High-Powered

Plyometrics
Second Edition
James Radcliffe
Robert C. Farentinos

Human Kinetics
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Radcliffe, James C. (James Christopher), 1958-
High-powered plyometrics / James Radcliffe, Robert C. Farentinos. -- 2nd ed.
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Includes bibliographical references.
1. Plyometrics. I. Farentinos, Robert C., 1941- II. Title.
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Copyright © 2015, 1999 by James C. Radcliffe and Robert C. Farentinos
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E6331
 This book is dedicated to the most influential people a teacher and coach
could have: parents Bill and Helen Radcliffe; Kathern Farentinos; mentors Mike
Lopez Sr. and Clay Erro; and a wonderful colleague, partner, wife, and friend,
Janice.
 Contents
Drill Finder
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Part I: Plyometric Training
Chapter 1: Power Prerequisite for High-Level Performance
Plyometrics and Power Development
Principles of Plyometric Training
Judging the Best Qualities in Power Development
Determining Factors in the Stretch–Shortening Cycle
Chapter 2: Athletic Power Activation Process
General Concepts of Power Training
Chapter 3: Power Training Methods and Equipment
Gearing Up for Plyometrics
Understanding Progressions
Individualizing the Training Program
Selecting Facilities, Equipment, and Attire
Chapter 4: Power Assessments
Assessing Ability
Creating an Effective Program
Evaluation of Consistent Execution
Part II: Plyometric Exercises
Chapter 5: Upper-Body Power Development
Upper-Body Power Exercises
Chapter 6: Core Power Development
Core Power Exercises
Chapter 7: Lower-Body Power Development
Lower-Body Power Exercises
Part III: Plyometric Programming
Chapter 8: Complex Training
How Complex Training Works
Planning Complex Training
Exercise Methodologies
Chapter 9: Sport-Specific Training
12-Week Conditioning Programs
Mountain and River Routines
Sport- and Event-Specific Routines
Chapter 10: Season-Long Power Maintenance
Year-Round Performance Training
Seasonal Conditioning
Individualizing the Training Program
References
About the Authors
 Drill Finder
Drill Drill
Drill name Drill emphasis
# level
Chapter 5 Upper-Body Power Development
Arm Swing 10 Upper-body rhythm Low
Upper-torso
Bench Push-Off 14 Moderate
explosiveness
Catch and Overhead Upper-torso
9 Shock
Throw explosiveness
Upper-body
Chest Push 2 Low
explosiveness
Upper-body
Drop Push-Up 15 Shock
explosiveness
Upper-torso
Heavy Bag Stroke 12 Moderate
explosiveness
Upper-torso
Heavy Bag Thrust 11 Moderate
explosiveness
Kneeling Two-Arm Upper-body
6 Moderate
Overhead Throw explosiveness
Medicine Ball Chest Upper-body
1 Low
Pass explosiveness
Multiple Hops to Total body
19 High
Overhead Throw explosiveness
Multiple Hops to Total body
22 High
Underhand Toss explosiveness
Total body
Push Jerk 17 Moderate
explosiveness
Upper-torso
Push Press 16 Beginner
explosiveness
Total body
Scoop Toss 21 Moderate
explosiveness
 Shovel Toss 20 Upper-torso Beginner
explosiveness
Upper-body
Sit-Up Throw 3 Beginner
explosiveness
Total body
Split Jerk 18 High
explosiveness
Standing Two-Arm Total body
7 High
Overhead Throw explosiveness
Stepping Two-Arm Total body
8 High
Overhead Throw explosiveness
Supine One-Arm Upper-body
4 Low
Overhead Throw explosiveness
Supine Two-Arm Upper-body
5 Low
Overhead Throw explosiveness
Upper-body
Wall Push-Off 13 Low
explosiveness
Chapter 6 Core Power Development
Balanced Toss 31 Balance and stability Low
Bar Kip-Up 33 Hip whip Moderate
Core mobility and
Bar Twist 29 Moderate
power
Floor Kip 34 Hip whip High
Core mobility and
Horizontal Swing 24 Moderate
power
Lean, Pull, and Push 32 Hip whip Low
Leg Toss 26 Hip whip High
Core mobility and
Medicine Ball Full Twist 28 Low
power
Core mobility and
Medicine Ball Half Twist 27 Low
power
Medicine Ball Over and Core balance and
23 Low
Under mobility
Core mobility and
Twist Toss 30 Moderate
power
 Core mobility and
Vertical Swing 25 power Moderate

Chapter 7 Lower-Body Power Development

Posture and lower
Alternate-Leg Bound 62 High
body explosion
Alternate-Leg Diagonal Posture and lower
63 High
Bound body explosion
Alternate-Leg Stair Posture and lower
61 Moderate
Bound body explosion
Posture and lower
Angle Hop 71 High
body explosion
Hip projection and
Ankle Flip 56 Low
reactivity
Box Bound 65 Postural hip projection High
Box Jump 37 Postural hip projection Low
Box Skip 64 Postural hip projection High
Elasticity and
Decline Hop 78 High
reactivity
Elasticity and
Depth Jump 48 Shock
reactivity
Elasticity and
Depth Leap 49 Shock
reactivity
Elasticity and
Depth Jump Leap 50 Shock
reactivity
Postural control and
Double-Leg Hop 66 Low
reactivity
Double-Leg Incline
59 Postural hip projection Moderate
Bound
Postural control and
Double-Leg Slide Kick 40 Moderate
reactivity
Postural control and
Double-Leg Speed Hop 67 Low
reactivity
Double Scissors Jump 44 Postural hip projection High
 Extended Skipping 55 Postural hip projection High
Fast Skipping 53 Postural hip projection High
Hip projection and
Galloping 52 Low
reactivity
Elasticity and
Incline Ricochet 79 Low
reactivity
Postural control and
Incremental Vertical Hop 68 Low
reactivity
Knee-Tuck Jump 41 Postural hip projection Moderate
Lateral Bound 57 Postural hip projection Moderate
Lateral Stair Bound 60 Postural hip projection Moderate
Hip projection and
Pogo 35 Low
reactivity
Power Skipping 54 Postural hip projection Moderate
Hip projection and
Prancing 51 Low
reactivity
Quick Leap 47 Postural hip projection High
Rocket Jump 38 Postural hip projection Low
Scissors Jump 43 Postural hip projection Moderate
Postural control and
Side Hop 69 Low
reactivity
Postural control and
Side Hop-Sprint 70 Low
reactivity
Single-Leg Diagonal Postural control and
Hop 76 reactivity High

Postural control and

Single-Leg Hop 74 High
reactivity
Postural control and
Single-Leg Lateral Hop 77 High
reactivity
Hip projection and
Single-Leg Pogo 72 High
reactivity
Postural control and
Single-Leg Slide Kick 73 High
reactivity
 Postural control and
Single-Leg Speed Hop 75 High
reactivity
Single-Leg Stair Bound 58 Postural hip projection Moderate
Split Jump 42 Postural hip projection Low
Squat Jump 36 Postural hip projection Moderate
Star Jump 39 Postural hip projection Moderate
Stride Jump 45 Postural hip projection High
Stride Jump Crossover 46 Postural hip projection High
 Foreword
Jim Radcliffe is almost always the smallest guy on the field or in the weight
room. His passion, expertise, boundless energy, and conversational tone allow
him to command a team of behemoths. The traditional strength and conditioning
coach is nowhere to be found at the University of Oregon.
What are we doing on the field of play, the court, and certainly the track?
How do we do it better—this includes smarter, safer, and more efficiently? Who
is the person we are training? These are three questions that Coach Rad is
constantly analyzing on a never-ending quest to answer.
Rad’s style is impossible to demonstrate and communicate merely in book
form. Two of the biggest challenges in teaching—demonstration and
communication—are strengths rooted in his passion for personal and athletic
excellence. He knows every student-athlete’s goals, hopes, motivation, and
perceived limitations. His one-on-one engagement allows him to push the
athletes beyond their wildest dreams.
Coach Rad has led gold medalists, countless national champions, and
hundreds of All-Americans. But that is not why he does it. He does it to see
young men and women engage in a process of constant competitive excellence.
These are lifelong traits that will stay with them well beyond any record, mark,
or milestone.
While breaking things down into a manageable daily punch list, he
challenges all of us as coaches to think big picture and long term. As you look at
all the information and exercises in this book—the what—make it personal—the
why. Take inventory of your motivation in doing certain things. Also, get to
know your student-athletes and understand who they are. These measures will
help all of you continually improve.
Coach Rad makes me a better coach and person every day. Whether you are
a coach, athlete, physician, physical therapist, personal trainer, or weekend
warrior, you will benefit from Coach Rad’s passion as it comes through these
pages.
Mark Helfrich
Head football coach
University of Oregon
 Preface
Our main objective in presenting High-Powered Plyometrics is to offer the
most systematic, comprehensive, and practical treatment of plyometrics
available. This book provides concepts, practical information, training programs,
and performance evaluation systems for this style of training.
During the last 30 years we have conducted an extensive program of
plyometric training for fitness enthusiasts and high school and college athletes.
Since the 1980s, intercollegiate and professional American football, baseball,
and basketball players; world-class cross-country skiers; weightlifters; cyclists;
track athletes; marathon and mountain runners; young athletes; and older fitness
buffs have trained in plyometrics, among them several participants in the
Olympic Games and World Championships. High-Powered Plyometrics is the
result of extensive research and coaching, and especially of Jim Radcliffe’s
original and practical work during the past three and a half decades.
We wrote this book for coaches, athletes, sports medicine clinicians, and all
who wish to know more about plyometrics and how to apply this dynamic
training method to specific sports. We have expanded the original edition to
include comprehensively defined training concepts, thorough teaching and
training methodologies, and the latest research and practical considerations. A
video and e-book complement this work.
We are deeply committed to plyometric training: we use it in our own
workouts and in directing the training of others. We have extensively reviewed
the professional literature in this area of training and present these findings along
with our experiences. Many other books give good definitions of plyometric
training and descriptions of how to set it up and perform certain exercises. High-
Powered Plyometrics , however, is the first to provide a complete description of
the principles behind the tasks of establishing training regimens and progressing
optimally throughout specific exercise sequences for enhanced training and
performance.
The term plyometrics was derived from the Greek word pleythyein , which
means “to augment” or “to increase,” and the shorter Greek words plio (“more”)
and plyo (“to move”). Metrics means “to measure” or “length.” The spelling
pliometric is also accepted in referring to eccentric contraction or muscle
lengthening. The word plyometrics originally appeared in Russian sports
literature in 1966 in the work of Zatsiorsky (Zanon 1989). American track and
field coach Fred Wilt offered an explanation of the term in 1975, and many have
followed. A few other terms have been associated with plyometrics as well,
including shock training, speed strength, bounce training, and elastic reactivity.
Although we know some basic neuromuscular processes that underlie
plyometrics, we must learn a great deal more before we fully understand how it
works. Fortunately, research conducted by such sport scientists as Yuri
Verkhoshansky, Carmelo Bosco, Paavo Komi, Gregory Wilson, Mel Siff,
Maarten Bobbert, Warren Young, Vern Gambetta, and James Hay has paved the
way for more and improved work with coaches and researchers such as Gary
Winkler, Dean Benton, Ian King, Frans Bosch, Roald Klomp, Vladimir
Zatsiorsky, Gabriele Wulf, Keith Davids, William Ebben, and Peter Weyend.
From a practical viewpoint, experience supports the significant value of
plyometrics, even if, from a physiological perspective, explanations of why it
works remain elusive.
A constant struggle to be practical yet scientifically accurate is common in
the field of physical training. Every day we coaches and athletes try to do the
things that will offer us the best results. We want to be efficient, and we would
like the results to be reliable. This book lets coaches and athletes know the
results they can expect from explosive training and provides clinical
explanations for those results so they don’t have to discover them themselves in
the lab.
This text explains what is happening inside during plyometric training and
why. We define plyometrics, present concepts, and describe the principles that
explain how and why plyometrics works.
High-Powered Plyometrics explains how to know when you or your
participants are ready to use the training methods, and how to get ready for them.
The best training results come from methods that are used properly—not just
explosively, but overall. The following pages explain the elements involved in
preparing for training and performance, as well as equipment and basic
exercises.
This book outlines the training elements and safety precautions needed for
performing skillfully in sports, as well as the principles for executing plyometric
exercises. Be sure to follow the guidelines for training safely.
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 constitute a field guide of training drills and drills as
well as descriptions of basic plyometric movements related to the arms, trunk,
and legs. In chapter 8 we explain the concepts of combining, or complexing,
lifting and plyometric methods of training.
Finally, in chapters 9 and 10, we present a plan to continue with plyometric
training at the most advanced levels. We also explain how to use progression, an
aspect of plyometrics necessary at every workout level and in every athletic
situation. In addition to discussing progression throughout the book, we describe
each drill in the proper progressions. More than 200 photographs enhance the
explanations of the concepts, movement execution, and sequential drills.
The objective is for you to better understand the concepts behind plyometric
training and then use that knowledge to design and implement the most optimal
application of plyometric work into training.
Note: If you use the metric system in your measurements, you can replace
the number of yards with meters. Other units of measurements are converted.
 Acknowledgments
We are grateful to many athletes and coaches who helped us with this book,
especially Mike Lopez, who helped Jim Radcliffe with his initial endeavors in
the plyometric area. We received valuable assistance from Clay Erro, Vern
Gambetta, Rock Light, Gary Winkler, Frank Gagliano, Nick Symmonds, Vince
Anderson, Mark Stream, Robert Johnson, Lou Osternig, Janice Lettunich
Radcliffe, Pat Lombardi, Geoff Ginther, Dave Ziemba, Jeremy Pick, John
Krazinski, Mark Dillon, Joel Favor, Art Tolhurst, Frans Bosch, Mark Rowland,
the many athletes and coaches from the University of Oregon, and the wonderful
Oregon Track Club athletes in Eugene. Also, thank you to Alexandra Davidson,
Maggie Pietka, Tyler Pinkney, Chris Stubbs, and Nick Toreson. We have enjoyed
the personal and professional associations with all concerned and truly hope we
have returned the favor in some way.
 Part I
Plyometric Training
 Chapter 1
Power Prerequisite for High-Level
Performance
Plyometrics is a method of developing explosive power. It is also an
important component of most athletic performances. As coaches and athletes
have recognized the improvements plyometrics can bring to performance, they
have integrated it into overall training programs in many sports and made it a
significant factor in planning the scope of athletic development.
 Plyometrics and Power Development
For some, reasons why plyometrics works may still be confusing, yet it is a
fact that the training brings results. Yuri Verkhoshansky stated in the late 1960s
that people could significantly improve their jumping and sprinting ability by
performing progressive jumping exercises. The training and performances of
athletes such as Olympic sprint champion Valeri Borzov helped to substantiate
those statements. In the early 1980s, researchers Polhemus, Burkhardt, and
others offered substantial evidence that combining plyometric training with a
weight training program enhances physical development far beyond what can be
achieved from weight training programs alone. Good combined programming
was shown to enhance strength and speed and help athletes avoid injury. Since
then, abundant research has shown that proper progressive training using these
concepts not only fosters results in competition but also significantly decreases
the number of catastrophic sport injuries, such as ACL tears and lower leg, foot,
and ankle fractures (Hewitt et al. 1999).
People have probably always valued physical power, and, at least since the
time of the ancient Greeks, athletes have sought methods for improving their
speed and strength. Power, after all, is the combination of strength and speed,
force times velocity. It is the application of force through a range of motion
within a unit of time.
Power is essential in performing most sport skills, whether it’s a tennis serve
or a clean and jerk. Not surprisingly, then, specific exercises have long been
designed to enhance quick, explosive movements. Yet only in the last few
decades have programs been developed to systematically emphasize explosive–
reactive power. Only more recently has explosive power training been refined.
In this age of technological advancements, we can analyze athletic
performances with a great deal of instrumentation. GPS tracking and the ability
to monitor athleticism in both sport contests and training have given more
insight into the factors that separate high-level athletes and teams from the
others. Elite teams, and a percentage of athletes on those teams, have a greater or
more pronounced ability to burst and accelerate. This ability is a result of an
optimal blend of force application and timing. Synchronization of these features,
or the coordination of strong, fast multiple-movement skills, is the desired result
of explosive power training.
 Principles of Plyometric Training
Certain principles of athletic development apply to plyometrics and the
stretch–shortening cycle (SSC). Eccentric and concentric muscle actions usually
occur simultaneously in combinations of muscle function known as the stretch–
shortening cycle. The eccentric contraction stretches a muscle’s length, and the
concentric contraction shortens it. Most movements result from concentric
actions preceded by eccentric countermovements. Defining the principles of the
stretch–shortening cycle helps us understand not only what is occurring within
training and performing, but also how to apply these principles. This
understanding is useful in planning plyometric training.

Progressive Overload

Using the principle of progressive overload develops strength, power, and

endurance. The relationship between increasing muscular strength and resistive
overload using weights is well known. Repetitions of work at less than overload
emphasize muscular endurance, not strength.
Because we are emphasizing power development, and because power is the
function of force times distance over time, several overload methods can be
used. However, rather than the traditional definition of power (strength times
speed), the principle of overload exploits the true formula of power in planning
training sessions.
A term often used instead of power training is speed-strength. It indicates the
ability to reach maximal strength during the movement in a brief time—a ratio
of maximal strength in a movement and the time to reach it (Matveyev 1977).
Many sport scientists use the term to describe several correlating components of
strength—primarily, absolute, explosive, starting, and reactive. At this point
another view of power using a more definitive formula is appropriate, so let us
take another view of power. In basic physics lectures on power, teachers always
present the following formula, with these applications:

P = F × d / t

F = application of force
d = application through the greatest distance
 t = application in the least amount of time

Let’s put into words what we are really after:

F = force application (i.e., strength and impulse)

d = distance transition (i.e., agility and coordination)
t = time reduction (i.e., speed and acceleration)

Few coaches would disagree with the statement that to apply more force (F),
we must improve strength. Also, few would disagree that accelerated movements
are required to reduce the time (t) factor. However, surprisingly, many coaches
neglect to incorporate the formula’s other equation—the agility and coordination
needed for making appropriate distance transitions (d). The body’s
characteristics (e.g., size and shape) always set certain limitations, of course.
Because athletes need all three components to make up the pie, in plyometric
training they must plan to use overloads that will accomplish what they want in
all these areas. The types of overloads available in plyometric training are shown
in table 1.1.
 In training the stretch–shortening cycle, resistive overloads usually take the
form of rapidly stretching a limb or the entire body in an eccentric contraction,
such as overcoming the increased g-forces as the result of falling from a height.
To place a spatial overload on the stretch–shortening cycle, an athlete can
increase the range, within a desired plane of movement, during the application of
forces. Movement can also create the effects of overload through range of
motion. The concept is to employ the stretch reflex within a specific range of
motion. An example is an athlete performing a vertical jump from both feet
without any approach. The application of force is upward, with all parts of the
body summating forces in that direction. The athlete can apply the same
summation of forces from a position in which the legs are split in the sagittal
plane, increasing the overloads placed on the system and the degree of difficulty.
Many exercises—although specific to particular athletic skills in terms of the
movement plane of the limbs and the involvement of certain muscle groups—are
executed in a spatially exaggerated manner; that is, limbs may move through
much wider ranges of motion, even though the movement plane resembles that
of the performance goal.
A temporal overload can be accomplished by executing the movement as
rapidly and intensely as possible. The force the skeletal muscle produces
depends on the speed of shortening or lengthening and the absolute length of the
muscle at any instant in time. In eccentric exercise, force increases as the
velocity of stretch increases. This is in contrast to concentric exercise, in which
the force decreases as the speed of the contraction increases. One theory is that
the faster the transition occurs from eccentric to concentric contraction, the
greater the muscle tension produced and, potentially, the greater the muscle
power produced (Komi 1973). Athletes can develop in this area by using decline
pathways and springlike surfaces, as well as other variations.

Specificity

Another tenet of athletic training central to plyometrics is the principle of

specificity. In athletic training, specificity refers to neuromuscular and metabolic
adaptations of particular types of overload. Exercise stress, such as strength
training for certain muscle groups, induces specific strength adaptations in
particular muscular areas. For example, increases in endurance can only be
achieved by training for endurance. Specific exercises elicit specific adaptations,
thus creating specific training effects (McArdle, Katch, and Katch 1981). To
jump higher or farther, athletes must structure their practices around jumps in
those parameters. For speed, they must work at operating rates that are specific
to those objectives. Thus, the specific plyometric or stretch–shortening cycle
training effect is a methodology to develop powerful muscular responses, which
are achieved by using overloads not only at the resistive and temporal levels but
also at the spatial levels. Achieving the desired training effect from the stretch–
shortening cycle requires using particular levels of resistance, speed, and space
(i.e., distance covered). Overloads in the areas of resistance, timing or speed, and
space or distance are important considerations. Plyometrics involves controlled
frequency, intensity, duration, and specificity of training.
Progress in this area of knowledge now hinges on two complications. First,
several methods develop explosive or reactive power (or both). Some are
general, others are more specific, and each has distinct characteristics. The
second complication is that these methods have been researched, developed,
practiced, and interpreted in several countries, languages, and structures of
society.
This chapter explains the system of plyometric training by discussing how to
do the following:

Train rate of force development (RFD) and enhance not only maximal
strength but also dynamic strength, or the type of forces developed at high
velocities of movement.
Use exercises requiring the utmost muscular effort against moderate
resistance (dynamic effort).
Employ specific exercises and methods that improve reversible muscle
action, or stretch–shortening, which involves specific motor abilities
(Zatsiorsky 1995).

