency bands: delta (1–4.5 Hz), theta (5–7.5 Hz),
alpha1 (8–10 Hz), alpha2 (10.5–12.5 Hz), beta1 (13–20 Hz), beta2
(20.5–30 Hz), beta3 (30.5–40 Hz), and gamma (40–50 Hz).

2.5. Statistical analyses

Regression analysis tested the strength and direction of rela-

tionship between years of Transcendental Meditation practice
(predictor variable) and self-reported transcendental experiences
during the practice (criterion variable).
The eLORETA software contains statistical routines to conduct
randomized statistical parameter mapping of 3-D areas of grey
matter activation (Pascual-Marqui, Esslen, Kochi, & Lehmann,
2002). Reported p-values were corrected for multiple comparisons.
Three comparisons were conducted: (1) eLORETA patterns dur-
ing eyes-closed rest versus the choice reaction-time task, (2) eLOR-
ETA patterns during Transcendental Meditation practice versus the
Fig. 1. Scatter plot of years TM practice (x-axis) and self-reported experiences of choice reaction-time task, and (3) eLORETA patterns during eyes-
transcendental consciousness during TM practice (y-axis). The regression line is
closed rest versus Transcendental Meditation practice. The eyes-
positive but very flat (r = 0.07). The frequency of ‘‘7” corresponds to ‘‘more than
once per week.” closed rest/choice task comparison is a standard protocol to iden-
tify areas involved in the default mode network (Gusnard et al.,
2001; Raichle & Snyder, 2007). This comparison defined eLORETA
experience on an 11-point Likert scale, from ‘‘0” (never to my cortical patterns in these subjects during a protocol known to
knowledge) to ‘‘11” (all of the time). Cranson et al. (1991) created result in DMN deactivation. These eLORETA patterns were the
this scale from the State of Consciousness scale (Alexander, 1982) benchmark to compare patterns during Transcendental Meditation
and the Daily Spiritual Experience scale (Underwood & Teresi, practice.
2001). Although, there is no published data on the reliability and
the validity of the Survey of Peak Experiences, frequency of tran- 3. Results
scendental experiences, as measured by this instrument, is corre-
lated with higher moral development and greater integration of 3.1. Regression analysis
brain functioning in top-performing athletes, managers and musi-
cians (Harung & Travis, 2012; Harung et al., 2011; Travis, Harung, & Regression analysis of self-reported experiences of transcen-
Lagrosen, 2011). dental experiences and years of Transcendental Meditation prac-
Responses on the first question of this survey were used for this tice was conducted with SPSS 13. This analysis did not reveal
study, since this question assesses frequency of transcendental significant relations between these two variables (F(1, 86) < 1.0,
experiences during meditation practice. This question reads: ns). Fig. 1 presents a scatter plot of the raw data. Years Transcen-
During meditation practice have you experienced a perfectly dental Meditation practice is on the x-axis and frequency of
peaceful state in which the mind is very awake, but still—a state transcendental experiences during the meditation session is on
in which awareness seems expanded beyond the boundaries of the y-axis. The regression line is positive but very flat (r = 0.07).
thought, beyond the limits of time and space? It crosses the y-axis at ‘‘7” which on the survey corresponds to
‘‘more than once per week.” For comparison, a ‘‘6” on this scale
2.3. Data selection means ‘‘once or more per month,” and an ‘‘8” means ‘‘once per
day.” Supporting these subjective reports, eLORETA comparison
The first 60-s artifact-free periods during eyes-closed rest, the of cortical activation patterns of individuals practicing TM for less
choice reaction-time task and Transcendental Meditation practice than one year (N = 47) and those practicing TM for more than one
were exported in ASCII format for eLORETA analysis. Research sug- year (N = 40) yielded no differences in cortical activation during
gests that physiological parameters in the first minute of Transcen- their TM practice.
dental Meditation practice are similar to those in the middle and
end of the session (Travis & Wallace, 1999). Thus, these 60-s 3.2. eLORETA analysis: Eyes-closed rest compared to the choice
epochs in the beginning of the TM session should be representative reaction-time task
of these subject’s EEG during Transcendental Meditation practice.
3.2.1. Eyes-closed rest > task
2.4. Data analysis: LORETA Higher cortical activation was seen in the theta and alpha bands
in the posterior subsystem of the default mode network during
LORETA was developed at the KEY Institute for Brain-Mind eyes-closed rest. Fig. 2 shows statistical parameter maps of higher
Research at the University of Zurich to calculate 3-D patterns of cortical activation during eyes-closed rest (white areas surrounded
activation in known grey matter areas (Pascual-Marqui, Michel, & by black) compared to the task in the posterior cingulate gyrus (BA
Lehmann, 1994). eLORETA or ‘‘exact LORETA” is the latest version 31) in the theta band, and in the posterior cingulate gyrus (BA 31),
of LORETA. While this software has low spatial resolution, as is precuneus (BA 7, 31), medial temporal cortex (BA 39) and inferior
characteristic of all EEG measurements, the eLORETA algorithms temporal cortex (BA 37) in the alpha1 and alpha2 bands. The differ-
are asserted to have zero localization error (Pascual-Marqui, ences were most wide-spread in the alpha bands.
2002). The current implementation of eLORETA uses a realistic
head model calculated by Fuchs (Fuchs, Kastner, Wagner, Hawes, 3.2.2. Task > eyes-closed rest
& Ebersole, 2002) and electrode coordinates provided by Jurcak Higher cortical activation was seen in the beta bands in the ven-
(Jurcak, Tsuzuki, & Dan, 2007). eLORETA was used to explore 3-D tral lateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices, which are part of
cortical distribution of sources of scalp-recorded electrical poten- the central executive network. Fig. 3 shows statistical parameter
 F. Travis, N. Parim / Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94 89