Dilemmas of Eccentric Exercise

Eccentric exercise has been shown to damage muscle cells and motor
performance. However, various sport scientists (including Ebbeling and
Clarkson 1990; Frid’en 1984; and Fritz and Stauber 1988) have found data
suggesting that damaged connective tissue and muscle relates to important
regeneration processes. The eccentric side of contraction also seems to cause
increased intramuscular fluid pressure, a factor associated with delayed muscle
soreness. An understanding of these concepts can help us better assess training,
fatigue, overuse, and recovery.
Eccentric contractions cause more changes in certain muscle functions than
do concentric contractions. These changes seem to be the result of trauma,
initially in the mechanics. However, with time, chemical changes also occur.
Greater forces during eccentric contractions, according to Curwin and Stanish
(1984), also create greater stress on tendons.
The increased use of eccentric muscular exercise to augment performance
and rehabilitation has generated questions about optimal and safe training loads.
For practitioners, a great concern is the lack of consensus about appropriate
volumes and intensities of eccentric loading exercises. Developments over the
last 30 years, as a result of study and practical evaluation, have helped us greatly
in dosage recommendations.
Eccentric muscle contraction deserves special consideration because it can
absorb shock. Training using only eccentric actions eliminates the inhibitory
actions allowing for improvement in muscle strength and function. This shows
us a further need for examining the balance of eccentric and concentric muscle
regimens and understanding the optimal use of eccentric and stretch–shortening
cycle training methodologies (Stauber 1989).
Continued damage to myofibers and connective tissue and continued repair
and adaptation are long-term training effects of repeated eccentric muscle
actions, although recovery tends to be slow (i.e., 7 to 10 days). On the other
hand, repeated bouts of eccentric exercise can produce adaptations before
complete recovery and restoration. Repeated long-term eccentric tension
reorganizes and recoordinates muscle fiber structures, resulting in better stretch
ability and reduced mechanical damage. However, a fine line exists between the
microtearing of muscle fiber that improves power and adaptation and that which
is harmful. The difference lies in the work-to-rest ratio, such as using the higher-
stress training only twice per week and attempting to get at least two days (48 to
72 hours) of active recovery between each training session of explosive and
reactive nature. Examples of this are covered in the chapters that deal with
planning.
A major way to address eccentric loading problems is to use force-reducing
techniques such as prestretch exercises for the agonistic muscles, which help to
maintain good mechanics and postural control. A premotion silent period, which
involves stretching the agonist while reinforcing the dynamic forces to follow,
seems to significantly reduce the forces in dynamic and ballistic movements
(Aoki, Tsukahara, and Yabe 1989). Athletes can progress through rehabilitative
phases using the same concepts. This coincides with the developments by
Hewitt, Myer, and Ford (2005, 2006); Padua et al. (2009, 2011); and Onate et al.
(2010) of protocols for injury assessments and progressive training to curb and
even eliminate the incidence of ACL, ankle, foot, and soft tissue injuries.
For rehabilitation, this involves slow, controlled, eccentric movements
developed to the point of being able to control much higher velocities with
eccentric, contractile stopping abilities. In jumping in stretch–shortening cycle
training, for instance, landing technique is the primary issue. How well a person
lands dictates how well the person next takes off. By executing the proper
prelanding posture and give with the landing impact, the impulsive reversal of
motion becomes the ultimate feature of the training.

 Judging the Best Qualities in Power Development
Sport scientists have raised some interesting questions about the amount of
strength and stability necessary for successfully performing eccentric training,
the effects of slower isotonic strength training on eccentric performance, and
whether relationships exist between more ballistic (plyometric) training and
isotonic training. Traditional weight training basically enhances muscular
strength. Plyometric training, on the other hand, enhances muscular power. Greg
Wilson (1993) and others suggested that athletes use dynamic weight training (a
form of stretch–shortening cycle exercises that are externally loaded) to
maximize mechanical output.
Continually evaluating the strength of a plyometric participant is important.
Following are the forms of strength that should be evaluated:

Core strength, which is discussed less often but may be the most basic and
important of all
Absolute strength, or the maximal level, which is measured regardless of
body weight
Relative strength, or maximal levels scaled to body weight, which is
important in projecting the center of gravity away from, across, or over the
ground
Dynamic strength, which involves both eccentric and concentric
contractions, with a degree of speed (used, for example, in squatting and
single-response jumping movements where one repetition is performed at a
time with a complete reset before the next rep)
Elastic strength, which is speed involving the elastic and contractile
components and reflex contractions (such as rebound, or multiple-response
where reps are continuously repeated)

Core strength centers on the core of the body, defined here as the control
over the muscles and joints of the trunk, or torso. It is responsible for all postural
stability in movements in all planes and directions. Core strength is a component
of all the other forms of strength. In handling any external loads or any speed of
movement, core control influences the beginning, maintenance, and completion
phases (see figure 1.1). We refer to this stabilizing effect of postural control
often in the rest of this book. Everything we do in athletic performance begins
from the core and radiates outward, and our training should do the same. So,
rather than saving the concepts of improving the core until the end, we place it at
the beginning of every training session.
 Figure 1.1 Hierarchy of physical adaptation to progressive gravitational stress.

Being able to demonstrate and assess strength qualities (e.g., starting,

maximal, and explosive) makes an athlete more aware of the essential power
qualities athletic performance demands. All forms of strength have a place in
evaluation and should be prioritized according to the progressive objectives of
the program. For example, an athlete may exhibit good or even great strength as
tested in a barbell squat. He might be weak, however, in a vertical jump test,
possibly indicating a lack of speed in the training load and poor dynamic
strength. This becomes even more evident when he is unable to handle multiple-
response movements, which indicates low levels of elastic strength.
Schmidtbleicher (1992) suggested that different rates of force development are
necessary for overcoming different loads, both internal and external, and that
they also affect the movement time involved.
Traditional strength training methods have often fostered the belief that
maximal strength methods increase maximal strength and speed strength
methods develop power. This belief often confuses people about the aim and
content of training methods. Schmidtbleicher (1992) pointed out that an increase
in maximal strength is always connected with an improvement in relative
strength and therefore with an improvement in power capabilities. Once
maximal strength capabilities have been enhanced, the objective of developing
power and velocity of movement must be attended to; the rate of force
development (RFD) must become the primary training objective. In sport, often
the time available for force development is short, requiring RFD to take priority
over maximal strength. An athlete who can squat or pull an extremely heavy
load yet needs several seconds to do so is better served by lifting a slightly
lighter load faster—that is, with a higher force rate. Weyend and colleagues
(2000) referred to this as mass-specific strength, and they asserted that producing
great force rapidly is more desirable than producing a greater force slowly.
Dynamic strength, or the forces developed in high-velocity movements such
as sprinting, jumping, and high-speed changes of direction, is the next priority.
This segment of training is also where accurate assessments can be of service,
which is covered in chapter 4. Finally, the proverbial icing on the cake must be
the development and improvement of the stretch–shortening cycle, or as
Zatsiorsky (1995) suggested, reversible muscle action. When muscles shorten
immediately after stretching, they can produce greater mechanical power with
less metabolic energy cost.
At the foundation of the comprehensive training in this book are a few
principles whose value is clear from experience. One is using to full advantage
the power from eccentric contractions. A second is the advantage gained from
exploiting the stretch–shortening cycle and the explosive power available from
the elastic components of muscle. A third is adapting to plyometric programs the
training principles of progressive overload and specificity, which we discussed
earlier in this chapter.
When analyzing and applying training that uses the stretch–shortening cycle
model, we must remember that athletic skills are never merely the sum of such
factors as strength, velocity, loading, and stretch. Performance of any movement
pattern, plyometric or otherwise, is holistic. It involves an integration of all such
factors. During the development of power, many mechanisms drive and
coordinate the skeletal musculature. Enhancing the muscular control and reactive
power associated with stretch–shortening cycle exercise relates to changes in
complex neuromuscular structure and sensorimotor pathways.
When muscles shorten immediately after a stretch, force and subsequent
power output increases while the amount of energy expended decreases; thus,
greater power uses less metabolic energy. The key factor lies in the transition
from lengthening to shortening, known for our purposes as the coupling
moment. It is at this coupling moment that force is developed, not in eccentric or
concentric but rather in more isometric conditions. Coupling time, which has a
very important impact on the optimization of plyometric work, is explained in
detail in later chapters.
Before we discuss the phases of the stretch–shortening cycle, let’s first take a
look at how it works. Various terms have been suggested to describe phases of
the stretch–shortening cycle, which includes the stretch or eccentric phase, the
brief period between, and the shortening, or concentric, phase. Basically, the
cycle combines an eccentric contraction, in which the involved muscles undergo
tension through lengthening or stretching (negative work), and a concentric
contraction, in which the muscles shorten (positive work). Figure 1.2 shows the
cycle in its clinical form of muscle function and as it appears in its natural form.
Komi (1984) described this effect of overcoming inertia as pushing a box end
over end versus initial pushing of a wheel.
 Figure 1.2 Clinical viewpoint of the stretch–shortening cycle.

Loading and the Stretch Response

A muscle’s initial length when stimulated influences the magnitude of its

contractile responses. Applying force against a muscle, or loading, causes a
reaction to the stress. When this load is applied, the amount of deformation
(called strain) is the change that occurs in dimension. A liquid within the muscle
resists these deformations during stretching and shortening; this resistance to
flow is known as viscosity. It is because of the viscosity that muscles must move
in the direction opposite the desired force application (this is called prestretch).
The property of muscle tissue that enables greater muscular tension is known as
the stretch response. Not to be confused with the stretch reflex (a basic neural
mechanism to maintain active muscle tonus using impulses discharged from
muscle spindles), the stretch response involves parallel muscle fibers exerting
maximal tension at stretch lengths slightly greater than resting length.
The concept of the prestretch has been confusing for many coaches and
practitioners; many correlate it with muscle length or strength enhancement. To
alleviate some of the confusion, we explain it as Frans Bosch (2005), Gary
Winkler (2009), and others suggest, as pretension and the avoidance of slack in
the systematic execution of contractions. Pretension is preparing for contact, or
impact, by contracting, or stiffening, and thereby tensing the components of
muscle, joint, and tendon. This synchronization, or coordination, of
cocontractions reduces slack and optimizes the efficiency of contact. Truly
improving the elastic–reactive potential of the neuromuscular system requires
synchronizing the tendons, ligaments, and fascia (intramuscular), and then the
muscles (intermuscular).
 Elasticity

Muscle strength is the maximal force or tension that a muscle can generate.
This is the force or tension a muscle group can exert against a resistance in one
maximal effort. An important component accompanying strength is the muscle’s
elasticity (its ability to lengthen and increase in tension), which resides in the
contractile elements of skeletal muscle. Naturally, there are limits to these
abilities.
The range of elasticity, or strain, is directly proportionate to the ability of the
tissue to resist forces and return to its original shape upon releasing a load. This
is the elastic property that plyometric training addresses. Elasticity lends the
ability to use the strain, or tension, to return to, or react, in the original direction
with greater force, greater efficiency, or both. It is the basis for resilience, or the
ability to absorb energy within the elastic range of the muscle. When a load is
removed and the tissue returns to its original shape, resilience releases energy.
Studying elasticity has led to the concept of stored elastic energy, which is
the recoverable energy the viscoelastic tissue deformation generates in the
eccentric phase of the movement. This energy is available for reuse in the
following concentric phase of muscle activity. Elastic energy has also been
explained as mechanical energy that the muscle does not dissipate as heat but
rather absorbs and stores for reuse during its subsequent active shortening cycle.
The basis of both the voluntary and involuntary motor processes involved in
the stretch–shortening cycle is the so-called stretch reflex, which is also called
the muscle spindle reflex or myotatic reflex. This spindle apparatus and the
stretch reflex are vital components of the nervous system’s overall control of
body movement. When executing most movement skills, the muscles receive
some type of load. The rapid stretching (loading) of these muscles activates this
myotatic reflex, which sends a strong stimulus through the spinal cord to the
muscles. This stimulus causes them to contract powerfully.
Springlike elements located in series (series elastic component, or SEC) or
parallel (parallel elastic component, or PEC) to the myofilament of skeletal
muscle are tension activated (Hill 1950). Muscles store elastic energy during
eccentric work and recover it during concentric work. If amortization is slow,
muscles dissipate elastic energy, usually as heat (Cavagna 1977). Elasticity is
enhanced when the pretension and exchange duration is minimal (Komi 1973).
Researchers believe the rate of stretch to be more important than its length or
magnitude. The desire is for quick prestretch movements over longer, slower
ones (Bosco and Komi 1979; Cavagna 1977). The rate of the stretch (and
pretension) is more important than the magnitude (or length) of the stretch.
At this point the concept of slack must be addressed. As mentioned
previously, and will be explained again in further chapters, tension is more
important than stretch in plyometric training. A good deal of research has shown
that a concentric contraction must occur to bring a muscle to a certain length,
stretch the elastic components, and therefore obtain the right level of tension.
The time it takes for this contraction to achieve a workable length is called rise
latency. Rise latency adversely affects muscles needing to explode and negotiate
the contact point quickly and efficiently. What is needed is a counteractive force
moment. Sufficient tension must be present in the muscle before external forces
are encountered (pretension, or rigidity). This reactive movement involves (1)
pretensing the muscle (spring-loading), (2) landing and further stretching the
series elastic components (SEC) and the antagonistic moment on the contractile
elements (CE), which (3) reach maximal force for another concentric
contraction.
As with optimal running, in which ground contact is short as a result of
upright posture, SEC elasticity and CE rigidity create a rapid, forceful reactivity,
or effortless bounce. As explained in detail in chapters 2 and 7 on technique, a
neutral position of the ankle to create a well-timed plantarflexion just prior to
ground contact prepares the musculature for impact, combined with a reduction
in slack time at contact.
Perhaps the most accurate term to describe the time from the eccentric, or
stretch, portion of the cycle through switching to the concentric, or shortened,
portion is elastic reactivity, a concept that Gambetta described in 1986. What is
important in elastic reactivity is the impulse, or the force that starts a body into
motion, and the motion this force produces. Greater impulse relates to better
efficiency. When greater stretches precede positive work, increased mechanical
efficiency results. Called potentiation (see Komi 1986), the mechanics explain
the synergistically augmented energy levels and heightened effectiveness.

Muscle Contractions

The human body is continually subject to external forces and impacts,

against which muscles contract. Their contractions (or actions, a term preferred
by some physiologists) are both negative (eccentric) and positive (concentric). In
eccentric contractions, the muscles undergo tension and lengthen, or stretch
(called negative work); in concentric contractions, they undergo tension and
shorten (called positive work). Any external force a muscle experiences that is
greater than its internal tension force allows it to lengthen in an eccentric
contraction. This type of contraction enables the muscle to brake skeletal
movements—in other words, to decelerate. An eccentric contraction allows a
muscle to sustain greater tension than it can develop in an isometric position.
Because the load applied to the muscle causes it to work by lengthening, it is
called negative work (in contrast to the positive work done in concentric
contraction to overcome resistance). That is, when muscles contract
eccentrically, they lengthen as they simultaneously produce force. The external
load is greater than the internal muscular force it can apply. Basically, every
movement in the direction of gravity is under the control of an eccentric
contraction.
What is significant here is that the energy cost of negative work is less than
that of positive work. The body requires less motor unit activation and consumes
less oxygen in eccentric contractions than it does in concentric contractions.
Thus, the relationship between the input and output of energy differs between the
two—eccentric exercise is more mechanically efficient than concentric exercise.
In eccentric actions performed at moderate to high speeds, the muscles call
on fast-twitch muscle fiber units to work; they are thus preferentially recruited.
They have higher firing frequencies and are larger fibers and produce more force
per motor unit than other muscle fiber types do. Force production is greater
during eccentric contraction than during concentric contractions because the
body generates a higher tension at the point of the muscle’s insertion. The tendon
at insertion receives larger loads during eccentric exercise than it does during
concentric exercise.
In summary, because of chemical, mechanical, and neurological factors that
influence the force and stiffness of the contracting muscle (see Komi 1973),
eccentric lengthening (before rapid concentric shortening) produces the greatest
force and power capabilities in skeletal muscle. It is therefore the central type of
contraction in plyometrics.

Proprioception and Potentiation

Perceptions of motion are transmitted from the muscle to the spinal cord to
the brain and back to the muscle, regulating body movement via musculoskeletal
sensory organs, interpretation by the central nervous system, motor unit
recruitment, and muscle stiffness.
Training with a prestretch (and what we now understand to be pretensing)
and activating neuromuscular components improves the efficiency of neural
actions and muscular performance (Bosch and Klomp 2005; Schmidtbleicher
1992). Exercises that use the stretch–shortening cycle, or plyometrics, stimulate
changes in the neuromuscular system, thereby enhancing the ability of the
muscle groups to respond quickly and powerfully to slight and rapid changes in
muscle length. An important feature is that the exercises condition the
neuromuscular system to allow faster and more powerful changes of direction.
An increasing amount of research is being performed in the area of
evaluation and risk factors as a result of improper landing mechanics and their
effect on injuries such as ACL tears and stress fractures in the lower leg and foot.
Padua and colleagues (2009) stated that movement patterns are important and
modifiable factors that may influence the risk of lower-extremity injuries.
Establishing the proper proprioceptive and potentiated landing patterns has been
shown to be an effective way not only to improve performance but also to
decrease the chances for the aforementioned injuries. As mentioned earlier and
further emphasized throughout the book, using exercise progressions to establish
proper landing mechanics establishes the movement and motor patterning that
enhance safety and performance.
Plyometric exercises that isolate sections of the body for training can be
formulated. They involve an array of jumps, bounds, and hops; flexions,
extensions, and trunk rotations; and tossing, throwing, and passing. Descriptions
and definitions of these moves are provided in chapters 5 through 7, and these
are merely some of the many movements possible for exploiting the stretch–
shortening cycle.

Amortization

As a general term, amortization is the gradual extinction, extinguishing, or

deadening of something; in relation to the stretch–shortening cycle, it refers to
the time that elapses from the beginning of the eccentric contraction phase to the
beginning of the concentric contraction phase (see figure 1.3).
 Figure 1.3 Terminology of amortization.

Minimizing the time lapse between eccentric and concentric contraction is

extremely important for improving movement efficiency. Two periods of delay
exist. One is between the signal from the brain for muscle contraction and the
onset of muscle activity, and the other is between the appearance of muscle
electric activity and the development of tension in the muscle, the
electromechanical delay (EMD). The EMD is shorter in eccentric contractions
than in concentric ones. This shortened response time underscores the
importance of producing the greatest force in the least amount of time. The
stretch–shortening mechanism enhances force production as a result of
contributions from the series elastic component (SEC) during stretching.
Eccentric efficiency, in other words, is improved by using the stored elastic
energy of the SEC.
Determining Factors in the Stretch–Shortening Cycle
Evaluating the factors involved with stretch–shortening cycle exercises
determines timing, volumes, and intensities. King (1993) outlined these factors:

Rate of eccentric action, known to many as the amortization phase (the

stretch)
Rate of concentric action, the recoil, or summation phase (shortening)
Delay between the cessation of eccentric muscle action and onset of
concentric muscle action, also known as coupling time
Amount, if any, of the external load involved

These elements take only approximately half a second to occur, yet they can
change the scope of the training form (see figure 1.4, a-d). We often need to
distinguish a rapid continuous stretch–shortening cycle movement, or intensive
elastic and reactive method, from those of a speed-strength orientation (loaded
and not as elastic or reactive) or, furthermore, from a shock methodology.
Schmidtbleicher (1992) considered these differences to be long or short stretch–
shortening cycles—those greater or less than 250 milliseconds. In figure 1.4 the
down portion indicates the amount of stretch; the up section shows the
shortening and the combination of the two and the delay, if any, between them
(coupling). These are all in the contact portions of the chart. Notice the
differences in time necessary for executing minimal contact time and maximal
flight.
 Figure 1.4 Stretch–shortening factors based on training form: (a) sprinting, (b)
bounding, (c) squat jumping, and (d) depth jumping.

Siff and Verkhoshansky (1996) suggested that if the coupling time is longer
than about 0.15 second in exercises that require high impact, intensity, or rate of
force, the action is not considered classical shock method plyometrics, such as
depth jumping. For our purposes, knowing how to measure these times is not as
important as understanding the differences individual exercises make, especially
when incorporating greater movement magnitudes, such as bounding versus
hopping, or greater gravitational overloads, such as dropping from greater
heights or using additional weight on the body.
Coaches can evaluate performance based on an awareness of the ground
contact or coupling time an athlete displays. The load can be determined by the
response via ground contact time.
A theoretical understanding and observation of posture, balance, stability,
and flexibility are required to determine what is occurring during fast
movements. Because a great deal of stretch–shortening cycle improvement
depends on the rate of force development and the development of neuromuscular
coordination, coaches need to think carefully about the style, progressive
application, and specificity of plyometric exercises. For example, training using
squat jumps with 15 to 20 kilograms (33 to 44 lb) of external weight (e.g., a
sandbag or weight vest) is useful in certain phases and progressive times of
training, as is bounding for certain prolonged distances. However, for sprinters,
this type of stretch–shortening cycle methodology doesn’t address their need for
quicker, more impulsive repetitions of higher quality the way lower-repetition
bounding, hopping, or well-performed shock training does.
Repetitions of duration, external weight, and drops from height are best
avoided until an athlete is far up the skill proficiency scale. Repetitions that
sacrifice quality for quantity are also best avoided. However, the stretch–
shortening cycle can be used throughout a continuum of exercise and load
factors. An evaluation of the goals of each training phase and the sessions within
those phases will indicate where (along the continuum) the majority of stretch–
shortening cycle volume can fall. Examples of this evaluation system are in
chapter 4 (the continuum of stress and complexity).
To continue our discussion of the concept of slack and using biological and
biomechanical systems to better negotiate the ground, we expand on the aspects
of more rigid segmenting of the body via cocontractions. First, an erect body
posture is required. For our purposes, erectness does not always mean
completely perpendicular to the ground; rather, it is the straight, rigid stiffness of
the segments in relation to enhanced vertical contact points. This is covered in
more detail in further chapters. A short coupling time is also necessary for
reducing and enhancing the time spent on the ground. Finally, pretension prior to
ground contact (stiffness) is needed, as is favoring the vertical aspects of landing
and loading over the horizontal.
If the body were a stick figure, the goal would be to have the fewest angles,
or breaks, in the figure. Some high jump coaches use a sawed-off crossbar as an
example of this concept. They bounce the rod on its end to demonstrate the stiff
bar’s propulsion off the ground, lack of deformation at contact, and immediate
rise up and over the high jump crossbar. In the animal world this stiffness
concept is widely seen in the jumping and bouncing of deer and gazelle, also
known as stotting (i.e., bounding with a stiff-legged gait). The more breaks or
deformations in the segments, the greater the give on ground contact.
Conversely, without some bend in the joints that enable the stretch–shortening
cycle to work, where would the spring-loading occur?
An understanding of the intermuscular coordination of isometrically
contracting the joints in preparation for contact and subsequent takeoff is
important. The process of postural control and synchronized stiffening, thereby
loading the spring of the activated musculature, enhances the ability to negotiate
the contact surface. This concept has application for more than just the foot and
the ground, as explained in later chapters.
We like to refer to the preceding concepts as negotiating contacts more like a
superball than like a tomato. A tomato bounces but not for long or without a
great deal of deformation, whereas a superball maintains its elasticity and
rigidity. The concepts in this chapter help to optimize these qualities.
 Chapter 2
Athletic Power Activation Process
Chapter 1 addressed the concepts and qualities that factor into powerful
performance. The biological and biomechanical aspects now become working
parts of a process for activating athletic power. The biological aspect involves
the neuromuscular system and other systems that boost power activation.
Muscular contractions, responses, and contractile qualities, as well as neural
pathways, all play parts in movement coordination.
 General Concepts of Power Training
In training with plyometric exercises, as in other forms of stretch–shortening
cycle or athletic training, it is important to follow guidelines to ensure safety as
well as proper and effective performance. This chapter focuses on basic aspects
of training that are the keys to good technique. The following six basic elements
make up a good training session:

1. Warm-up: General (hip mobility walking exercises, lunging, crawling), core

(abdominal, low back), and specific (technique work, skipping,
accelerating)
2. Dynamic work: Explosive movements (e.g., snatches, jumps, throws, starts)
3. Strength work: Heavy multiple-joint movements (e.g., squats, jerks, loaded
sprints)
4. Isolated work: Lying or seated movements (e.g., bench work, pulleys)
5. Mobility work: Fluid, full-body movements (e.g., agilities, stretching,
recovery strides)
6. Cool-down: Stretching, movement flexibility work (or mobility), manual
massage therapies, and cold immersion activities

Warm-Up

Because plyometric exercises emphasize posture, balance, flexibility,

stability, and mobility, an adequate warm-up should precede all exercises.
Preparatory warm-up routines should include progressive and aggressive
dynamic movements that increase the temperature, viscosity, blood flow, and
metabolism of the musculature, all of which ensure that the musculoskeletal
system is activated and prepared. Aggressively performing dynamic and specific
warm-up routines ensures optimal preparation for quality work.
As Warren Young (2002) and others suggested, the dynamic warm-up is a
rehearsal for a specific skill; performed properly, it increases the proprioceptive
efficiency of the neural pathways involved with each movement, activates
specific motor units, and prepares the body skillwise both biomechanically and
psychologically. In response to the debate over passive flexibility versus
dynamic mobility, many studies in the past several years have shown that the
passive approach, thought to be best for injury prevention, has not shown a
higher correlation with injury prevention than the dynamic approach, although it
does show performance decrements (Cramer 2005; Shrier 2004).
Following are sample exercises that make up a general warm-up with
specific skill rehearsal (hip mobility walking exercises, lunging, and crawling).
This is followed by technical form work that progresses from walking to
skipping and running tempos (forward, lateral, and backward), core work
(posture, balance, stability, mobility), specific lifting warm-up skills (using a
light bar or stick in pulling, squatting, and pushing movements).
General

Walk—Knee to chest, marching

Lunge—Forward, side to side, and backward
Crawl—Hands and heels on the ground
Skip—Stepping and hopping with simulated sprinting mechanics
Shuffle—Side-to-side glide without crossing the feet
Carioca—Grapevine movement of step, step behind, step, step in front,
twisting the hips
Backward movement—Lead with the feet and reach back trying to gain as
much ground with each stride

Flexibility

Neck rotation
Shoulder roll
Shoulder rotation
Trunk twist
Hip rotation
Knee roll
Ankle rotation
Leg swing

Intramuscular Rehearsal
Forward

Mach drill—Walk, skip, and run routines of acceleration (A) and speed
mechanics (B)
Fast skip—Emphasizing push and dynamic leg and hip mechanics
Slide kick—Emphasizing high heel recovery upward rather than backward
Rhythm and cadence—Interval combinations of sprint and stride mechanics
with one leg
 Fast leg cadence—Continuous sprint and stride combinations one leg at a
time

Lateral

Shuffle—Side-to-side step routine using long, efficient strides and a low hip
posture
Lateral skip—Side-to-side step-hop routine using a low hip posture

Backward

Backward run—Mimicking a forward running posture while moving

backward
Backpedal—Maintaining a low hip posture, taking short strides that remain
underneath the torso while moving backward
Backward skip—Backpedal posture with a step-hop foot cadence
Backward shuffle—Shuffle steps back with pivots continuously while
facing forward
Backward kick-slide—Galloping effect of a back leg kick and reach with a
foreleg push

Pulling

Good morning
Stiff-leg deadlift

Pushing

Behind-the-neck press
Military press
Alternating press

Squatting

Overhead squat
Overhead lunge
45-degree, or side, lunge

The exercises in a warm-up prepare the body to sprint, jump, cut, and move.
They mobilize and technically prepare the system for fast and explosive
performance. They also progress from walk to sprint tempo, yet always have an
aggressive and dynamic quality. So, why these exercises and not jogging, butt
kicks, stationary cycling, and so on? Those exercises, which tend to address the
knee joint, not the hips, foster poor running and jumping form. Moreover, they
are usually performed at tempos and using volumes of repetitions that are hard to
reverse and relearn in the proper technique segment. Preparing for explosive
movement should involve both proper technique and the correct execution rate.
These are the questions to ask: What warm-up exercises foster better movement
mechanics? What exercises foster poor movement mechanics?
After the warm-up, core warmth must be maintained, which is not
determined by external sweating or the warmth of the environment. Here’s a
good example: An athlete spends the proper amount of time warming up and
then performs a lying-down or seated exercise as her first activity (e.g., bench
press). After 10 to 15 minutes of this, she decides to do a squatting, pulling, or
jumping exercise. She still feels warm and is perspiring, but her body has been
lying down all that time, even as she was pushing or moving with intensity. This
is an example of poor session design because, although the athlete feels warm,
her core muscular condition went down. Even though she got back to pulling and
squatting and still felt warm, this condition is more external than internal (spinal
and pelvic). The recommended workout segments that follow provide a good
example of session management with an emphasis on explosive power.

Main Training Session

The main training session must be short but intense. Its design must ensure
timely execution to preserve the warmth of the musculoskeletal systems and
maintain their energy.
Off-season workout sessions should be approximately one hour long and
include a warm-up and cool-down. Depending on the set, repetition, and rest
methodology of some lifting situations, some workouts may last 15 or 25
minutes longer. Likewise, conditioning sessions that require maximal rest
between plyometric and speed and agility sets may exceed an hour. However, for
optimal development, these situations should not occur on a regular basis.
The optimal workout should include an efficient and complete warm-up,
maintain core warmth throughout the workout, and include an adequate cool-
down and recovery session to prepare for the next workout.
In relation to the concepts of optimal power performance training, the
following points are key factors in the preparation, performance, and the follow-
up of training practices.
 The warm-up should be followed by the portion of the training that is most
dynamic and explosive (i.e., Olympic lifts, jumps, throws, starts, and
accelerations).
The heaviest or most strenuous portion of the workout should follow the
fast and explosive portion (e.g., squatting, lunging, sled towing, sandpit).
The third or close-to-final portion of the workout should involve smaller
isolated movements such as bodybuilding, rehabilitative therapeutic
exercises, and lying or sitting exercises (e.g., bench or incline lifts; machine
exercises; shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle isolation exercises).
The workout should always finish with mobility work—fluid full-body
movements that provide intrinsic recovery as well as optimal movement
efficiency training (e.g., agilities, barefoot striding and directional work,
backward running and striding, stretching, rolling).

Table 2.1 is a sample time line of normal workout sessions, one in a weight
room and the other in a conditioning field.
 Sprint Preparation Work

Specific work involved in the development of sprint performance was

mentioned in the warm-up section. The A and B series of sprint preparation,
otherwise known as Mach drills, are named after Gerard Mach, the Polish and
then Canadian sprint coach who invented sequences of specific sprint
strengthening exercises. His purpose behind the evolution of the exercises was to
continue muscular development via a rhythmic coordination of movement skills,
each emphasizing a specific component of the proper powerful sprinting process.
Polish winters and lack of adequate sprinting space became the catalyst for such
drill work to take place, often in hallways and small gymnasiums.
Controversy exists regarding the use of the A and B series for sprint training.
This is as it should be, because the drills are often used for a variety of technique
work, warm-up routines, and form running. The main purpose of the drills is to
use sprint muscles without having to do repeated full-out sprints. They are not
form and technique drills by design. Athletes can improve acceleration technique
sooner and more consistently by using resistance such as hills and sleds. The use
of Bs for technique work can often bog down the learning curve rather than
assist it. Our best use of these drills is for training sprinting more often. One of
our best uses is as rehabilitation and recovery training from injuries to the
hamstring, hip flexor, groin, and low back, because a good portion of these
injuries result from hip immobility, a lack of postural integrity, and using the
pendulum-at-the-knee technique instead of the piston-at-the-hip technique. Poor
running postures and overstriding can be eliminated with the use of these
progressions.

Cool-Down
 A cool-down, the final portion of the workout session, should be performed
in a relaxed yet productive and efficient manner. Immediately following the
workout, the athlete should perform activities that provide adequate recovery
and restoration to ensure continued quality training.
Increased blood flow throughout the system is a high priority during the
cool-down. This can be achieved with external manipulation or internal
movement activation. The following sections describe activities that can be
included in a cool-down.

Stretching

The age-old failsafe for cool-downs is stretching, which can take multiple
forms that provide various advantages.

Passive stretching—the patient, relaxed hold of stretched muscle groups for

30 seconds or longer—is still practiced during warm-ups. However,
research has shown it to be much more beneficial to overall performance
and improvement at the conclusion of workouts, during the cool-down.
Active isolated stretching involves using a strap, rope, or partner to stretch
targeted muscles and then extending the stretch range by contracting and
relaxing the antagonistic muscles of those under the stretch.
PNF, or contract–relax stretching, involves a partner who helps hold
targeted muscles in stretch as in passive stretching. After several seconds
the partner provides light resistance while the athlete contracts the targeted
(agonist) muscle groups to move the area back to the normal (unstretched)
position. Once completed, the stretch is resumed with a greater range and
ease of motion. This can be repeated two or three times, always ending with
the relaxed portion of the stretch, rather than the contracted portion.

Movement Flexibility and Mobility

Movement flexibility work, or mobility work, also assists in posttraining

recovery. Following are some forms:

Barefoot movement exercises—Because there are more bones, joints, and

small muscles in the feet and ankles, movements forward, backward, and in
a variety of directions at moderate intensities aid in recovery and improved
developmental capacity. Proper foot and ankle positioning for ground
preparation is easier when the toes are exposed. The bottom of the foot is
 developed and massaged simultaneously, and when performed on grass or
dirt, some researchers suggest the existence of a therapeutic effect known as
earthing.
Crawling and climbing—As when used in the warm-up, crawling and
climbing are simple, quick, and low-intensity activities that open and close,
thereby mobilizing, the muscles that surround the hips (low back, flexors,
extensors, hamstrings, adductors and abductors, and quads).
Backward running—Backward running helps establish proper upper-body
running mechanics. It opens up the hip flexors after intense sprinting,
bounding, and hopping, and it loosens up the hamstrings.

Cold Immersion

Another increasingly popular form of recovery is cold immersion, which

comes in the following forms:

Hot and cold contrast

Ice baths
Cool tub mobility movements
Deep freeze chambers

Manual Massage Therapies

Yet another popular type of recovery is manual massage therapy, as follows:

Foam log
Ball
Bead
Water pulsation
Massage therapist

Smarter Strength Training

In any type of improvement process, the underlying question is always How

do we get better? For our purposes, the answer is simply to train smarter (Erro
1995). The ethos for most truly dedicated types is to work hard. Hard work is
only good, however, if the work is smart. Hard work for hard work’s sake is just
work (e.g., I am perspiring and breathing hard, and I’m sore and tired, so the
work must be productive).
As mentioned briefly in the warm-up section, some work is just hard work,
yet not performance based. In this case, the athlete is practicing failure,
performing reps until all technique, rate of operation, and performance quality
has disappeared. This happens in explosive power training all the time.
Plyometric “power hours” in an aerobics class and timed circuits of plyometric
and explosive lifting movements that push the repetitions to poor performance
levels, just for the sake of a good, hard workout, are examples.
As discussed in later chapters, quality should always come before quantity in
plyometric training. Often, it is not just excessive quantity that leads to
practicing failure; it is failing to remember the concepts of performance.
Training smarter means having a good understanding of the concepts in this and
the previous chapter. Understanding coupling time and better ground negotiation
aids in the ability to plan, program, and execute successful training.
The two most common examples of hard versus smart training involve
hurdle hopping and jumping and bounding. Hurdle hopping is a very popular
plyometric training exercise. As long as the athlete can clear the hurdle with all
of the elements of ground negotiation (upright postural control, short coupling
and contact times, pretension, and vertical, pistonlike landings), then training can
be successful. Coaches often believe that raising the hurdles makes for a better
(harder) workout. However, the athlete may be working so hard to clear the
hurdle that the proper elements of ground negotiation have flown out the
window. In the case of jumping, bounding, and especially depth jumping with
extra load (e.g., increased drop height, bungees, weight vests), again the concept
has some merit because there is a strength component to having to handle such
loads upon landing. The problem is that this type of strength development has
negative ramifications not only to overall performance but also to the athlete’s
health. The longer the athlete is on the ground, the more bad things can happen.
Remember from chapter 1 the superball versus tomato analogy. Proper
ground negotiation can be as easy to determine as whether the athlete is on and
off the ground more like a superball or more like a tomato. A dropped tomato
bounces, but not very well and with a great deal of deformation. Increasing the
height of the drop or adding extra load to the tomato only leads to less bounce
and greater deformation until eventually . . . splat! As long as the athlete’s
ground negotiation is superball-like, the training can be good quality work. Once
tomato-ness is observed, the athlete has gone too high, done too many, or lifted
too much.
Gambetta (1992) stated that “training is rehab, and rehab is training.” This
approach is very true when it comes to the use of progressive plyometric
training. Many studies show that ACL injuries and foot and ankle stress issues
are the result of too much time spent on the ground and improper landing
mechanics. Rather than wait until an injury occurs, coaches and athletes should
make proper teaching, training, and performance execution progressions an
integral part of the development program. The following chapters provide a great
guide to such programming.

Whatever the coach or practitioner decides to include in the preparation and
process of training for power, understand the ramifications of many traditional
yet ineffective practices going on in today’s training. Likewise, understand the
benefits of proper protocols involving warm-up and efficient training sessions.
 Chapter 3
Power Training Methods and Equipment
The true art of plyometric training lies in the protocols involved in using
well-balanced and well-executed training. These protocols guide participants and
coaches through progressions that develop optimal performance and skills.
 Gearing Up for Plyometrics
Whether you are a participant or a coach, you should keep plyometric
training principles in mind as you evaluate your teaching, learning, and testing.
Basic progressions and assessment procedures provide good training and lead to
the use of more complex training methodologies.

Form and Execution

Proper form and execution are best evaluated by assessing the posture,
balance, stability, and mobility of each exercise repetition. Is the exercise
performed with upright postural control? Is the movement balanced on the instep
of the support foot? Is the movement stabilized throughout all the joints
involved? And, is the movement performed with the optimal range of motion
(mobility)?
This section provides guidelines for executing the majority of the plyometric
jumping, bounding, and hopping exercises. Following all of these guidelines will
result in optimal skill performance. Applying these guidelines in an accelerated
manner during support-leg coupling, the critical point at which the eccentric part
of landing switches to the concentric part of takeoff, is known as transfer of
force (Jacoby and Fraley 1995). It becomes the center point of which we can
evaluate effective load handling, pretension, and postural control training with,
and for, optimal performance.

Toe-Up Guideline

The toe-up guideline involves using locked ankles in slight dorsiflexion, with
full midfoot-to-forefoot ground contact upon landing (see figure 3.1). The
spring-loading effect of the foot and ankle keeps the foot from pointing or
hanging in a toes-downward position. Keeping the toes upward and the ankle
locked in a neutral loaded position can reduce the aforementioned effect of slack
(see chapter 1) and help pretense the body for better-activated landings. The
beauty of being barefoot in early training and learning progressions is that when
toes are exposed, proper positioning occurs naturally.
 Figure 3.1 Knee-up guideline.

Knee-Up Guideline

The knee-up guideline promotes maximal knee drive and hip extension, or
projection. The sweeping or driving of the swing knee forward and thus upward
maximizes the distance between this knee and the opposing and extended stance
knee (see figure 3.2). When evaluating acceleration mechanics and effective
stride length, in almost all directions, we often look for the space between the
knees, not between the feet.
 Figure 3.2 Knee-up guideline.

Hip-Up Guideline

When the knees are performing proper upward lift mechanics, the hips can
be projected more effectively. Using good postural control and keeping the hips
lifted upward and forward reduce slack in the landing system and enhance
ground negotiation (see figure 3.3). Considering the body as a stick figure, the
more bent segments that exist during ground contact, the more time the person
spends on the ground during that contact. When the hips are lifted upward
forcing a straighter posture in relation to ground contact, the contact will be
more efficient and forceful.
 Figure 3.3 Hip-up guideline.

Heel-Up Guideline

The heel-up guideline results in further projection of the hips and body flight
by reducing the arc and rate of the swing leg (see figure 3.4). The most common
cause of improper running mechanics is that the heel begins to go backward and
then upward when the foot leaves the ground instead of upward and forward
immediately after takeoff. The heel-up guideline involves initiating lifting and
flexing from the hip rather than flexing at the knee. The good news is that when
the toes are flexed up and the knee is driven upward and forward, the heel is
more likely to move in the proper direction, placing itself directly under the belly
of the upper thigh, in preparation for the next ground contact.
 Figure 3.4 Heel-up guideline.

Thumbs-Up Guideline

The thumbs-up, or blocking, guideline is used for upper-body posture and

continued force expression. According to Sir Isaac Newton, for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. When the knees are driven upward in
jumping, bounding, and hopping exercises, the equal and opposite reaction is
that the shoulders drop forward to meet them. The act of forcefully punching the
thumbs upward (as if to poke your eyes out, yet stopping just before reaching the
eyes), also known as blocking, keeps the shoulders upright and the torso in
proper takeoff and landing posture, and from an elbows-back preparation,
synchronizes the summation of force upward, preparing the person for the next
takeoff (see figure 3.5). Allowing the thumbs (or hands) to circle up and back
over the head slows the entire movement and elicits a loss of force.
 Figure 3.5 Thumbs-up guideline.