maps of higher cortical activation during the choice reaction time in the theta band and in the posterior cingulate gyrus (BA 31), pre-
task (black areas surrounded by white) in the beta2 and beta3 cuneus (BA 7, 31), medial temporal cortex (BA 39) and inferior
bands in anterior cingulate gyrus (BA 32), ventral lateral prefrontal temporal cortex (BA 37) in the alpha bands. The differences were
gyrus (BA 9), and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BA 11). again most wide-spread in the alpha bands.

3.3. eLORETA analysis: Transcendental Meditation compared to the

choice reaction-time task 3.3.2. Task > Transcendental Meditation
Again, the eLORETA activation patterns were very similar to the
3.3.1. Transcendental Meditation > task task/rest comparison. Fig. 5 shows higher cortical activation during
The cortical activation areas in this analysis were strikingly sim- the task (black areas surrounded by white) in the beta2 and beta3
ilar to those in the eyes-closed rest/task comparison. Fig. 4 shows bands in anterior cingulate gyrus (BA 32), ventral lateral prefrontal
higher cortical activation during Transcendental Meditation (white gyrus (BA 9), and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BA 11). These
areas surrounded by black) in the posterior cingulate gyrus (BA 31) are key areas in the central executive network.

Fig. 2. eLORETA statistical maps: Eyes-closed rest > task. Cortical activation during eyes closed rest (white areas surrounded by black) was higher in the posterior cingulate
gyrus in the theta band and in the posterior cingulate gyrus, precuneus, and the medial and inferior temporal cortex in the alpha bands. These are key areas in the default
mode network. The differences were most wide-spread in the alpha bands.
90 F. Travis, N. Parim / Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94

Fig. 3. eLORETA statistical maps: Task > Eyes-closed rest. Cortical activation during the task (black areas surrounded by white). Cortical activation during the task was higher
in the beta2 and beta3 bands in the anterior cingulate gyrus, ventral lateral prefrontal cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These are key areas in the central
executive network.

3.4. eLORETA analysis: Transcendental Meditation compared to eyes- ing Transcendental Meditation practice as reported in cross sec-
closed rest tional and longitudinal studies. The subjective reports in the
current study of similar frequencies of transcendental experiences
As presented in Fig. 6, cortical activation was higher in the theta in subjects with a range of ages (18–49 years) and range of TM
band during Transcendental Meditation (white area surrounded by practice (one month to 5 years) fit these brain findings.
black) in the orbitofrontal cortex (BA 25, 47), and was higher dur- If a meditation procedure involves cognitive control, then prac-
ing eyes-closed rest (black areas surrounded by white) in beta1 tice might be expected to meld those processes together leading to
band in the right inferior temporal cortices (BA 20, 21). greater automaticity in practice, and so deeper experiences over
time (Travis & Shear, 2010). The Transcendental Meditation prac-
tice was described earlier in this paper as not involving cognitive
4. Discussion
control—neither focusing the mind nor directing of attention.
Rather, Transcendental Meditation practice was described as using
Three results stand out in this analysis. First, subjective reports
the natural tendency of the mind to transcend (Maharishi Mahesh
of transcendence during Transcendental Meditation practice were
Yogi, 1963).
similar in frequency after one month TM practice as after five years
The natural tendency of the mind is more than mind wandering.
TM practice. Second, the eLORETA activation patterns during Tran-
Mind wandering has been investigated using iphone technology in
scendental Meditation practice compared to the task were strik-
2250 people. They were randomly texted throughout the day, and
ingly similar to activation patterns of eyes-closed rest compared
asked to answer a happiness-question, an activity-question and a
to the task. Third, eLORETA activation patterns also differentiated
mind wandering-question. Mind wandering with positive emo-
eyes-closed rest and TM practice.
tions was rated at the same level of positive emotional tone as
the average of all other tasks, and mind wandering with neutral
4.1. Why did the frequency of transcendental experiences not increase and negative emotions was rated progressively more negative. This
over time during Transcendental Meditation practice? led to the conclusion that a ‘‘wandering mind is an unhappy mind”
((Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010), pg 932). However, follow up
A novice/expert dichotomy is reported in many meditation tra- research reported that when the object of mind-wandering was
ditions including compassion meditation in the Tibetan Buddhist rated as being highly interesting, it was associated with greater pos-
tradition (Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007) and focused attention itive emotional tone than when the person was on-task (Franklin
and open monitoring meditations in the Theravada Buddhist tradi- et al., 2013). The movement of the mind to more interesting expe-
tion (Manna et al., 2011). As discussed earlier in this paper, riences is what is intended by the phrase the natural tendency of the
novice/expert differences were not seen in brain functioning dur- mind. The mind takes that direction due to the inherent pleasure in
 F. Travis, N. Parim / Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94 91

Fig. 4. eLORETA statistical maps: Transcendental Meditation > Task. Cortical activation during Transcendental (white areas surrounded by black) was higher in the posterior
cingulate gyrus in the theta band and in the posterior cingulate gyrus, pre-cuneus, and the medial and inferior temporal cortex in the alpha bands. The differences were most
wide-spread in the alpha bands. This pattern was very similar to the rest/task comparison.

the experience, rather than through cognitive control. Thus, medi- network—eyes-closed rest being an inward experience and the task
tation practices that provide an experience that is pleasurable to being a goal-oriented, externally directed experience leading to
the individual could be readily learned and mastered without DMN deactivation. Thus, the eLORETA patterns seen in the eyes-
extensive practice. closed rest/task comparison should provide a benchmark of DMN
deactivation in these subjects when they are involved in a goal-
4.2. Do eLORETA activation patterns accurately capture DMN oriented task. Also, there is frequency information in the eLORETA
activation levels? analysis. EEG/fMRI research reports that theta (Fomina, Hohmann,
Scholkop, & Grosse-Wentrup, 2015) and alpha spatial patterns
Research has not established a relation between default mode overlap with the default mode network (Jann et al., 2009;
network activity levels and eLORETA activation patterns. However, Mantini, Perrucci, Del Gratta, Romani, & Corbetta, 2007). Thus,
the eyes-closed rest/task comparison in this study is a standard theta and alpha eLORETA activation patterns could accurately
protocol used to elicit deactivation in the default mode reflect DMN activation levels.
92 F. Travis, N. Parim / Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94

Fig. 5. eLORETA statistical maps: Task > Transcendental Meditation. Cortical activation during the task (black areas surrounded by white) was higher in the beta2 and beta3
bands in anterior cingulate gyrus, ventral lateral prefrontal gyrus, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These are key areas in the central executive network.