Performance Breathing

Athletes need to understand relaxation, especially of the face and neck, to

perform with postural control. Using proper breathing mechanics is crucial and
can assist in structural support and execution. Following are some guidelines:

Inhale during the descent. Taking a breath in is part of the preparation for
takeoff that coincides with the elbows-back-with-thumbs-up guideline and
the toes-up guideline for foot and ankle tensing. It is merely part of proper
ground preparation.
Hold your breath during the stretch phase. Tensing the joints to create
elastic reactivity elements is facilitated by tensing the breathing pattern as
well (i.e., holding the breath that you inhaled just prior to landing).
Exhale once you have executed shortening. Breathing out at the execution
of a forceful takeoff elicits the completion of the stretch–shortening cycle
from both an external and internal standpoint and coordinates, or syncs, the
rhythm for continuous movement.

Landing
 Jumps with undamped (i.e., without delay) landings produce higher power
and force than those with damped landings (i.e., with added flexion and
therefore more delay in coupling and contact times). The quicker the person
switches from yielding (eccentric stretch) work to overcoming (concentric
shortening) work, the more powerful, and safer, the response.
In most cases, a good guideline to follow is to execute undamped landings in
jumping exercises. All stretch–shortening cycle exercises should stress active
tension upon landing. Clinical studies and practical experience show the value of
preparing the musculature for takeoffs upon landing. To minimize ground time
and promote undamped, high-tension, optimal-impulse takeoffs, the person
should flex the joints and tense the stretch components upon landing rather than
after contact with the ground (Bosco 1982).

Foot Placement

Proper foot placement when doing yielding and overcoming work is

essential. To obtain as quick a release as possible, an athlete must maintain a
locked ankle when landing. Rolling the foot from heel to toe or allowing
movement along the ankle joint slows the response and displaces the force from
the overcoming portion. The best way to land is with dorsiflexed toes and two-
thirds to full-foot ground contact, with the weight balanced on the front half of
the foot. One of the best ways to explain this is with the analogy of running or
bounding on firm sand. The landing spot should appear to have a large
displacement of sand at the front half of the foot and a very faint imprint of the
heel (see figure 3.6).
 Figure 3.6 Proper foot placement determined by imprints in sand.

On firm ground and at high speeds, the goal is to reduce slack and improve
impulse by loading the ankle in a neutral, locked position and using a short,
quick plantarflexion of the ankle (still keeping the toes up). This is the best way
to keep the heel slightly off the ground.
Emphasizing landing on the toes or even on the ball of the foot may confuse
an athlete and lead to poorly balanced landings and inadequate specificity in
most leg and foot movements involving acceleration. As exercises and execution
techniques progress, reaccelerating the leg (hip whip) and timing proper
plantarflexion of the ankle and foot with the ground to reduce slack optimizes
the use of force in the least amount of ground contact time (ankle spring).

Blocking and Upper-Body Synchronization

In all plyometric jumps, hops, leaps, bounds, skips, and ricochets, the athlete
should concentrate on the blocking (thumbs-up) rule by adding the arms in a
forward and upward punching motion. The block occurs by abruptly halting the
motion to maintain upper-body posture and continue force expression. When the
knees are brought upward abruptly, as in hopping and tucking movements, the
tendency is for the shoulders to drop forward. Holding the hands in a thumbs-up
position and executing the block technique counteract this tendency by forcing
the torso to remain more upright, thus aiding balance. In addition, the blocking
motion of the upper torso can provide 10 to 12 percent of the forces applied.

Follow-Through

Follow-through is important in plyometric movements involving upper-body

muscle groups. Continuous force and quickness of action are important. In
repetitive throws, such as the medicine ball chest pass or the heavy bag thrust,
the recovery or catch phase should not go beyond the point of full extension or
flexion. This ensures that limb and trunk musculature is properly stretched
(loaded), initiating a more forceful, reactive explosion.
 Understanding Progressions
Exercises performed on two limbs are simpler than those performed on one,
especially in terms of balance and stability. Traveling at angles is more
complicated from a posture, balance, and stability standpoint than moving in
place. That concept leads us to progress from single-response repetitions, in
which the athlete performs a single repetition; holds (or sticks) the landing;
assesses the posture, balance, stability, and mobility of the move; and then resets
and executes another repetition. This style is followed by multiple responses
with a pause (i.e., several repetitions are performed with a pause at each stuck
landing to assess technical mastery and then repeated without resetting). This
helps to condition the body to be prepared for each landing before contact rather
than upon or after. It also aids in negotiating the landings better when finally
progressing to multiple responses or the true plyometric execution of repetitions
in succession and at maximal rate with minimal contact time.
Training should occur progressively along the stress continuum from the
simplest exercises (based on the number of landing components, the amount of
travel, what happens during flight, and the amount of impact on the body) to the
more complex exercises, which tend to be the most shock to the system (see
figure 3.7). Beginners should start with moderate exercises, such as in-place
jumps and exercises with both legs. As strength and explosive power increase,
they can progress to movement exercises of increasing intensity and complexity.
 Figure 3.7 Teaching progressions.

Here are a few guidelines for using sensible progressions:

Focus first on the lower leg and ankle joints (pogo, galloping, prancing, and
ankle flip).
Progress from lower-leg to full-leg, knee, and ankle countermovements
(e.g., squat jump, split jump, single-leg stair bound).
Finally, progress to total torso hip, knee, and ankle countermovements (e.g.,
knee-tuck jump, bounding, hopping).
Continue to persuade the body to understand postural control and the
differences between joint control in ground contact and that in flight. For
instance, the toe-up, knee-up, and heel-up guidelines are accompanied by
the thumbs-up guideline for flight purposes, to keep the shoulders and
upper torso from shifting forward in an equal and opposite reaction to the
knee lift about the hip joint. Upon landing, the toe-up action has a different
positioning when understanding the neutral lock and load of the ankle. In
addition, the elbows must be behind the torso to further prepare the body
for contact.
With medicine balls, the progression should be from passing to tossing to
throwing movements followed by the full multiple-recoil movements of
thrusting, swinging, and repetitive throwing.
 Individualizing the Training Program
For best results, plyometric training programs should be individualized.
After evaluating an athlete, training the basics, and observing performance of
some exercises, a coach should have a good idea of what the athlete is capable of
and how fast to progress. Despite continuing research in the area of optimal
training loads, as with so many other areas of sport training, individualizing the
stretch–shortening cycle training program is more an art than a science.

Overload and Intensity

A plyometric training program must provide resistive, spatial, and temporal

overload:

Resistive overload—this type of overload refers to the gravitational,

inclination, or external stress.
Spatial overload—this type of overload refers to the range (sagittal, frontal,
transverse).
Temporal overload—this type of overload refers to the operating rate or
impulse.

Overload forces the neuromuscular system to work at greater intensities. It is

regulated by controlling the height, distance, external loads or forces (or both),
and dosage (volume of work) of each variable. Improper overload may negate
the effectiveness of the exercise or may even result in injury. Thus, using
weights that exceed the resistive overload demands of certain plyometric
movements may increase strength but not necessarily explosive power. Resistive
overload in most plyometric exercises takes the form of forces of momentum
and gravity, using lightweight objects such as medicine balls or dumbbells, or
merely body weight.
Many coaches, trainers, and practitioners have tried to fashion plyometric
training after some modes of weight room training and anaerobic conditioning,
believing that good training is hard (i.e., higher, heavier, eliciting heavy
breathing and nausea). Progressive overload in elastic–reactive training refers to
the style of contacts and the complexity of the movement, not increases in load
or duration to the point of increasing coupling time. In its simplest form, athletes
can ask themselves whether they are training like a superball or like a tomato. If
the answer is superball, the training is smart. If the training is hard, and the
contacts are tomato-like, the training needs reevaluating.
Intensity can be describe in two ways, both of which are important to
stretch–shortening cycle training. One addresses the amount of force at impact.
The other addresses the level of effort while executing the exercises. Following
warm-up and progressive lead-up exercises, quickness of execution with
maximal effort is essential for optimal training effects. The rate of muscle stretch
is more important than the magnitude of the stretch. Greater reflex responses
occur when muscles are loaded rapidly. Regardless of the level of progression,
maximal effort should be expended when projecting the hips, torso, appendages,
or implement. The reduction of impact, complexity, or flight is dictated by the
technique and constraints of the exercise progressions themselves, not by
diminished effort. Because of the intensity of the exercises, it is important to rest
adequately between exercise sequences.
The intensity and amount of overload are two critical variables when
individualizing training. Views vary about the optimal intensity and overload for
stretch–shortening cycle exercises. For example, many coaches still recommend
that athletes need to be able to squat one or two times their body weight to train
with certain plyometric exercises. However, as mentioned previously, this does
not apply to all exercises under the stress continuum of the stretch–shortening
cycle, nor is it appropriate for everyone. As we discuss later, simple tests of
progression and evaluation can provide a basis for individualizing the training,
even if these tests are not yet based on a substantial body of scientific research
evidence.
One notable area in which there is good evidence is the depth jump exercise.
Bosco and Komi (1979, 1981) and Verkhoshansky (1967) examined the optimal
height for executing depth jumps and found that dropping from a height of 29
inches (74 cm) develops speed. They found, in contrast, that dropping from 43
inches (109 cm) develops dynamic strength. With drops from higher than 43
inches, the time and energy it takes to cushion the landing defeats the purpose of
this shock training.
More than three decades ago, Verkhoshansky first addressed the usefulness
of depth jumps as an eccentric loading exercise. He searched for a shock method
of nerve–muscle reactive ability in a takeoff after jumping from a height. He
demonstrated that isotonic weight training marginally improved the speed of
running and jumping takeoff. Verkhoshansky (1968) noted that jumps in depth
come the closest to bridging the gap between weight or strength training and
jump training for speed and that takeoffs after a jump for depth are the leading
method of improving the reactive ability of the nerve–muscle apparatus.
 Bosco and Komi (1982) reported improvements in jumping ability and
increased tolerance to stretch loads in what they termed bounce training (drop
jumps). After studying an athlete’s behavior under impact (depth jumps),
Bobbert and colleagues (Bobbert et al. 1986; Bobbert, Huijing, and van Ingen
Schenau 1987a, 1987b), who also analyzed techniques of drop and
countermovement jumps (and the force of their impact), recommended choosing
drop heights that do not require heel-to-ground contact. They suggested that
athletes should land with the weight distributed toward the forward half of their
feet, because landing on a flat foot may excessively strain the Achilles tendon.
When eccentric training was introduced in the 1960s, it was assumed that
high drop jumps (30 to 45 in., or 76 to 114 cm) were necessary for achieving
maximal results (Verkhoshansky 1968). Later, studies recommended that drop
heights should not exceed 24 inches (60 cm) (Adams 1984; Bosco and Komi
1979, 1982; Clutch et al. 1983; Hakkinen, Alen, and Komi 1985; Komi and
Bosco 1978; Scoles 1978; Viitasalo and Bosco 1982). Our studies (Radcliffe and
Osternig 1995) and those of others (Bobbert et al. 1986; Bobbert, Huijing, and
van Ingen Schenau 1987a, 1987b) indicated that a further reduction in drop
height may be appropriate (8 to 16 in., or 20 to 40 cm).

Volume and Dosage

Usually, the number of sets and repetitions coincides with the type,
complexity, and intensity of exercises involving stretch–shortening cycle
training. The amount should also reflect the planning stages, the progressions,
and the levels of development achieved. Usually, the number of repetitions
ranges from 8 to 12, with fewer for more complex takeoff and landing sequences
and more for exercises involving lower stress. The number of sets may vary
accordingly. Sport scientists in Eastern Europe have suggested 6 to 10 sets for
most exercises, whereas earlier, Russian sport scientists recommended from 3 to
6 sets, especially for the more intense jumping exercises. We emphasize that all
dosages should be planned according to the continuum of progressive
development as dictated by stress and exercise complexity (see figure 3.8).
 Figure 3.8 Continuum of progressive development.

In the 1970s Russian scientists Verkhoshansky and Tatyan (1973) showed

that the sequencing of the high-volume speed-strength training is not statistically
significant. This type of training is most effective when matching speed-strength
preparation coordinates with the current functional state of the athlete’s body.
Sometimes the number of repetitions is dictated not only by the intensity of the
exercise but also by the athlete’s condition, the execution of each repetition, and
the value of the outcome.

Response

Most stretch–shortening cycle exercises fall into one of two categories:

single-response exercises or multiple-response exercises. The single-response
exercises involve a single, intense effort. Good examples are takeoffs, initial
bursts of motion, and releases. Multiple-response exercises, although also
intense, place more emphasis on elasticity, speed, and coordination by involving
several efforts in succession. One major goal of true plyometric training is
performing high-impulse landings and takeoffs in succession. Progressing to the
advanced stages of the stretch–shortening cycle and plyometric training
continuum requires both types of response. Even better is inserting a third, which
we call multiple response with a pause, into the educational setting of the
training.
Single-response exercises should be performed with a complete self-check
and reset of the posture, balance, stability, and flexibility at each takeoff and
landing. Successful performance then leads to executing the exercise in a single-
response manner without resetting: take off, land, pause and check, repeat.
Because of the no-reset factor, the exercise becomes a continued set of
responses, but with pauses. Continued success leads to multiple-response
repetitions and progressions.
Again, the main objective of true plyometric training is to perform multiple
repetitions in a very elastic and reactive manner. There is little to no benefit to,
and sometimes problems with, attempting multiple-response repetitions with
slow and sloppy contacts. Therefore, athletes should work the single-response
method for the postural, stabilizing benefits and some of the balance and
technique requirements, but when using multiple-response methods, they should
do them—as often mentioned in this book—like superballs.
These exercises are performed to improve nerve–muscle reactions,
explosiveness, quickness, and the ability to generate forces in certain directions.
An athlete benefits only from repetitions done well. For example, if he performs
a set of hops, bounds, or throws correctly for eight repetitions, but begins to
fatigue and performs incorrectly thereafter, then eight repetitions are enough.
Given the elastic–reactive nature of this training, little is gained with low-effort,
poorly executed exercises. Several coaches and researchers have used high-
volume exercises and exercises to investigate the effectiveness of high-
endurance elasticity, but the exercises are low impact and low intensity, and they
involve low movement complexity. As the basic progression guidelines in this
chapter attest, training effects occur as a result of quality, not quantity.
The numbers of sets, repetitions, and rest periods we recommend in the
following chapters are based on our experiences of teaching and coaching
plyometric training at the junior high, high school, college, professional, and
elite levels and on research literature for particular exercises. They are not
absolutes, but merely a basis from which to begin and then evaluate and
progress. The values within the objectives should be adjusted to achieve training
goals. Determining the volume of plyometric training is an inexact science at
this time; we need continued research in this area.

Force and Time

Both force and movement velocity are important in plyometric training. In

many cases the critical concern is the speed of a particular action. For example,
in shot-putting, the primary objective is to exert maximal force throughout the
movement. The quicker the athlete executes the action sequence, the greater the
force she will generate and the longer the distance she will achieve. As noted in
chapter 1, the impulse of the movement is key. Movements must have a high
impulse to genuinely train in the manner that the stretch–shortening cycle and
plyometrics have suggested. The measure of impulsive action may truly dictate
the effectiveness of training and performance.

Rest

A rest period of one or two minutes between sets is usually sufficient for the
neuromuscular systems stressed by stretch–shortening cycle exercises to
recuperate. Much depends on where the exercises exist along the stress
continuum scale. Exercises of low impact and low landing or catching intensity
(e.g., medicine ball, heavy bag) may allow minimal rest periods of 30 to 60
seconds, enough time to walk back or change places with a partner or group of
practitioners. At the shock end of the stress scale, exercise repetitions may
require two or three minutes or more for the systems to be able to handle the
forces necessary for optimal execution. An adequate period of rest between
training days is also important for proper recovery of muscles, ligaments, and
tendons.
The frequency most trainers advocate is two or three days per week of
plyometric training, which seems to provide optimal results. It is important to
consider the total training load, the type of activity specific to each sport, and the
influence of the inverse relationship between frequency and intensity.
Noted authorities (Gambetta et al. 1986) have suggested that the emphasis of
the training day be the major guideline when planning workouts. When
plyometric activities are performed on the same days as other lifting, sprinting,
or throwing activities, athletes or coaches should prioritize their importance. If
the goal is developing elastic strength, then the volume of plyometric work
should be larger and placed earlier in the workout day—before more relative or
dynamic strength work. If elastic strength is of lower priority than other speed or
strength work, then the plyometric work may follow those workout activities and
their dosages can be adjusted accordingly. In addition, within the training
microcycle (week), attention is paid to various strength modalities (e.g., dynamic
versus absolute), which can also dictate where to place elastic strength work.
Table 3.1 gives examples of workout weeks for programs with time constraints.
 Specificity

As mentioned in chapter 1, improving performance requires using the

principle of specificity. The dynamic structures of a skill are based on the
muscular components of force, contraction, and recruitment. Considering spatial
orientation can help with skill development; for example, using positions that
mimic the angles and degrees of contraction of a skill improves neuromuscular
activity and results in measurable increases in performance.
As mentioned in chapter 1, keeping a good blend of intramuscular and
intermuscular coordination within the training is important. Strength and speed
cannot and should not be separated from coordination and synchronization.
Mixtures of intra- and intermuscular coordination are key factors in
performance, and the training should have functional specificity to reflect these
concepts (Bosch 2005).
These increases become evident when, whether simple or complex, the
movements trained are the movements evaluated in testing. Movement aspects to
consider when choosing body postures and movement planes are patterns,
regions, frequencies, and velocities of the performance movements (Bompa
1993; Siff 1996).
When training for specific strength, speed, and endurance, athletes should
keep in mind that stretch–shortening cycle exercises are useful for a variety of
phases and to address the principles of overload, intensity, and dosage. Different
phases of training require different preparatory, technical, developmental, and
transitional methods. Using different progressive levels of stretch–shortening
cycle training, athletes can train the general, multilateral, and specific aspects
while phasing them in and out of training. Training age, rehabilitation, and the
closeness of a competitive performance should influence the timing and dosages
of plyometric exercises.
We recommend using the progressive exercise methods to develop the
general processes of strength (e.g., the relative and dynamic portions) while
moving to more reactive portions with shock methodology (in the advanced
stages). The progressions are necessary to foster neuromotor (proprioceptive)
development. Then, with complete knowledge of the sport or activity, the athlete
can apply stretch–shortening cycle principles to develop highly specific
neuromuscular improvements in performance.
 Selecting Facilities, Equipment, and Attire
Once the concepts of plyometric training are acquired, athletes must
optimize their training by deciding where to train, what equipment to use, and
how to accessorize. The following sections should help in those decisions.

Facilities

Locations in which to perform exercises involving the stretch–shortening

cycle are easily located and inexpensive. Participants can execute great
plyometric training in backyards, parks, hallways, and even bedrooms. However,
selecting the best situations for proper progressive training programs is essential
for safe and effective training.
When looking for a good facility or location for workouts, athletes will
discover that Mother Nature was thinking of eccentric-style training. Grass, in
our experience, is the best surface as long as it is resilient yet cushioned. We do
not recommend soggy, muddy grass or dead, dry, cement-hard grass surfaces.
Cushioned hardwood floors, such as those in indoor gyms and aerobic studios,
can be used for early progressions of plyometric activities; some rugged
surfaces, Tartan tracks, and rubber weight room floors can work. Resilient mats
such as those used in gymnastics floor routines also work well. Mats with too
much give or cushioning defeat the purpose of reactive landings; therefore, we
do not recommend anything softer than wrestling mats.

Equipment

The equipment listed in this section isn’t costly. Some facilities provide most
of it.

Angle Box

An angle box, made of metal, aluminum, or wood, is a set of angled foot

placements for use in lateral movements. The precise angles of the box are not
crucial. What is important is that each angle be slightly different from the other
three. The bottom of the board must have enough weight, or the ability to be
secured, so the box will not move during use. The boards must be of solid
construction, durable, and nonslip. You can construct an angle box or purchase
one from a conditioning product website.

Angle Board

An angle board is made of wood or plastic, with a metal, aluminum, or solid

wood frame. The sizes of several boards differ in height and top length
according to the size of the box you use. Standard sizes are a 12-inch (30 cm)
base and a height of 6, 8, or 10 inches (15, 20 or 25 cm). The boards must be of
solid construction, durable, and nonslip. You can construct a multi-dimensional
box using these dimensions, or purchase one from a conditioning product
website.
Angled floors have recently been introduced to address the angled landing
and takeoff concept. These articulating floors can be set at various angles to
provide varied contact negotiations.

Bars

Bars range in size from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.1 m) long and weigh anywhere
from 10 to 50 pounds (4.5 to 23 kg). They usually measure 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to
5 cm) in diameter for Olympic style. Athletes can use lead pipes, steel rods, or
lifting bars from weight sets, or construct them from pipes, PVC, or wooden
dowels.

Boxes

Boxes come in a variety of sizes, ranging from 12 inches (30 cm) high to 42
inches (107 cm) high. A combination of sizes and shapes can be used, including
rectangular and multilevel (drop, jump, and bound). Frames should be of wood
or metal; homemade boxes can be covered with a rug, artificial turf, or antislip
rubber.

Cones

Cones are either rubber or plastic and are available in four sizes: 6 to 8
inches (15 to 20 cm), 10 to 12 inches (25 to 30 cm), 16 to 18 inches (41 to 46
cm), and 22 to 24 inches (56 to 61 cm). They can be purchased from sporting
goods stores, catalogs (outlets), soccer shops, or online.

Dumbbells
 Closed dumbbells weighing 10 to 40 pounds (4.5 to 18 kg) are appropriate
for plyometric training; those with solid handles are best. Dumbbells can be
made of solid one-piece construction, welded, or bolted. They are used as much
for dropping as for swinging. However, some advanced methods call for
releasing the dumbbell before completion. Dumbbells can be found at any
sporting goods or weight equipment outlet.

Heavy Bags

Athletes should have a selection of heavy bags stuffed with combinations of

foam rubber, sand, or soft pellets, and covered in canvas or durable vinyl. They
can be tube or bell shaped, and they can range from 20 to 120 pounds (9 to 54
kg), like many blocking dummies and boxing heavy bags. They are available at
sporting goods outlets that carry boxing equipment or outlet catalogs that carry
physical education equipment, football equipment, and so on. Bags can also be
constructed by stuffing towels and shot or sand into large laundry or carry-all
bags.

Hurdles

Hurdles should be adjustable, lightweight for carrying, and made from

aluminum, PVC, plastic, wood, or metal. They should range in height from 12 to
36 inches (30 to 90 cm). Hurdles can be purchased from track and conditioning
websites or constructed from scraps from plumbing or building sites or used
furniture stores.

Landing Pits

Landing pits that use sand and sawdust in dirt can be found outside at tracks
or conditioning areas. Indoor landing pits are placed into or on top of the floor or
constructed as boxes of foam padding or raised cushions. Foam pit sizes range
from 8 to 15 feet (2.4 to 4.6 m) square. Sandpits can range from normal long
jump or triple jump pits to large 5-by-30-yard rectangles. Foam padding is
available at sporting goods stores and outdoor and furniture repair outlets. Sand
is sold at rock and gravel quarries and by landscaping suppliers.

Medicine Balls

Having assorted sizes of rubber or elastic medicine balls is best, although

leather balls are fine with the assistance of a partner. The weight, for our
purposes, is 3 or 4 pounds (1 or 2 kg) for single-limb work, and 12 to 15 pounds
(5 to 7 kg) for total-body exercises. It is best to purchase balls from
manufacturers online or wholesale outfitters. They can also be constructed from
old playground or sports balls that are stuffed, filled, sewn, or even wrapped in
plastic or melted in rubber.

Steps

Look for stair steps that are close faced (no open spaces between steps) to
prevent toes from becoming caught underneath. They should be no more than 8
inches (20 cm) high, 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 cm) deep, and at least 3 feet (1 m)
wide. Suitable steps are found in stadiums and indoor stairwells or can be
constructed from wood or cement.

Tubing or Bands

Elastic tubing or bands can assist with accelerated movements or provide

safe obstacles for incremental jumping. Assorted sizes and dimensions of
surgical cord or solid-core rubber cord are available. We recommend the thicker,
more solid styles. Dimensions range from 1/8-inch to 3/4-inch (about 1/3 to 2
cm) thicknesses (ask whether that is the total diameter or the width of the tubing
wall). Tubes and bands can be purchased at hospital or pharmaceutical supply
outlets or from conditioning product websites.

Attire

No special attire is necessary for explosive power training. Any athletic

workout clothing that is comfortable; wears well; and does not bind, hinder, or
confine joint movements is acceptable.

Shoes

Shoes for explosive training have received much attention. The comfort,
stability, and design of the shoe are considerations, especially with constant
training. However, the main issue is proper foot, ankle, and lower leg landing
positions. These mechanics should be the most important consideration.
Experience and clinical evidence indicate that bare feet and thin-soled footwear
may be safe and reliable because they decrease the tendency to pronate,
minimize excessive heel contact, and lessen other landing improprieties. The
proper blend of exercise surface and footwear that fosters attention to mechanics
is what athletes should strive for.

Weighted Apparel

All styles of weighted apparel (e.g., vests, belts, anklets) have undergone
clinical and practical evaluations, many with good results. We do not
recommend prolonged use of any particular style and advise against using
weighted apparel during the beginning and intermediate periods of
programming.
Once in the advanced stages of training, athletes should base their use of
weighted apparel on what will produce the best results for optimal hip
projection. They can use any piece that fits well and provides proper contours
and that does not detract from the ultimate goals of hip projection and
proprioceptive augmentation. Many sporting goods outlets and conditioning
equipment websites sell suitable attire. However, keep in mind that external
loading will always increase the coupling time to a point at which contact times
will not be elastic and reactive and, therefore, un-superball-like! We recommend
that all multiple-response reactive landings and immediate takeoffs be performed
without external weight, tubing, cords, and so on. The main reason for multiple
responses is to improve the ability to quickly and efficiently negotiate the
landing. External loading nullifies this.
\set space\
Training for elastic–reactive explosive power will always require a
progressive approach. Athletes must determine where to begin; how to assess
their accomplishments along the continuum of stress, intensity, and technical
execution; and where, how, and when to use this training.
 Chapter 4
Power Assessments
Any program dedicated to enhancing performance needs an ongoing method
of evaluating its direction and participants’ fitness and accomplishments. To use
the stretch–shortening cycle optimally, athletes and their coaches need to know
whether athletes’ ages, fitness levels, and understanding of safe procedures are
suitable for them to participate, whether they are properly equipped (appropriate
attire and props), and whether good exercise progressions are in place.
 Assessing Ability
Is serious plyometric training a good option? Before getting too far in
planning the specifics of a program, the prudent approach is to look honestly and
carefully at factors that could affect safe participation in such intense training.
Prior to starting a progressive 12-week program, participants must have a
proper foundation. This includes adequate strength, good fundamental exercise
techniques, and an understanding of the risks of injury and how to recuperate
from workouts.
Trainers must know participants’ ages; genetics factors; and levels of
experience, health, fitness, and strength. Those planning their own programs
should treat assessment at least as seriously because they are their own trainers!
They should look for any limitations that might inhibit progressive development
in explosive power training.

Age

Chronological age is an important consideration. Bosco and Komi (1981)

demonstrated that the maturity of both the nervous system and the skeletal
system affect people’s tolerance of plyometric training. Youngsters who have not
yet reached puberty, for example, should not participate in plyometrics,
especially at intense levels. The continual growth of the skeletal system,
cartilage at the epiphyseal plates, joint surfaces, and apophyseal insertions make
the extreme forces of some plyometric exercises inappropriate.
The inability of young people to tolerate the high loads of the stretch–
shortening cycle can cause confusion because they are exposed to forces during
play and sports that may equal or exceed the forces experienced in plyometric
training with a proper progressive system. The fact is that kids are vulnerable to
excessively hard play, yet not as vulnerable as they are to consistent repetitions
of excessive overloads.
We contend that 12- to 14-year-old participants can use plyometric training
to prepare for future strength training. This has been corroborated by researchers
including Valik (1966) and McFarlane (1982). However, we suggest using
moderate jump training with youths. Early progressions of low impact and small
dosages, as the guidelines and the continuum in later chapters suggest, are best.
Adolescents do not appear to experience any significant response to explosive
strength training until after the onset of puberty; therefore, training programs
should be prescribed cautiously. Planned progressions are particularly
appropriate so that young people receive the many other benefits (e.g., good
mechanics, coordination, structural integrity) until maturity and mastery
develop.
As age increases, nervous system capability, muscle and joint pliability, and
energy production decrease, which makes plyometric training less attractive for
older athletes. On the other hand, evidence suggests that decreased explosiveness
is only partly due to the natural aging process. Increases in endurance training, a
lack of such training, and lifestyle also influence how much explosive power a
person maintains at older ages. Continued use of stretch–shortening cycle
training in proper progressions and using moderate intensities can be effective
for aging athletes, as evidenced by the growing numbers of masters athletes in
explosive sporting events (e.g., track and field, weightlifting). As addressed in
further chapters, anyone’s capabilities can be evaluated and their training
adjusted based on maturity.

Physical Capabilities and Health Limitations

Having a good level of overall fitness is helpful in all areas of exercise, and
training for explosive power is no different. A doctor’s physical exam is helpful.
Before undertaking such training, people should have good body weight control
and body composition, enough cardiorespiratory fitness to exercise continuously
for several minutes or more, the strength to handle their own body weight in
movements in all planes, and the mobility to handle movement positions in
several ranges of motion.
Several physical areas should be assessed not only when planning training
but also to determine limitations. Flexibility is one, especially in the ankle joints
and calf muscles, to ensure proper foot mechanics and proper hip set and
segmental cushioning. Evaluators should examine posture, noticing especially
the use of torso mechanics; pelvic tilt; and the positioning of the cervical,
thoracic, and lumbar spine. They should check out balance, torso tilt, and each
appendage’s joint alignment, as well as the stability of the foot in contact with
the ground, stance firmness, joint tension, and coordinated control.
Past injuries may limit a person’s ability to perform plyometric exercises.
Joint stability and balance should be examined to note any past knee, ankle, or
shoulder injuries. As mentioned in chapters 5 through 7, progressive exercises
are useful in rehabilitation from injuries. Limitations on explosive training may
arise from back or spine problems. Excessive trauma to these or any other areas
that cause improper landing capabilities need to be addressed and planning
adjusted.
Table 4.1 lists the capabilities and health conditions that indicate a readiness
or lack of readiness to participate in plyometric training.
 Individual Differences

Athletes respond differently to training regimens. Coaches need to be

sensitive to these individual differences, and athletes themselves must have some
self-awareness. For example, differences between males and females show up
both in training and performance. In addition, genetic makeup dictates, to a large
extent, a person’s ability to improve. Factors such as limb length and muscle
fiber type distribution have a direct effect on performance. Both athletes and
coaches need to be aware of limitations that can arise in training and
development. Although these limitations may affect the rate of an athlete’s
progress, they should not influence the basic design of the training regimen.

Experience

The training age, or level of experience, a participant brings to working with

stretch–shortening cycles can be more important than chronological age. Some
athletes who have had several years of experience as competitors, for example,
have never trained for competition. Some maturing athletes have been extremely
skilled in their athletic endeavors and possess enormous talent, yet bring only an
infantile level of training as a base. These athletes can be at high risk if they use
poor technique and undertake exercise quantities that their body structures are
not ready for. Coaches must determine athletes’ technical and developmental
levels by using quality training assessments (posture, balance, flexibility, and
stability) as described in chapters 1 through 3 regarding core strength, postural
control, and pretension.

Strength Training Base

 Because a strength base is advantageous in plyometric training, a general
strength training program should complement, not retard, the development of
explosive power. However, establishing a strength base before plyometric
training does not have to be a huge endeavor. An often-prescribed
recommendation is the once-used Russian suggestion of being able to perform a
maximal squat of one and a half to two times one’s body weight before
attempting depth jumps and similar shock training. This criterion is still useful as
a safety protocol for the extreme end of the stress continuum. However, it is not
necessary for the other stretch–shortening cycle exercises used in the beginning
and intermediate portions of the continuum. In our more recent research
(Radcliffe and Osternig 1995), we found that some correlation exists between
squat performance and depth jump capabilities. However, the significance was
so low that any predictions about how well the amount of weight squatted
determined jump stress capabilities are negligible.
 Creating an Effective Program
There is probably no limit to the variety of stretch–shortening cycle
exercises. Some imagination and inquisitiveness, peppered with a basic
understanding of the neuromuscular processes involved, will allow both athletes
and coaches to develop myriad useful exercises. However, it is neither practical
nor necessary to identify each movement pattern of every sport skill and design a
specific plyometric exercise for it. In fact, only a small number of power
movements are key in sport. Chapters 5 through 7 present sets of exercises for
these power movements. The exercises are appropriate for all training needs; our
explanations and demonstrations add a few insights.
The training sets begin with the simple, fundamental exercises and progress
to the more complex and difficult. As athletes improve in strength and
performance, they can advance to more difficult exercises. Coaches and athletes
should both determine whether the athletes have the skills for properly executing
the complex exercises using the apparatuses we mention. Proper planning and
evaluation should be used for safe and optimal training progressions to enhance
sport performance.
The exercises in chapters 5 through 7 proceed in a progression. Coaches and
athletes should use the sequences, cues, and performance protocols as guides
while progressing through the levels of exercises.

Training Movements and Methods

A variety of movements and action sequences occur in sports. Some are

simple and involve few learned skills, but others are exceedingly complicated.
Within the stretch–shortening cycle training, a broad spectrum of simple to
complex exercises is available. Deciding which exercises to use depends on the
athlete’s performance goals.
As coaches and practitioners, we continually attempt to use the proper
terminology for types of training. We have introduced several systems for
categorizing plyometric exercises based on functional anatomy, their relationship
with athletic movements, and competitive events.
In this and chapter 5 we categorize the exercises based on the musculature
involved and how it relates to particular sport movements. We examine the
major muscle groups used in movements and the biomechanics basic to many
sports, and we provide a rationale for using certain exercises, and their
respective terminology, to train progressively for more power.

Targeted Muscle Groups

The exercises here and in following three chapters are organized along the
stress continuum according to three body regions: upper body (chest, shoulders,
shoulder girdle, and arms); trunk (midsection); and lower body (legs and hips).
Although we consider them separately here, these categories are functionally
integrated; they are parts of what we often refer to as the power chain.

Movements and the Power Chain

Most athletic movement originates from the hips and legs. This is true for
running, throwing, and jumping actions, which may be the final performance
objective or a component of more complex movements. For example, often the
energy of motion for the hips and legs transfers up through the midsection in the
actions of flexing, extending, twisting, and bending. The upper body finally
receives the energy to execute some type of skilled movement involving the
shoulders, chest, and arms. The overlying concept in all athletic development is
synchronization. The better the athlete can coordinate the limbs across and
through the body’s core, the stronger, faster, more agile, and more powerful he
will be. Throughout this book we emphasize the overall importance of honing
the synchronization of movement skills in each exercise and progression
sequence.
We have grouped the basic exercises for the legs and hips into jumps, bounds
and skips, and hops. Within each category, we present the exercises in a
continuum from low intensity to moderate, high, and shock. Table 4.2 is a
summary of the basic exercises for the legs and hips. Each includes a description
that outlines its purpose, starting position, and action sequence.
 Evaluation of Consistent Execution
All participants should be tested on posture, balance, stability, and flexibility
before performing any training. This assessment provides information for
planning training level progressions on the continuum.
The following power assessments are useful for all stretch–shortening cycle
training movements (e.g., weights, plyometrics, speed and agility work):

Overhead squat
Vertical jump reach
Depth jump reach
Single-leg squat with foot back
Single-leg pogo jump
Single-leg slide kick
10-rep bounce
Medicine ball chest pass
Medicine ball forward overhead throw
Medicine ball backward overhead throw
Jump decathlon

If progress in any area seems doubtful, the athlete should drop back to a
previous exercise level or maintain the current level until she meets the criteria.
Then she can move onward. Normative data and ranked improvement
progressions can also be used to interpret test scores and individualize training
programs. Testing at the beginning of certain training phases and then retesting
at the conclusion reveal whether the intensity and dosage of the training were
correct, too little, or too much. By conferring with athletes and evaluating the
intensity and volume of the workload, coaches and trainers can systematically
monitor their progress and develop a basis from which to adjust training.
Coaches who keep records and share normative data, as we have done in this
book, can collectively develop better prescriptions for training.

Overhead Squat
/ 00:00



Grip a light bar, rod, or broomstick at elbow width and lock the elbows. Hold
the bar directly over the head with the arms slightly behind the ears (see figure
a). The heels of the feet are directly underneath the hips with the toes out slightly
wider. Squat as low as possible keeping the heels in contact with the ground and
the bar (elbows) locked out overhead (see figure b). This exercise can be used to
assess and then develop posture; balance; and ankle, hip, and shoulder mobility.
If the bar does not stay directly over the feet, then the shoulders may lack
mobility. If the hips cannot sink below knee level, hip mobility may be lacking.
If the heels do not stay in contact with the ground, ankle mobility may be an
issue.

Vertical Jump Reach

/ 00:00

a.
b.
 c.

Stand full-footed next to a wall, pole, or measurement device (see figure a).
Using the tips of the fingers, reach up and mark the highest point possible.
Summon all the force possible by executing a short, quick countermovement
jump using flexion of the hips, knees, and ankles (see figure b); then rapidly
extend the entire body and arm reach (see figure c). At the apex of the jump, use
the tips of the fingers to record the highest mark possible. The distance between
the standing-reach mark and the jumping-reach mark is the recorded score.
Take the best of three, four, or five trials. The jumps should be executed
without moving the feet before takeoff in a shuffling or stepping action. Coaches
often allow a step or even a several-step approach. This test can be used for
evaluating specific jump parameters (e.g., approach jumps in volleyball or speed
versus power jumping), as long as the validity of the vertical jump test is
maintained. The test determines height of rise of the center of gravity.
Continually charting these results can offer insight into the form of training that
may be lacking (e.g., speed and elastic–reactive versus core or relative strength).


Depth Jump Reach



Using boxes of various heights or a stair-step apparatus, drop from levels

between 12 and 42 inches (30 and 107 cm) onto grass or a firm but resilient mat
(see figures a and b). Upon landing, immediately jump upward to reach or
surpass the mark placed on the wall during the vertical jump test (see figures c
and d). Continue to move to a higher drop until you can no longer attain the
same jump height as in the vertical jump. Take one or two minutes of rest
between attempts to allow the muscle systems to recover.
This test provides good insight into elastic response ability, and it has also
become a popular protocol for detecting high-risk movement and landing
patterns. The point of the depth or drop height when maximal vertical jump
(rebound) height is attained is the approximate height to train for in this type of
plyometric exercise. Practical field work by Costello (1984) suggested that,
when performing a depth jump from an 18-inch (46 cm) box, relatively weak
athletes jump several inches (7 or 8 cm) lower than their vertical jump marks, as
opposed to stronger athletes, who reach or exceed their vertical jump marks after
a drop from the same height.
Studies have recommended that drop heights not exceed 24 inches (60 cm).
Our studies show that a further reduction in drop height may be appropriate (8 to
24 in., or 20 to 60 cm) as indicated in chapter 3. This and other research suggest
that the greatest training effect may occur as a result of prestretch movements
achieved from modest rather than large drop heights (Radcliffe and Osternig
1995).
The landing error scoring system (LESS) developed by James Onate and
others from research on jumping progression research for ACL prevention
(Hewitt et al. 2005, 2006) basically involves incorporating depth jumps into
vertical and horizontal movements from a 30-centimeter (approximately 12 in.)
box. The LESS score is simply a count of landing technique errors on a range of
human movement skills (Padua et al. 2009). The LESS has been documented as
a valid and reliable tool for identifying higher-risk landing tasks. Although it
may not predict ACL injuries in athletes, it can be useful as a screening tool to
identify those who need a longer and simpler progressive training approach.

Single-Leg Squat With Foot Back

/ 00:00



Lift one foot backward by bending the knee (see figure a). Keeping that foot
from touching the ground, use the stance leg to lower the hips and squat to a
position in which the bent knee gently touches or comes close to the ground (see
figure b). The stance foot must remain in full contact with the ground. Repeat on
the other leg, comparing the two.
This exercise assesses posture by revealing how well the shoulders stay over
the stance foot and especially how well the squatting knee stays in line with the
toe. It also assesses hip mobility by revealing whether the hip rotates down to
allow the knee to touch the ground.

Single-Leg Stance and Pogo Jump

/ 00:00

d.
 e.

Stand tall and lift one leg off the ground until the knee is above hip level, the
heel is directly under the midpoint of the thigh, and the toes are lifted up toward
the knee (see figure a). Perform a vertical jump (see figures b–d). Land with the
full foot (see figure e). Repeat on the other leg, comparing the two.
This test reveals whether you can obtain liftoff from the ground without
compromising posture (assessed by the dropping of the swing knee). Also, it
shows whether you can land without collapsing the stance and losing balance
and stability through the landing joints.

Single-Leg Slide Kick

/ 00:00



Stand tall and lift one leg off the ground until the knee is above hip level, the
heel is directly under the midpoint of the thigh, and the toes are lifted up toward
the knee (see figure a). Perform a vertical jump and, while in the air, bring the
foot up into a position that matches that of the flexed leg (see figures b–f). Bring
the leg back down to a postural, balanced, stable landing. Repeat on the other
leg, comparing the two.
This test assesses whether you can obtain liftoff from the ground without
compromising posture (assessed by the dropping of the swing knee). It also
assesses whether you can land without collapsing the stance and losing balance
and stability through the landing joints, and whether you can repeat the sequence
multiple times (three to five) while remaining true to form.

10-Rep Bounce


Using a contact mat or ground contact testing device, stand with a slight
flexion at the knee and the elbows back. Upon takeoff, thrust the thumbs upward
and extend the legs to project the hips as high in the air as possible (see figures a
and b). The ankle must lock the foot into a toe-up, neutral ankle position. The
spring-loaded ankle is ready for a quick, powerful plantar-flexed takeoff upon
landing. Maintain this locked position throughout to ensure sturdy front-half-of-
the-foot contacts and quick, elastic takeoffs and a specified number (usually 7 to
10) of bouncing jumps of optimal height and minimal contact time. This
assessment reveals the ability to spring-load the ankle, force production and air
time, and the amount of contact time.