4.3. Consideration of eLORETA patterns during the eyes-closed rest and 4.4. To what extent might Transcendental Meditation involve focused
Transcendental Meditation comparison attention?

The comparisons of eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Medi- Focused attention is characterized by gamma EEG (Singer,
tation to the task condition yielded similar patterns of activation 1999). Transcendental Meditation practice is characterized by
and deactivation. However, there were also differences in eLORETA alpha1 EEG (Travis et al., 2010). Focused attention—any goal-
patterns during eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation directed activity—is characterized by DMN deactivation (Mantini
practice. During eyes-closed rest, right temporal activation was et al., 2007), and all other meditations have been characterized
higher in the beta1 band, and during Transcendental Meditation by DMN deactivation (Brewer et al., 2011). Transcendental Medita-
practice, activation in the orbitofrontal cortex was higher in the tion practice was characterized by high levels of DMN activation.
theta band. The eLORETA patterns seen in the eyes-closed rest/task compar-
Beta activity in right temporal areas is associated with memory ison—the benchmark of DMN activation in this study—were the
and motor aspects of speech production (Piai, Roelofs, Rommers, & same patterns seen in the Transcendental Meditation/task compar-
Maris, 2015). The observed higher beta activation during eyes ison. These findings support the claim that TM practice does not
closed rest could suggest that internal speech was more prevalent involve focused attention.
during eyes-closed rest compared to TM practice, which could also
be phrased as internal mental dialog was reduced during TM.
Theta activation in orbitofrontal cortices is reported in tasks 5. Conclusion
requiring impulse control, such as in go/nogo tasks (Aron,
Robbins, & Poldrack, 2004), reward anticipation (Yan et al., 2015), The analyses of eLORETA brain activation and the regression of
and risk aversion—turning away from negative consequences subjective experience and years Transcendental Meditation prac-
(Christopoulos, Tobler, Bossaerts, Dolan, & Schultz, 2009). Orbito- tice strongly suggest that the TM technique involves minimal, if
frontal theta activation, which appears to reflect movement of any, focused attention. Alpha DMN activation patterns during
attention away from negative and towards more positive experi- Transcendental Meditation were similar to those during eyes-
ences, could support the process of transcending—awareness mov- closed rest, and individuals with one month through five years
ing to increasingly more abstract, more charming, levels of inner TM practice reported similar frequencies of transcendental experi-
experience. High DMN activation strongly suggests that the pro- ences. Thus, it is not accurate to include Transcendental Meditation
cess of transcending is not conducted by cognitive control, but by practice with other meditations that involve focused attention or
an automatic process that does not require control—such as the open monitoring, since meditations in these categories are
natural tendency of the mind (see above). reported to lead to DMN deactivation (Brewer et al., 2011), and
 F. Travis, N. Parim / Brain and Cognition 111 (2017) 86–94 93

Fig. 6. eLORETA Analysis: Transcendental Meditation Compared to Eyes-closed Rest. Cortical activation was higher in theta band during Transcendental Meditation (white
area surrounded by black) in the orbitofrontal cortex, and was higher during eyes closed rest in beta1 band in the right inferior temporal cortices (black area surrounded by
white).

they are characterized by different EEG patterns than Transcenden- Decety, J., Chaminade, T., Grezes, J., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2002). A PET exploration of the
neural mechanisms involved in reciprocal imitation. Neuroimage, 15(1),
tal Meditation practice (Travis & Shear, 2010). Mixing meditations
265–272.
with different procedures and brain patterns into a single group Fomina, T., Hohmann, M., Scholkop, B., & Grosse-Wentrup, M. (2015). Identification
only adds noise to the exploration of effects of meditation practice of the Default Mode Network with electroencephalography. Conference
on psychological and physiological measures and distorts assess- Proceedings of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 1109,
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populations. Schooler, J. W. (2013). The silver lining of a mind in the clouds: Interesting
musings are associated with positive mood while mind-wandering. Frontiers in
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Fuchs, M., Kastner, J., Wagner, M., Hawes, S., & Ebersole, J. S. (2002). A standardized
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