Medicine Ball Chest Pass



Stand with the toes of both feet behind the takeoff line that represents the
start of the measurement tape. With a medicine ball of 7, 9, or 11 pounds (3, 4,
or 5 kg) placed in front of the hands with thumbs upward and the elbows below
and behind, perform a chest pass using as much force as possible (see figures a
and b). The pass is executed by projecting the hips upward and forward and
propelling the body forward over and past the start line (see figure c).
The distance from the starting line to the ball’s landing point can be used as
to determine how heavy a ball to use for training. Any passes shorter than 30 feet
(9 m) indicate a need for training with a lighter medicine ball. Assess the
appropriate weight of the ball by considering explosive capabilities—a ball that
is too heavy decreases the ability to impart speed; one that is too light gives a
false sense of power output. Use the appropriate size ball for pre- and posttesting
to best assess improvement.

Medicine Ball Forward Overhead Throw



Assume a square stance with the toes of both feet on a line and hold the ball
over the head and slightly behind it (see figure a). Flex the knees out over the
toes and arch farther backward with the ball (see figure b). Then extend the body
forward, whipping the hips, shoulders, elbows, and wrists with such force that
the feet come off the ground as you propel the ball forward (see figures c–e).
Record the distance and rank against previous norms. Assess the appropriate
weight of the ball by considering explosive capabilities—a ball that is too heavy
decreases the ability to impart speed; one that is too light gives a false sense of
power output. Use the appropriate size ball for pre- and posttesting to best assess
improvement.

Medicine Ball Backward Overhead Throw



Assume a square stance with the heels of both feet on a line and hold the ball
below the hips with the arms long. Flex the knees out over the toes and arch the
shoulders farther forward, lowering the ball (see figure a). Then extend the body
backward, whipping the hips, shoulders, elbows, and wrists with such force that
the feet come off the ground as both the ball and the body are propelled
backward (see figures b and c).
Record the distance and rank against previous norms. Assess the appropriate
weight of the ball by considering explosive capabilities—a ball that is too heavy
decreases the ability to impart speed; one that is too light gives a false sense of
power output. Use the appropriate size ball for pre- and posttesting to best assess
improvement.

Jump Decathlon

A jump decathlon is one way to determine how much or where particular

training is needed. This is also a good training session for any athlete seeking to
train intensely for power (Paish 1968).

Jump Decathlon Exercises

 The 10 jumps in this skillathon were selected because they assess elastic–
reactive improvement in a valid and reliable manner. They show areas that lack
speed, strength, or agility and coordination so that athletes can work on those
weaknesses. These takeoff, flight, and landing exercises are arranged to provide
work, fun, and a standardized means for testing progressive capabilities. The
exercises are not listed in any particular order.

Standing Long Jump

Make the standing long jump with both feet together, using the arms to aid in
lift. With a quick countermovement of the torso, explode upward and outward to
attain maximal hip distance before bringing the feet back under and in front to
stick the landing. Measure to the nearest point of contact.

Standing Triple Jump

The standing triple jump is performed with the takeoff foot in flat contact
with the ground and the noncontact leg able to swing freely. This rule also
applies to the other hop and step combinations. Take off from one foot to a
landing on the same foot (hop); then immediately take off from that foot outward
onto the other foot (step). Finally, immediately take off outward and forward to
land on both feet (jump).

Two Hops, Step, and Jump

Take off from one foot to a landing on the same foot (hop); then immediately
take off from that foot outward onto the same foot (second hop). From the
second hop, take off and land on the other foot (step). Finally, immediately take
off outward and forward to land on both feet (jump).

Two Hops, Two Steps, and Jump

Take off from one foot to a landing on the same foot (hop); then immediately
take off from that foot outward onto the same foot (second hop) and then the
other foot (step). Finally, immediately take off outward and forward onto the
previous foot (second step) and then land on both feet (jump).

Two Hops, Two Steps, and Two Jumps

Take off from one foot to a landing on the same foot (hop); then immediately
take off from that foot outward onto the same foot (second hop) and then the
other foot (step). Finally, immediately take off outward and forward onto the
previous foot (second step) and then land with both feet (jump) followed
immediately by a takeoff outward onto both feet again (second jump).

Five Spring Jumps

This exercise involves five consecutive double-leg bounds. Keep the feet
together and the movement continuous.

Four Standing Hops and Jump

This exercise starts like the standing triple jump exercise. Take off from one
foot and land on the same foot for four consecutive hops; finish on both feet to
complete the jump.

Four Running Hops and Jump

In this exercise the length of the run is unlimited. After a running start, take
off from one foot and land on the same foot for four consecutive hops; finish on
both feet to complete the jump.

25-Yard Hop on the Dominant Leg

The 25-yard hop begins from a standing position. In most hopping

assessments, the tables are compiled for the dominant leg, although you should
test both legs and record a possible mean for right and left. Taking off from one
leg, hop for height and distance (leg cycle) continuously for 25 yards.

Five-Stride Long Jump

The five-stride long jump follows regular jumping rules, except that the run
is limited to five strides. Allow two or three successful attempts per event. After
a running start of five strides, take off from the dominant leg for height and
distance and land on both feet.

Jump Decathlon Results

Table 4.3 (Watts 1968) lists jump decathlon high and low norms results for
elite jumpers through those with lower ability. In most cases, the top mark is that
of the approximate world record for the event set by professional jumpers of the
late 1800s. The mean for the five-stride long jump is from tests once given to
specialist jumpers. This table should not be used to compare one leaping
exercise with another, but mainly to encourage leaping and bounding as training
for other events with a little competitive spirit attached.
Similar to the decathlon or heptathlon performed in track and field meets,
such as in the Olympic Games, the distance covered provides a score in relation
to the 100th percentile. A score of 100 means the athlete is at the very best level
of that event. A score of 5 indicates extremely low in ability in that event. When
using the decathlon system during off-season training, athletes should test
several of the more applicable events early in the off-season and then retest
toward the end of the training period. The main goal is to improve on the overall
score and one’s placement against the 100th percentile.


Skillathons—A Way to Evaluate

A skillathon is a series of tests and is one method to determine how much or

in what area particular training is needed. From research and common practice,
the following tests have been selected because they assess elastic–reactive
improvement in a valid and reliable manner, and they can show areas in which
athletes lack speed, strength, or agility and coordination, thus allowing them to
work on those weaknesses.

Standing and Landing Jump Tests

Vertical jump
Depth jump
Jump decathlon
Throwing and Passing Tests
Medicine ball chest pass
Medicine ball forward overhead throw
Medicine ball backward overhead throw

At some point, progressions (and progress!) take us from development to

refinement. Refining power is not ceasing the development process. Rather, it is
an elite approach to the transitional phase of skill mastery, the extreme
specificity of power as it applies to the athlete, movement, activity, and sport.
 To achieve sport-specific goals, we must determine how much stretch–
shortening cycle training is needed and where. We can then analyze performance
in the specific training the athlete receives to decide whether to continue at the
same dosages, increase volumes, taper dosages, or cease the training for
competitive reasons. These assessments and decathlon tables are mainly
references to help athletes develop to more elite levels.
Assessing a proper starting point and then progressing from beginning to
intermediate and on to advanced and then elite levels of performance are the
essence of an optimal power development plan. Knowing what to look for and
then how to progress is important for making this training system successful.
 Part II
Plyometric Exercises
 Chapter 5
Upper-Body Power Development
Plyometric training is the coordinated use of the entire body in the
expression of power. Those powerful movements employ the upper body as they
traverse the center of the torso, involving the motions of tossing, passing, and
throwing, and their subcategories of swinging, pushing, punching, and stroking.
Tosses and Passes
Tosses and passes are projecting movements of the upper torso and limbs
that take place below or in front of the head (or both). In tossing, the functional
anatomy is identical to that involved with swinging and twisting, and
combinations of these. Tossing by our definition is anything that occurs across
the torso vertically or horizontally in which the arm does not go over the head,
hence the description of keeping it below (such as forward, backward, or
sideways) or in front of (such as upward) the head. Passing is often likened to
throwing when comparing the forward pass in American football. However, in
our definition, passes are movements in which the implement is pushed from
close to the body outward (e.g., the basketball chest pass).
Throws
Throws are projecting movements of the upper torso in which the arms move
above, over, or across the head. Throwing employs more cocking and whipping
effects than the other projectile movements do, often requiring a start from one
side of the head and a follow-through finish over and past the head for maximal
horizontal distance.
In many sports, we can see the power the hips and legs transfer through the
midsection to the chest, shoulders, back, and arms. So throwing, catching,
pushing, pulling, and swinging movements are primarily upper-body activities.
Thrusts, throws, strokes, passes, and swings all engage muscle groups of the
upper body. The relative degree of arm movement differentiates these action
sequences. In their functional anatomy, these movements are similar and involve
integrated flexion, extension, and abduction of the arms, as well as the support of
the arms and shoulder girdle throughout flexion and extension.
Throwing success depends on how well the transfer of force is synchronized
from the opposite foot plant, through the hips, across the body's center of gravity,
and up through the throwing arm. Failure to coordinate this load and whip
through the hips can cause many problems, the least of which is poor throwing
performance. The same can be said about any of the following upper-body-
related exercises. A great deal of them are not truly plyometric in execution;
however, they are progressive lead-in exercises that foster coordinating and
synching the body to achieve optimal upper-body execution of the pass, throw,
pitch, toss, punch, and so forth. Using the upper body without this
synchronization and without involving the intermuscular aspects sets people up
for many forms of failure.
In keeping with the concept of synchronization, we have included the
dynamic forms of upper-body lifting, known as the Olympic lift progressions.
Pushing and catching a barbell in countermovement style develop strength and
speed for overall power improvement. These exercises have been added to the
list of progressive work to provide true elastic–reactive training of the upper
body.
 Upper-Body Power Exercises
The following progressive medicine ball exercises are helpful to any athlete
exploding from a stance, starting blocks, or a platform (e.g., in the sports of
American football, track, and diving). The exercises begin by emphasizing hip
and shoulder extension and technique; they then incorporate footwork and
reactive work.

1: Medicine Ball Chest Pass

a.

b.

c.


Introduction

Perform this exercise against a wall using a 7- to 15-pound (3 to 7 kg)

medicine ball. The movement is specific to the basketball chest pass but is also
beneficial in wrestling, American football, and shot put.

Starting Position

Kneel, sit, or stand facing a wall (see figure a). Hold the ball chest high with
hands slightly behind the ball and arms flexed.

Action Sequence

Push the ball rapidly outward, extending the arms to their full length (see
figure b). Repeat the sequence upon the rebound.

Variation

Perform this exercise using a partner instead of a wall (see figure c).

2: Chest Push
a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise is a progressive variation of the medicine ball chest pass. It

emphasizes a push involving shoulder and hip extension, rather than an elbows-
out, triceps action.

Starting Position

Begin on both knees with chest out and hips high and back. Hold the ball
with both hands slightly behind each side of it. Place the ball below the chest
with the shoulders in front and the elbows close to the body (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Execute the pass by exploding forward and outward with the hips while
pushing the ball like a line drive as far as possible (see figure b). Correct posture
is critical for proper thrust and release. Full extension enhances the execution
and provides optimal time for landing on the ground in a push-up position (see
figure c).
For a multiple-response chest push, execute the pass by exploding forward
and outward with the hips while pushing the ball like a line drive as far as
possible. A partner or wall then sends the ball back using a skip pass or bounce.
After executing the same posture, thrust, extension, and follow-through,
immediately resume the passing position. The partner should aggressively skip
pass the ball back into your chest. Return the bounce pass as quickly and
explosively as possible by catching the ball with both hands and elbows bent,
keeping the ball away from the chest and shoulders, and thrusting the hips and
trunk forward.

3: Sit-Up Throw

a.

b.

c.

Introduction

In this exercise throw a 7- to 15-pound (3 to 7 kg) medicine ball to a partner

or against a wall. The exercise directly stresses flexion of the upper torso and
applies to all athletic activities.


Starting Position

Sit on the floor facing the partner or a wall with feet interlocked for
stabilization. Hold the ball overhead (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Throw the ball with a two-hand overhand action (see figure b). When you
catch it on the return, the momentum forces the torso to rock backward to absorb
the shock (see figure c). Resist this backward motion with the abdominal
muscles and initiate the return throw. Concentrate on propelling the ball with the
trunk muscles, not the arms and shoulders. Aim the throw to a point above your
partner’s head so the arc of the throw is longer, producing greater momentum.
Keep the arms extended overhead and do not let the back touch the ground.

4: Supine One-Arm Overhead Throw

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

Using a medicine ball to improve overall power production is extremely

helpful for many actions, one of those being the overhead throwing motion in
baseball, softball, American football, soccer, and javelin.

Starting Position

Lie with the back flat on the ground or a table, with feet flat and knees up.
Hold a smaller medicine ball (about 3 to 6 lb, or1.5 to 3 kg) in the throwing hand
(see figure a).

Action Sequence

Maintaining a relaxed torso and long throwing arm, pass the ball forward
like a line drive to a partner or against a wall (see figures b and c). Keep the back
and head relaxed and on the ground, and initiate arm movement at the shoulder
joint without elbow flexion.

5: Supine Two-Arm Overhead Throw

 a.

b.

c.

Introduction

Using a medicine ball to improve overall power production is extremely

helpful for many actions, one of those being the overhead throwing motion in
baseball, softball, American football, soccer, and javelin.

Starting Position

Begin with the back flat on the ground or a table, with feet flat and knees up.
Hold a larger medicine ball (about 6 to 9 lb, or 2.5 to 4 kg) in both hands (see
figure a).

Action Sequence
 Execute the pass by performing a sit-up using the momentum of the throwing
motion and the thrust of the chest in the desired direction (see figures b and c).
With arms long and elbows relaxed, the motion is about the shoulder joint. Lead
with the chest, and follow through with flexion at the waist.

6: Kneeling Two-Arm Overhead Throw

a.

b.

c.

Introduction

Using a medicine ball to improve overall power production is extremely

helpful for many actions, one of those being the overhead throwing motion in
baseball, softball, American football, soccer, and javelin.

Starting Position

Kneel with ankles relaxed and toes back. Hold a larger medicine ball (about
6 to 9 lb, or 2.5 to 4 kg) in both hands behind the head (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Emphasizing hip lead and follow-through, initiate the pass with a forward
thrust of the hips, followed by a whipping action of the upper torso, to complete
flexion at the waist upon follow-through (see figures b and c). Keep the arms
relaxed and the elbows slightly flexed. Lead with the chest, and follow through
with the shoulders, elbows, and wrists. This is a whiplike action from and about
the hips. The hands never touch the ground in any part of this throwing
maneuver.

7: Standing Two-Arm Overhead Throw

a.
 b.

c.

d.

Introduction
 Using a medicine ball to improve overall power production is extremely
helpful for many actions, one of those being the overhead throwing motion in
baseball, softball, American football, soccer, and javelin.

Starting Position

Stand with feet together and weight evenly distributed. Hold a larger
medicine ball (about 6 to 9 lb, or 2.5 to 4 kg) in both hands above the head (see
figure a).

Action Sequence

Perform the pass as in the kneeling two-arm overhead throw. Initiate the
motion with knee flexion, followed by hip thrust, torso whip, and follow-through
allowing for a slightly airborne body upon completion (see figures b-d). This is a
whiplike action from and about the hips. The feet should land close to the same
place they left.

8: Stepping Two-Arm Overhead Throw

a.
b.

c.

d.
 e.

f.

Introduction

Using a medicine ball to improve overall power production is extremely

helpful for many actions, one of those being the overhead throwing motion in
baseball, softball, American football, soccer, and javelin.

Starting Position

Stand with feet together and weight evenly distributed. Hold a larger
medicine ball (about 6 to 9 lb, or 2.5 to 4 kg) in both hands above the head (see
figure a).

Action Sequence

This time initiate the overhead throw with a lead step (see figures b-d). Step
in the throwing direction with the lead foot, thrust with the hip, and whip the
torso while pushing off with the trail leg and back foot.

Variation

You can execute this not only facing forward, but also stepping from a
sideways position using a rotating hip thrust and open stepping technique (see
figures e and f).

9: Catch and Overhead Throw

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise represents classic stretch–shortening, or plyometric, work for

the upper body because the reflexive response of catching stimulates all the
principles of elastic–reactive training in the form of throwing.

Starting Position

Begin with any of the upright starting positions in the overhead throw
progression (see figure a for an example from the knees).

Action Sequence
 Execute an overhead throw as described in the overhead throw progressions
immediately upon catching a preceding throw or rebound from a previous throw
(see figures b and c). It is important that you receive the implement in the same
biomechanical position you threw from for optimal safety, efficiency, and
results.

10: Arm Swing

a.
 b.

Introduction

Use dumbbells or similar weighted handles of 10 to 40 pounds (5 to 20 kg)

in this exercise, which employs shoulder and arm muscles and simulates the
alternating arm movement of cross-country skiing.

Starting Position

Hold a dumbbell firmly in each hand. Assume a comfortable stance with feet
apart and arms at the sides (see figure a). Keep the head straight and tilt the
shoulders slightly forward.

Action Sequence

Drive one arm upward to a point just above the head while driving the other
arm behind the body (see figure b). Before each arm reaches maximal stretch,
check the momentum by initiating motion in the opposite direction. Continue
this alternating sequence for 20 to 30 swings. Perform a variation of this pattern
by holding the dumbbells with the arms half-flexed.

11: Heavy Bag Thrust

/ 00:00

 a.

b.

Introduction

This exercise requires a heavy punching bag suspended from a rope or cable
and involves coordinating the torso and appendages in rotation and extension. It
is well suited for discus throwers, shot-putters, American football linemen, and
basketball players.


Starting Position

Face the punching bag with legs in a semisplit position; the foot next to the
bag is back (although the reverse stance can work for some athletic positions).
Place the inside hand chest high on the bag with fingers pointing upward; hold
the elbow close to the body and flex the arm (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Keeping the feet stationary and mainly using the torso, push the bag away
from the body as rapidly as possible, extending the arm and shoulder fully (see
figure b). Catch the return flight of the bag with an open hand, and break the
momentum using the trunk, arm, and shoulder muscles. Push the bag forward
again before it reaches the starting position. Concentrate on maintaining the
same body stance throughout the exercise. Switch sides and repeat, stressing
quickness and explosiveness.

12: Heavy Bag Stroke

 / 00:00

a.
b.

c.
d.

e.
 f.

Introduction

This exercise requires a heavy punching bag suspended from a rope or cable.
It simulates the motion of a tennis stroke but also applies to training in baseball,
discus, and American football.

Starting Position

Assume an upright stance next to the heavy bag. Place feet slightly more
than shoulder-width apart. With arm extended, rest the forearm across the bag at
chest height.

Action Sequence

Begin by twisting at the waist, keeping the arm extended and pushing the bag
with the forearm (see figures a-c for forehand and figures d-f for backhand).
Continue the action until the bag moves away from the body. Catch the bag upon
its return flight with the same position of the arm used in initiating the
movement. Check the momentum of the bag with the same muscle groups that
initially propelled it; then powerfully reapply force in the opposite direction.
Remember to follow through, rotating at the waist with each push.

13: Wall Push-Off

/ 00:00

 a.

b.

Introduction

A lead-in to the higher-impact pushing exercises, this exercise uses minimal

push angles and timing.

Starting Position

Stand one giant step from a wall.

Action Sequence

With semiflexed elbows, lean and fall into the wall with thumbs inward and
fingers up (see figure a). Contact the wall with the arms in position to create
maximal extension in the least amount of time. This extension should push the
torso back to the original standing position or farther (see figure b).

14: Bench Push-Off

a.

b.
 c.

d.

Introduction

A lead-in to the higher-impact pushing exercises, this exercise uses maximal

push angles and timing.

Action Sequence

Stand or kneel away from a solid, secure bench or platform (see figure a).
With semiflexed elbows, lean and fall onto the platform with thumbs inward and
fingers up (see figure b). Contact the bench with the arms in position to create
maximal extension in the least amount of time. This extension should push the
torso back to the original standing or kneeling position or farther (see figures c
and d).

 15: Drop Push-Up

/ 00:00

a.

b.

Introduction

This exercise demonstrates the truest sense of reflexive response and the
principles of elastic–reactive training in the form of upper-body pushing.

Starting Position

Assume a prone position with a straight torso, and extend the arms from
separate and elevated platforms (e.g., boxes, blocks, benches) (see figure a).

Action Sequence

To properly progress, begin by dropping from the raised platforms and

landing with a strictly maintained posture, cushioning the landing by giving at
the shoulders and elbows (see figure b). The next progression is to perform two
to four sets of a drop from the platforms and upon landing perform a fully
extended push-up. Follow this by a drop and explosive push-up, extending the
torso and arms completely off the ground. The final progression is to drop and
explosively push the torso and arms back up and onto the platforms for four to
eight repetitions.

16: Push Press

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise strengthens the torso and develops powerful pushing

techniques.

Starting Position

Start by positioning the barbell evenly on the back of the shoulders and grip
the bar with a pronated grip (palms facing forward and thumbs around the bar
opposite the fingers) (see figure a). The forearms should be perpendicular to the
bar for appropriate grip width. Once familiar with this version, perform the same
exercise with the bar on the front of the shoulders, this time with the elbows out
in front of the bar slightly.

Action Sequence

Push with the legs and press with the shoulders and arms. Take a short dip by
bending the knees slightly to drop the hips (see figure b). This drop must be
straight down and upward allowing the bar to be projected off the shoulders. As
the legs become almost fully extended, vigorously press the bar to an arms-
locked-out position (see figure c). In the drive phase, the heels may leave the
ground but not the toes, establishing the need to press out to finish.

17: Push Jerk

a.

b.
 c.

d.

e.



Introduction

This exercise strengthens the torso and develops more reactive speed in
pushing techniques as used in jumping, shoving, and throwing.

Starting Position

Start by positioning the barbell evenly on the back of the shoulders and grip
the bar with a pronated grip (palms facing forward and thumbs around the bar
opposite the fingers) (see figure a). The forearms should be perpendicular to the
bar for appropriate grip width. Once familiar with this version, perform the same
exercise with the bar on the front of the shoulders, this time with the elbows out
in front of the bar slightly.

Action Sequence

Push with the legs and jerk the bar overhead (see figures b-e). The initial
execution is the same as in the push press. The exception is that the acceleration
used to drive the bar upward causes the feet to leave the ground. The legs and
hips accelerate the bar upward. The body is punched into a flexed position under
the bar. Move the feet and land in a bent-knee position with feet in full ground
contact and arms locked out past the ears. Squat the bar upward to stabilize the
weight overhead.

18: Split Jerk

a.

b.

c.
 d.

Introduction

This exercise strengthens the torso and enhances foot and leg speed pushing
as used in jumping, shoving, and throwing.

Starting Position

Start by positioning the barbell evenly on the back of the shoulders and grip
the bar with a pronated grip (palms facing forward and thumbs around the bar
opposite the fingers). The forearms should be perpendicular to the bar for
appropriate grip width. Once familiar with this version, perform the same
exercise with the bar on the front of the shoulders, this time with the elbows out
in front of the bar slightly (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Push and jump with the legs and drive the body underneath the bar by
splitting the legs forward and back (see figure b). This is the same as a push jerk
except that the legs split upon landing and the body drives under that bar and
into a lockout (see figures c and d). The torso remains in the same position as the
feet split, with the front foot landing in full contact with the ground. The lift is
not completed until the feet are brought back together to full standing.

19: Multiple Hops to Overhead Throw

Introduction

This exercise combines movements that work the exchange of flexion and
extension motions and the subsequent hip projection to help athletes become as
responsive and mechanically efficient as possible.

Starting Position

Assume a semisquat stance. Hold 5- to 15-pound (2 to 7 kg) ball below the

waist on either side. Extend the arms and hold the head up and back straight.

Action Sequence

Execute a countermovement jump; then extend upward and forward for 1 to

2 yards. Upon descent, prepare the body for an overhead throw backward by
positioning the hips over and slightly behind the feet. Flex the knees in readiness
for extension upward and backward. Execute the throw with the least amount of
ground contact time. You can also execute this throwing motion after a series of
forward hops or after one or more backward hops.

20: Shovel Toss

 a.

b.

c.

d.

Introduction

This torso-extension exercise emphasizes the hip and shoulder joints. It is

excellent for any athlete who has to explode out of blocks or a stance.

Starting Position

Using a 5- to 15-pound (2 to 7 kg) ball, begin on both knees and place the
ball on the ground directly in front (see figure a). Keep the chest out and the hips
high and back, and position the shoulders in front of the ball.

Action Sequence

With arms long and relaxed, toss the ball like a line drive as far and fast as
possible by quickly thrusting the hips and extending the trunk, executing a
scooping or shoveling action (see figures b and c), and then catching yourself in
a push-up position (see figure d). Emphasize a full extension of the hip and
shoulder action, not arm action.

21: Scoop Toss

 / 00:00

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction

This torso extension exercise emphasizes hip and shoulder movement. It

mimics the snatch version of Olympic lifting yet allows for a more complete
follow-through with the release of the ball.

Starting Position

Assume a semisquat stance. Hold a 5- to 15-pound (2 to 7 kg) ball at or

below knee level (see figure a). Extend the arms and hold the head up and the
back straight.

Action Sequence

Executing a short, quick countermovement, scoop the ball upward,

attempting to elevate the body and send the ball for maximal height (see figures
b and c). Distance upward is the primary emphasis. As you land, ready the body
to catch the ball on its return down and in front of you. Immediately upon
catching the ball, do a countermovement jump and scoop the ball back up and
over in the return sequence of the toss.

22: Multiple Hops to Underhand Toss

 / 00:00

Introduction

As in the multiple hops to overhead throw, this exercise combines

movements that work the exchange of flexion and extension motions and the
subsequent hip projection. It is excellent for athletes in any sports and events that
involve quick, reactive starting movements such as track sprints; high, long, and
triple jumps; American football; basketball; and volleyball.

Starting Position

Assume a semisquat stance. Hold the 5- to 15-pound (2 to 7 kg) ball below

the waist on either side. Extend your arms and hold your head up and back
straight.

Action Sequence

Begin by executing a countermovement jump, and then extend upward and

forward for 1 or 2 yards. Upon descent, prepare the body for an underhand
shovel toss forward by positioning the hips over and slightly in front of the feet.
Flex the knees in readiness for the extension outward. Execute the toss with the
least amount of ground contact time. You can also execute this shoveling motion
after a series of forward hops or after one or more backward hops.

 Chapter 6
Core Power Development
In many sports, we can see the result of the power the hips and legs generate
and transfer through the midsection. This demonstrates how important the trunk,
hips, and legs are for initial power production, support, weight transfer, and
balance. Continuing along the power chain from the upper body addressed in
chapter 5, we move to the trunk, or torso, shoulder girdle, and shoulders. For our
purposes, the structural definition of the trunk is the midsection of the body,
specifically the abdominal and lumbar regions. The torso is the trunk of the body
including the chest, shoulders, and pelvic region. The exercises for the trunk
improve power throughout the torso by developing flexion, extension, and
rotation techniques and the posture, balance, stability, and flexibility that apply
to all sport activities. Trunk movements include the main categories of swings,
twists, and whips.
Swings
Swings are movements of the trunk that are lateral, horizontal, or vertical,
with secondary involvement of the shoulders, chest, and arms. Initiated at the
hips via proper foot placement and continuing as a rotation through the upper
torso, swings are a product of well-timed torque and follow-through. The smooth
transition of hip rotation into shoulder and arm follow-through results in optimal
execution of the swing.
Twists
Twists are torquing or lateral movements of the torso (or both); they do not
involve the shoulders and arms in a major way but rotate the pelvis and spine.
Twisting requires being able to keep the feet planted firmly and creating
rotational torque with the hips and torso. Once an athlete is proficient in
generating torque, the key is to be able to check it, or quickly decelerate it, and
reaccelerate it in the opposite direction.
Whips
Whipping movements of the torso are torques that begin by cocking the hips
in one direction and then forcefully countering the throw or kip back in the
opposite direction by whipping from and about the hips. It is the ability to sway
from behind the hips to in front, or vice versa, with a rapid, forceful action.
 Core Power Exercises
The progression of the exercises that develop peak torque and explosive
power begin with simple exercises that emphasis foot plant, knee flexion, and
rotational hip mobility. They then progress by increasing speed; the complexity
of posture, balance, and stability; and the amount of mobility.
Swings

23: Medicine Ball Over and Under

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

The purpose of this exercise is to establish a postural sequence of balance

and stability in flexion and extension as a preparation for further tossing and
throwing exercises.

Starting Position

Using a 5- to 15-pound (2 to 7 kg) ball, stand with feet approximately

shoulder-width apart and your back to a partner or wall (see figure a). The feet
are flat and the knees maintain a slight bend. Hold the arms long, the chest out,
and the hips back.

Action Sequence

Pass the ball back and forth to your partner (or against the wall) over the
head and between the legs while maintaining a chest-out posture and full-foot
contact stability (see figures b and c). After performing 10 to 15 repetitions,
switch from receiving over (or under) to passing.

24: Horizontal Swing

/ 00:00

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise requires a 15- to 20-pound (7 to 9 kg) dumbbell, kettlebell,

handled medicine ball, or similar weighted object. It is excellent for developing
torso power and applies to baseball, golf, hockey, American football, swimming,
shot put, discus, and hammer throw.

Starting Position

Place the feet and hips square with the body in a comfortable stance. With
arms extended and elbows slightly bent, hold the object at chest level with both
hands at arm’s length in front of the body (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Initiate a torquing motion by flexing the knees and pulling to one side with
the shoulder and arm (see figures b and c). As momentum increases, check the
motion by pulling in the opposite direction with the other shoulder and arm.
Begin the checking action before the torso has swung fully in one direction; that
is, use the momentum in one direction as the load (cocking action) for eliciting a
plyometric response in the other direction. Allow the work to come from the
shoulders and arms as well as the torso and legs.

25: Vertical Swing

/ 00:00

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

Use a dumbbell, kettlebell, handled medicine ball, or similar object weighing

15 to 30 pounds (7 to 14 kg) as in the horizontal swing. In addition to the athletic
applications of the horizontal swing, the vertical swing is beneficial for
weightlifting, Nordic skiing, wrestling, volleyball, and swimming.

Starting Position

Grasping the object with both hands, allow it to hang at arm’s length between
the legs (see figure a). Keep the back straight and the head up.

Action Sequence
 Keeping the arms extended, swing the dumbbell up and then down (see
figure b). Resist the momentum of the object in one direction with a forceful
braking effort to initiate movement in the opposite direction. In the early
progressions of this exercise, the toes stay in contact with the ground for better
understanding of the torque involved, eventually advancing to complete takeoffs
via extension (see figure c).

26: Leg Toss

a.

b.

c.
 d.

Introduction

Equipment for this maneuver includes a 9- to 16-pound (4 to 7 kg) medicine

ball and a horizontal crossbar, chin bar, or stall bar. This exercise requires full-
body involvement and affects the entire torso and appendages. It applies to
diving, American football, gymnastics, and all sports involving kicking.

Starting Position

One partner hangs with both hands from a bar so the feet are just touching
the ground. The other partner is several feet (a few meters) away, ready to roll
the medicine ball (see figure a).

Action Sequence

The partner rolls the ball in your direction (see figure b). As the feet contact
the ball, catch it (see figure c) and check its momentum with a forceful swing of
the legs and flexion of the hips in the opposite direction (see figure d). This is a
whip-from-the-hips action. Concentrate on keeping the legs long and using the
hips to generate most of the counterforce. The partner retrieves the ball and
repeats the sequence.
Twists

27: Medicine Ball Half Twist

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This is the first exercise in a postural sequence that addresses balance and
stability in rotation.

Starting Position

Using a 5- to 15-pound (2 to 7 kg) ball, stand with feet approximately

shoulder-width apart and your back to a partner or wall. The feet are in full
contact with the ground, and the knees maintain a slight bend. Hold the arms
long, the chest out, and the hips back.

Action Sequence

One partner turns and passes the ball to a side while the other turns to the
same side to receive it (see figures a–c). Open the hips and turn the shoulders to
give and accept the ball. Keep the feet in full contact with the ground while
emphasizing posture and flexibility throughout the rotation.

28: Medicine Ball Full Twist

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise increases complexity in the postural progression that addresses

rotational flexibility.

Starting Position

Using a 5- to 15-pound (2 to 7 kg) ball, stand with feet approximately

shoulder-width apart and your back to a partner or wall. The feet are in full
contact with the ground, and the knees maintain a slight bend. Hold the arms
long, the chest out, and the hips back.

Action Sequence

The posture, stability, and balance tasks in this exercise are similar to those
in the medicine ball half twist. The difference is that the increased rotation
further challenges flexibility. In this exercise, partners turn in opposite
directions, one to pass, the other to receive (see figures a–c).


29: Bar Twist

/ 00:00

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction

Use a weighted bar of 20 to 50 pounds (9 to 23 kg) in this exercise.

Concentrate on using the trunk musculature, with slight involvement of the
shoulders and little of the arms. This is an initial rotational exercise involving the
ability to counter a loaded movement direction quickly and forcefully. It is
extremely applicable to the throwing and swinging actions of American football,
baseball, softball, golf, and track and field.

Starting Position

Standing upright, place the bar on the shoulders and hold it securely with
both hands as far from the center as possible (see figure a). Bend the knees and
place the feet slightly more than shoulder-width apart.

Action Sequence

Twist the upper body in one direction (see figure b); then before the torso is
fully rotated, initiate the action in the opposite direction (see figure c). Repeat
this sequence, actively thrusting the bar in one direction and then the other. By
flexing at the knees and keeping the torso erect, concentrate on using the torso
muscles to yield to and overcome the bar’s momentum.

30: Twist Toss

 / 00:00

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction

A 9- to 15-pound (4 to 7 kg) medicine ball is ideal for this exercise, which

works all the torso muscles involved with rotating the body. The twist toss
applies to training for throwing and swinging.

Starting Position

Cradle the ball next to the body at about waist level. Keep the knees bent and
place the feet slightly wider than shoulder width. A partner positions directly to
the side approximately 12 feet (4 yd) away and facing the opposite direction.

Action Sequence

Initiate the action by rapidly twisting the torso in the direction opposite the
intended toss (see figure a). Abruptly check the initial action with a quick and
powerful twist in the opposite direction, releasing the ball after reaching
maximal torsion (see figures b and c). Concentrate on using a rapid, reactive
cocking action before twisting in the direction of the throw. Use the hips as well
as the shoulders and arms.

31: Balanced Toss

/ 00:00

 a.

b.

c.

Introduction

This exercise improves balance and stability by employing the skills of

catching and tossing.

Starting Position

One partner begins seated with the feet off the ground and balanced on the
buttocks. The other faces the seated partner standing upright and balancing on
one leg with the off knee held above hip level. The standing partner switches
legs after half of the repetitions.

Action Sequence

Begin by standing on one leg with the knee of the swing leg above the hip
and the heel just in front of the support knee (see figure a). Toss the ball to a
partner or at a wall to the front of you so that it returns at different places (see
figure b). Attempt to maintain this postural position while catching the ball using
various twisted positions. Continue for 10 to 20 tosses. The exercise progresses
to tossing and catching from positions to the side and behind (see figure c).
Whips

32: Lean, Pull, and Push

 / 00:00

a.
 b.

c.

d.

Introduction

This exercise enhances strength and mobility throughout the torso. It is best
to use a form of stall bars or an Olympic lifting bar securely placed in a rack at
approximately eye level.

Starting Position

Grab a bar that is at approximately shoulder level. Walk away until the arms
are hanging at full length and the toes are the only body part touching the ground
(see figures a and b).

Action Sequence

From this full hang, pull yourself up, and, using a snap or whip effect from
the hips, push yourself back to a full standing position (see figures c and d). In
the first few attempts, you may feel as though you will break in half. Soon, you
should be able to push away with enough power to regain your standing position
three to five times.

33: Bar Kip-Up

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction

This exercise enhances strength and mobility throughout the torso. It is best
to use a form of stall bars or an Olympic lifting bar securely placed in a rack at
approximately eye level.

Starting Position

Grab a bar that is slightly lower than shoulder level. Walk forward until the
arms are hanging at full length and the heels are the only part touching the
ground (see figure a).

Action Sequence

From this hanging position, rock, or kip, the hips forward and upward until
the hands nearly leave the bar (see figure b). Reapply the grip as the hips come
backward and downward to the starting position (see figure c). Repeat the
kipping sequence three to five times. On the final repetition allow the
forcefulness of the kip to launch the body away from the bar and off the ground
in forward flight.

34: Floor Kip

a.

b.

c.
 d.

Introduction

This exercise requires a soft, flat surface such as a wrestling mat or grass.
The muscles of the entire torso and surrounding appendages participate in the
floor kip. This exercise requires a high degree of coordination and explosive
power in a total-body effort and is especially applicable to gymnastics, wrestling,
weightlifting, and springboard diving.

Starting Position

Assume a supine position with the knees bent and feet on the ground (see
figure a).

Action Sequence

Keeping the legs extended and together, roll backward far enough to bring
the feet past the head as in a reverse somersault (see figure b). At the same time,
place the hands, palms down and fingers extended, on each side of the head. The
body is now in a cocked configuration. To initiate the power phase, rapidly
extend the legs upward and forward while pushing against the floor with the
hands. Extend the hips and arms forward now, flexing the legs and bringing
them under the body in anticipation of the landing (see figure c). This is a whip-
about-the-hips action. Land in a semisquat stance (see figure d). Think of easing
into a cocked position from the initial rollback. Concentrate on exploding
upward with the entire body, and, once airborne, remember to shift the hips and
arms quickly forward.

 Chapter 7
Lower-Body Power Development
Plyometric training was originally developed to achieve more efficient and
powerful movement patterns over and off the ground. Athletes were looking to
run faster, jump higher and farther, and change direction more effectively, or in
other words, negotiate the ground better. Jumps, bounds, hops, and their
subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are all ways to maximize the ability to
negotiate the ground and transfer forces effectively in athletic applications.
Jumps
Many definitions of jumping are used in discussions of training and
evaluating athletic performance. In jumping, athletes seek maximal height (or in
teaching terms, projecting the hips upward), but they may not emphasize
horizontal distance. Although lead-up footwork can vary, athletes usually use
both legs in takeoff and landing.
Track and field literature refers to jumping as any action that involves taking
off and landing on both feet. This is an excellent description, and although it
does not fit all situations (e.g., the high jump), it shows another way of
connecting training terms with performance terms. When jumping for height, the
starting position and initiation methods have significant value.
Following are some distinctive jumps:

Squat jump—A jump performed without a prestretch movement. It is a

vertical jump from a static position of ankle, knee, and hip flexion of
specified degrees.
Countermovement jump—A jump that includes a prestretch movement. It is
a vertical jump following flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip joints and the
subsequent extension of the briefly flexed musculoskeletal system.
Drop jump—A vertical jump after landing from a drop of a specified height,
the flexion or countering of the landing, and the following extension of that
musculature.

Explosive power training includes the following jumps:

In-place jump—A jump in which the takeoff and landing do not involve
horizontal travel. Only a vertical displacement of the body takes place. In-
 place jumps are usually reserved for beginning exercise progressions; in
advanced programs they are used in low-intensity and moderate-volume
work.
Long jump—A jump used in track and field in which athletes travel
horizontally. Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume,
and jumps are recorded in meters rather than contacts (e.g., 30 to 100
meters).
Meso-endurance jump—A low-impact, simple bounding, galloping, and
combination jump designed for traveling long distances (40 to 80 meters).
Takeoffs and landings are of low intensity and high volume. Meso-
endurance jumps also are usually recorded in distances rather than contact
repetitions.
Meso-power jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of high
intensity and low volume (also from track and field). It involves boxes or
alternating or single-leg contacts.
Short-end jump—A jump that involves takeoffs and landings of low volume
and highest (or shock) intensity. This jump involves a high degree of
complexity and high impact (e.g., hurdle hop, depth jump, and standing
triple jump). In the context of explosive training, the shock method was
originally meant as a description of eccentric training. More specifically,
though, it referred to the explosive–reactive methods involving impulsive
types of training (such as depth jumping).

Bounds
The emphasis in bounding is to gain maximal horizontal distance; height is a
factor in achieving distance. Athletes perform bounds either with both feet
together or in alternate fashion.
In track and field, bounding is any action that involves taking off from one
leg and landing on the other. We agree with this definition from the standpoint of
the advanced execution; however, early progressions of horizontal hip projection
encourage double-leg takeoffs and landings to maintain low stress and
emphasize high technical value. Therefore, we place bounding alterations in this
category (e.g., prancing, galloping, and skipping) for the purposes of teaching
and learning progressively.
Hops
The primary emphasis in hopping is achieving height or distance with a
maximal rate of cyclic leg movement. Gaining horizontal distance is of
secondary importance early in training, to emphasize the value of the hip
projection that accompanies optimal cyclic leg action. Later, de-emphasizing the
vertical aspect may become important to accomplish more specific goals (e.g.,
the hop phase of the competitive triple jump).
In track and field, hopping is described as an action that involves taking off
and landing with the same leg. This term is agreeable with respect to the
teaching and performance progression. Because of the complexity of hops, early
progressions focus on the balance and postural stability required when using
both legs for good hip projection and cyclic leg action, regardless of the
direction (forward, lateral, or backward).
Leaps
Leaping is a single-effort exercise that emphasizes maximal height and
horizontal distance. Athletes perform leaps with either one leg or both legs.
Leaping is another description of movements similar to jumping and bounding,
usually a single-repetition (nonrepeatable) response.
Skips
Athletes perform skipping by alternating a step-hop on the right and then a
step-hop on the left, emphasizing height and horizontal distance. This step-hop
method can be applied in all directions (forward, lateral, and backward).
Ricochets
The emphasis in a ricochet is solely on the rapid rate of leg and foot
movement. The athlete minimizes vertical and horizontal distance to allow a
higher (faster) rate of execution. The plyometric exercises, like many other
exercise methodologies, fall under two developmental categories: loading (or
resisted) and unloading (or assisted). Ricochets done with the proper feeling of
falling can fit into the latter category; some call this the overspeed style of
training.
 Lower-Body Power Exercises
Jumps, bounds, hops, and their subvariations (skips, leaps, and ricochets) are
all ways to use the lower body (hips, legs, and feet) to maximize the ability to
negotiate the ground powerfully and efficiently. Following are exercises using
these actions.
Jumps

35: Pogo

/ 00:00

 a.

b.

Introduction

This is a beginning exercise for learning jumps. The posture and the landing
and takeoff positions for vertical hip projection begin with this simple lower-leg
execution.

Starting Position

Adopt an upright stance with knees slightly bent, chest out, and shoulders
back.

Action Sequence

Begin by emphasizing a vertical takeoff, projecting the hips upward for

height and using only the lower portion of the legs (see figures a and b). Use the
arms and shoulders in an upward blocking fashion. Emphasize slight flexion and
extension of the knee and more flexion of the ankle and foot. Upon takeoff, the
ankle must lock the foot into a toes-up position (dorsiflexion); maintain this
locked position throughout to ensure sturdy contacts and quick, elastic takeoffs.

36: Squat Jump

a.
b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise is performed on a flat, semiresilient surface. It is a basic

exercise for developing power in the legs and hips and applies to many sports.
The primary emphasis is attaining maximal height with every effort.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed upright stance with the feet about shoulder-width apart.
Interlock the fingers and place the palms against the back of the head. This
ensures the proper posture for takeoff and landing in the beginning stages of
development. Later, when you are regularly displaying good posture, you can
use blocking with the arms and shoulders.

Action Sequence

Begin by flexing downward to a half-squat position (see figure a);

immediately check this downward movement and explode upward as high as
possible, extending the hips, knees, and ankles to maximal length as quickly as
possible (see figure b). Initially, freeze the landing (see figure c) and check for
quality; then reset and begin another repetition. Progress from the single
response to the multiple response with a pause; then finally to multiple
responses, initiating the jumping phase just before reaching the semisquat
position. Work for maximal height with each jump.

37: Box Jump

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction

The purpose of the box in this exercise is to lessen the forces of impact upon
landing, aid in executing good landing mechanics, and provide a target for
vertical hip projection. Use a sturdy box or platform that is approximately mid-
thigh to hip level.

Starting Position

The progression for optimal box jumping relies on an assortment of starting

positions approximately an arm’s length away from the landing platform, as
follows:

Static squat—Adopt a semisquat stance, with feet positioned hip-width

apart and arms back in readiness to thrust forward (see figure a).
Countermovement jump—Adopt an upright stance with the same foot
positioning, a quick flexion into semisquat, and subsequent explosive
takeoff.
Step—Leave one foot in the previous position under the hip, and place the
other foot behind. Bend the knees and shift the weight to the forward foot to
avoid any rocker step action. In pushing off, the back foot creates
momentum for the subsequent takeoff upon placement back to its original
position.
Lateral step bound—Standing approximately a step and a half directly to
the side of the normal takeoff position, push off with the outside foot and
lead with the inside leg into a lateral move to a two-foot takeoff from the
original takeoff spot.

Action Sequence

For single response, upon takeoff from the progressive starting positions,
rapidly extend the hips and knees and quickly and explosively push off the
ground while blocking the arms (see figure b). Land in a flexed position on the
platform (see figure c).
For multiple response, upon takeoff from the progressive starting positions,
use the arms to aid in the initial burst, jump upward and forward, and land on
both feet simultaneously on top of the box or platform. Immediately drop or
jump back down to the starting place; then repeat the sequence. You can perform
a variation of these responsive movements by alternating the directions of
jumping and dropping onto and off the platform. Remember to block with the
arms and shoulders and concentrate on minimizing contact times without
compromising hip projection.

38: Rocket Jump

a.

b.



Introduction

Perform this exercise on a flat, semiresilient surface. It is a basic exercise for

developing power throughout the torso and applies to many sports. The primary
emphasis is attaining maximal height and vertical reach with every effort.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed upright stance with feet about shoulder-width apart.

Slightly flex the arms and hold them close to the body.

Action Sequence

Begin by flexing downward to a half-squat position (see figure a);

immediately check this downward movement and explode from this takeoff
position upward as high as possible, extending the whole body vertically (see
figure b). As the body descends, flex the joints so the body is again poised in
takeoff position upon landing. Repeat this flexion to full height extension and
attempt to stay in one place while repeating this action. Perform this exercise
using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response
with pause, and multiple response.

39: Star Jump

 a.

b.

Introduction

This is a basic exercise for developing power throughout the torso and
applies to many sports. The primary emphasis is attaining maximal height and
outward extension with every effort. This is a good beginning exercise for work
on coordinated movements involving hang time.


Starting Position

Assume a relaxed upright stance with feet about shoulder-width apart.

Slightly flex the arms and hold them close to the body.

Action Sequence

As in the rocket jump, begin by flexing downward to a half-squat position

(see figure a); immediately check this downward movement and explode from
this takeoff position upward as high as possible, extending the whole body
vertically. This exercise differs from the rocket jump in that the limbs extend
outward in four directions (see figure b). As the body descends, flex the joints
back inward, positioning the body again in takeoff position upon landing.
Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single
response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.

40: Double-Leg Slide Kick

a.
 b.

Introduction

Athletes use this exercise as the first of many in which to practice the
transfer of force. More forces are applied by following extension with flexion
during flight, using the simple act of flexing the knee joint to allow upward lift
with the lower leg.

Starting Position

Adopt an upright stance with knees slightly bent, chest out, and shoulders
back (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Using a quick countermovement jump, extend the hips for vertical height
and, upon full extension, tuck the toes up and pull the heels directly upward as if
backed up against a wall, thereby needing to slide the heels up to the buttocks
(see figure b). The knees will rise upward and forward but not in a tuck.
Maintain your posture and upright position by blocking with the arms. Perform
this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response,
multiple response with pause, and multiple response.

41: Knee-Tuck Jump

a.

b.

Introduction

This exercise should be performed on a resilient, flat surface such as grass or

a gym floor.

Starting Position

Assume a comfortable upright stance, placing the hands palms down at chest
height. Do this in the early stages to ensure a good takeoff and landing posture
and to give the knees a target. Once good posture occurs regularly, observe the
thumbs-up guideline as discussed in chapter 3.

Action Sequence

Begin by rapidly dipping down to about the quarter-squat level (see figure a)
and immediately explode upward. Drive the knees high toward the chest and
attempt to touch them to the palms (see figure b). Upon landing, repeat the
sequence, each time driving the knees upward and tucking the feet under the
body. Perform this exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single
response, multiple response with pause, and multiple response.

42: Split Jump

 / 00:00

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction
 Perform split jumps on a flat surface. They are especially good for
developing striding power for running and cross-country skiing; they are also
specific to the split portion of the jerk.

Starting Position

Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the
midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath
the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Jump as high and straight up as possible (see figure b). Block with the arms
to gain additional lift. Upon landing, retain the spread-legged position, bending
the knees to absorb the shock (see figure c). It is important to keep the shoulders
back and in line with the hips to maintain proper stability. Continue the motion
for the required number of repetitions; then switch legs and perform the same
number of repetitions with the opposite leg forward. Perform this exercise using
the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with
pause, and multiple response.

43: Scissors Jump

 / 00:00

a.
 b.

c.



Introduction

As in the split jump, this exercise works the muscles of the lower body and
torso. It is similar to the split jump except that leg speed is also emphasized;
therefore, it is especially good for runners and jumpers.

Starting Position

Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the
midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath
the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).

Action Sequence

As in the split jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with the
arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, reverse the position of the
legs—that is, front to back and back to front (see figure b). Switching the legs
occurs in midair, and you must do it quickly before landing. Upon landing,
repeat the jump, again reversing the position of the legs (see figure c).
Emphasize attaining maximal vertical height and leg speed. Perform this
exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple
response with pause, and multiple response.

44: Double Scissors Jump

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise is a variation of the scissors jump for more advanced athletes.
It is excellent for working the flexion and extension muscles in the hips, legs,
and torso.

Starting Position

Assume a stance with one leg extended forward with the knee over the
midpoint of the foot and the other leg back with the knee bent and underneath
the plumb line of the hips and shoulders (see figure a).

Action Sequence
 As in the scissors jump, jump as high and straight up as possible. Block with
the arms to gain additional lift. At the apex of the jump, attempt a complete
cycle of the legs, front to back, back to front, and vice versa, while in the air,
landing with the legs in their original position (see figures b and c). Remember
to maintain an excellent shoulders-above-hips posture. Perform this double-
switch movement about the hips, involving total-leg movements and not merely
switching lower legs or feet. Therefore, perform this exercise in the single-
response mode only.

45: Stride Jump

/ 00:00

a.
b.
c.
 d.

Introduction

A long, sturdy bench, rectangular box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps is

required for the stride jump. This exercise is excellent for any sport or activity
that requires good projection of the hips from a single-leg or alternating-leg
movement. The idea behind this exercise is to place the hips and one leg to
increase the stride without compromising posture and technique.

Starting Position
 Assume a position to the side and at one end of the bench. Place the inside
foot on top of the bench, and hold the arms down at the sides (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Begin by executing a push from both legs, simultaneously with an upward

movement of the arms. Using the inside leg (foot on bench) for power, jump
upward as high as possible and perform a maximal knee drive with the outside
(swing) leg (see figures b–d). Begin the training with single responses, focusing
on coordinating the downward push onto the bench with the upward drive of the
swing knee and arm(s). Synchronizing the swing-and-scissors motion and the
step-with-drive motion is very challenging. Perform this exercise using the
progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause,
and multiple response.
For multiple response, repeat the action as soon as the outside leg (away
from the bench) touches the ground. Use mainly the inside leg for power and
support, allowing the outside leg to contact the ground with minimal time and
maximal impulse. Once you reach the end of the bench, turn around, and,
reversing the leg positions, repeat the sequence in the other direction. Remember
to gain full height and body extension with each jump.

46: Stride Jump Crossover

/ 00:00

a.
b.
c.
 d.

Introduction

Like the stride jump, this exercise requires a long, sturdy bench, rectangular
box, or row of bleachers or stadium steps. This exercise extends the multiple-
response effects of the stride jump to enhance running, jumping, gymnastics, and
similar sport events.

Starting Position
 As in the stride jump, assume a standing position at one end of the bench
with one foot on the ground and the other on the bench. One arm is flexed and
the other is down by the side of the body (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Initiate the movement by rapidly blocking the arms upward. Continue this
upward momentum by driving off the bench with the elevated leg (see figure b),
jumping as high as possible, and extending the body fully (see figure c). At this
point, carry the body over the bench and slightly forward so the driving leg
touches the ground on the opposite side of the bench and the trailing leg rests on
top of the bench (see figure d). Body orientation and feet positions are now
opposite those of the starting position. As soon as the original driving leg
contacts the ground, repeat the motion but with the original trailing leg acting as
the major power source. Repeat these movements back and forth the length of
the bench. Work to achieve maximal height with each jump, using the arms to
assist in lifting the body. Minimize ground- and bench-contact time with the feet;
perform the movements as quickly as possible. Perform this exercise using the
progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with pause,
and multiple response.

47: Quick Leap

 / 00:00

a.
b.

c.
 d.

e.

f.



Introduction

You will need a soft landing surface, such as grass, sand, or a wrestling mat,
and a box, bench, or stool approximately 12 to 24 inches (30 to 60 cm) high for
this exercise. It is useful for those in training for volleyball, American football,
basketball, platform diving, and weightlifting.

Starting Position

With the feet together, assume a semierect position facing the box (about an
arm’s length away). Keep the arms at the sides and slightly bent at the elbows.

Action Sequence

Leap toward the box by exploding powerfully out of the starting position
with the help of an energetic arm swing (see figure a). While moving through the
air, prepare for takeoff by assuming a semisquat position, keeping the knees high
and forward of the hips, and tucking the feet under the hips (see figure b). Upon
landing on the box, full footed and with locked ankles (see figure c),
immediately thrust forward again, this time extending and straightening the
entire body (see figures d and e). Finish by landing full footed on the ground,
bending the legs to act as a cushion (see figure f). Make the initial jump to the
box as quickly as possible with just enough height to reach it. Anticipate and
concentrate on the second explosion from the box; stress a full extension of the
body after takeoff. You can perform a variation of this exercise by landing on the
box on one foot, thus executing the leap with one driving leg. Perform this
exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple
response with pause, and multiple response.

48: Depth Jump

 / 00:00

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction
 This exercise requires an elevated surface (box or bench) approximately 12
to 36 inches (30 to 90 cm) high. The landing surface should be forgiving yet
resilient; grass, gymnastics flooring, and cushioned turf work well. The depth
jump is a shock-method exercise and comes in the final portion of the training
continuum. Therefore, progression into this exercise is a must, as well as
progression within it. Apply the shock method, which involves a drop or fall
from the elevated platform to the takeoff surface. The key is to avoid developing
a landing rhythm to work on handling the surprise of landing and the subsequent
takeoff. The depth jump is elite in its application to all sports because it employs
leg strength, speed, and quickness. It also can be a source of problems if you do
not progress into it properly, as described in chapter 3.

Starting Position

Begin by standing at the edge of the elevated platform with the front of the
feet just over the edge. Keep the knees slightly bent and the arms relaxed at the
sides. The purpose of this position is to facilitate sliding or falling off the edge
rather than jumping or stepping off and inadvertently setting a performance
rhythm.

Action Sequence

Drop from the elevated surface to the ground (see figures a and b). While
falling, prepare for landing by flexing at the knees and hips. Cock the elbows
back and dorsiflex the ankles. Exercise progression begins with repetitions of
landing only. Once you have achieved a consistent proper landing position,
progress to practicing an immediate takeoff where a jump is initiated upon
landing, not after, by thrusting the arms upward and extending the body for as
much height as possible (see figure c). Maximal intensity and effort are required
to produce optimal force while keeping ground contact time to a minimum.
Plenty of rest between maximal efforts is necessary as well.
Leaps

49: Depth Leap

a.

b.

c.
 d.

e.

f.

Introduction

This exercise provides more of an elastic-reactive execution than the normal

countermove leap.

Starting Position

Using a stable box or platform at knee-to-hip height, begin by standing at the

edge of the elevated platform with the front of the feet just over the edge. Keep
the knees slightly bent and the arms relaxed at the sides. The purpose of this
position is to facilitate sliding or falling off the edge rather than jumping or
stepping off and inadvertently setting a performance rhythm.

Action Sequence

Drop or fall from the elevated surface (see figure a), land in takeoff position
(see figure b), and initiate takeoff immediately upon touchdown (see figures c-e).
The leap is performed by gaining distance and height outward. The leap is a
single, intense effort; therefore, it is helpful to have a pit of sand or foam to
cushion the landing (see figure f).

50: Depth Jump Leap

a.
b.

c.

d.
 e.

Introduction

This exercise requires two boxes or benches, one 12 to 16 inches (30 to 40

cm) high and the other 22 to 26 inches (56 to 66 cm) high. Use a resilient
landing surface such as grass or a thin mat. This exercise applies to
weightlifting, basketball, volleyball, ski jumping, and platform diving.

Starting Position

Stand on the lower box with the arms at the sides; the feet should be together
and slightly off the edge as in the depth jump. Place the higher box
approximately 2 or 3 feet (60 to 90 cm) in front of and facing you.

Action Sequence

Begin by dropping off the lower box as in depth jumping and landing on
both feet (see figures a and b). Immediately jump onto the higher box, landing
on both feet (or on one foot if you are advanced) (see figure c), and drive upward
and forward as intensely as possible, using the arms and a full extension of the
body (see figure d). Complete the motion by landing on the ground with both
feet and legs flexed to cushion the impact (see figure e). Concentrate on a quick,
explosive depth jump, overcoming the force of landing, and using the recoil to
leap to the higher box. Think of driving hard off the higher box upon landing. As
with other shock exercises, you will need rest periods of one to two minutes or
more between jumps.
Bounds and Skips

51: Prancing

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

As pogo is for jumps, prancing is the beginning progression for bounding. In

this exercise it is important to take off and land on both feet simultaneously and
to project the hips horizontally.

Starting Position

Assume a standing position with knees slightly bent and the hips tilted
forward.

Action Sequence

Upon takeoff, push the hips outward and upward with the knee of one leg
recovering forward (see figures a and b). Upon landing, repeat the takeoff with
the opposite knee recovering forward (see figure c). The upper-body action is the
same as in running. For both feet to land simultaneously, the ankles must remain
locked in a toes-up position.

52: Galloping

/ 00:00

a.

b.
c.
d.
 e.

Introduction

Galloping is a rhythmic exercise that fosters good hip projection and back
leg push-off. Lead leg mechanics and proper piston and hip extension mechanics
are a secondary emphasis.

Starting Position

Assume a standing position with one leg in front of the other.

Action Sequence

Begin by pushing off with the back leg and foot, keeping the ankle locked to
emphasize a spring-loaded landing and takeoff (see figure a). Continue to keep
the same leg behind the hips and project the hips forward while maintaining the
opposite leg in a forward position for initial landing and balance within each
stride (see figures b-e). After executing 6 to 12 repetitions, switch the position of
the legs and repeat the sequence. Emphasize hip projection upward and forward
with forceful, quick extensions of the back knee and ankle, accompanied by
piston-like striding actions of the lead leg.

53: Fast Skipping

/ 00:00

a.

b.
c.
 d.

e.



Introduction

Skipping is an excellent exercise for working the striding muscles. It

reinforces sprinting and jumping mechanics and trains the explosiveness
required in the acquisition stages. Fast skipping, or sprinter’s skip, as we often
refer to it, should resemble high-level acceleration mechanics, maximizing the
knee drive of the swing leg and the hip extension from the stance leg. The elbow
action is exactly that of acceleration.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with one leg slightly forward.

Action Sequence

Begin this sequence with a very dynamic thrust of the swing leg back down
onto the ground. As you do, drive the lead-leg toes up, scrape the bottom of the
foot from the ground (the hop portion), and drive the knee forward and upward,
finishing with the heel up under the hamstring (see figures a-e). Maintain close
contact with the ground and emphasize hip projection forward. Do not
emphasize stride distances; rather, maximize hip propulsion and thigh extension,
recovery, and frequency.

54: Power Skipping

/ 00:00

a.
b.
c.
 d.

Introduction

Skipping is an excellent exercise for working the striding muscles; it

reinforces sprinting and jumping mechanics and trains the explosiveness
required in the acquisition stages. Perform all skipping by executing a step-hop
pattern of right-right-step to left-left-step to right-right-step, and so on.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with one leg slightly forward.

Action Sequence
 Drive off the back leg, initiating a short, skipping step; then, with the
opposite leg, thrust the toe and knee up (see figure a). Upon landing, repeat the
action with the opposite leg (see figures b–d). Obtain as much height and
explosive power as possible after each short step. Drive the knee up hard and
fast to transfer force from the maximal extension of the support leg. Block with
the arms, concentrating on body lift and hang time while minimizing ground
contact.

55: Extended Skipping

/ 00:00

a.

b.
c.

d.
 e.

Introduction

Skipping is an excellent exercise for working the striding muscles; it

reinforces sprinting and jumping mechanics and trains the explosiveness
required in the acquisition stages. Perform all skipping by executing a step-hop
pattern of right-right-step to left-left-step to right-right-step, and so on.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with one leg slightly forward.

Action Sequence

Extended skipping involves a long flight time with each hop and step in the
sequence. Maintain good stride mechanics in the step phase while the hop foot
covers as much distance as possible to accompany the maximal horizontal knee
drive and lead-foot pawing action (see figures a-e). The timing and rhythm of
extended skipping are similar to those of the triple jump.

56: Ankle Flip

/ 00:00

a.
 a.

b.

Introduction

Because the ankle flip is performed from one leg onto the other, it is the next
level in the progression toward bounding. The ankle flip emphasizes forward hip
projection through full extension of the hip and knee.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed upright stance with one foot forward.

Action Sequence

Begin by pushing the hips forward and outward from the lead foot and leg
(see figure a). With minimal knee flexion and the ankle locked, land on the
opposite foot and quickly extend from that position so the hips remain in a
forward thrusting sequence with the ankle always projecting from slightly
behind (see figures b and c). Landing and maximizing ground reaction forces
from upward down into or onto the ground are a primary emphasis of this
preliminary bounding exercise.

57: Lateral Bound

 / 00:00

a.
 b.

c.

Introduction

This exercise can be performed on flat ground or with angled boxes or a

similar incline. It emphasizes using the adductors and abductors of the thighs as
well as the stabilizing muscles of the knees and ankles. The lateral bound is
excellent training for most sports, especially skating, hockey, Nordic skiing,
tennis, basketball, and baseball.

Starting Position

Assume a semisquat position that is perpendicular to the destination. If using

an angled box or incline, place it approximately one long step away and at the
side.

Action Sequence

Emphasizing distance and horizontal trajectory, allow the lead leg to do a

countermovement jump inward, shifting the weight to the outside leg for an
immediate push-off and extension while the lead shoulder and knee dip and
drive for distance (see figures a and b). The lead foot will land first with the trail
foot following to balance the landing (see figure c). Perform this exercise using
the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response with
pause, and multiple response. For single response, use maximal explosion and
resetting each time for optimal feedback about your performance, and emphasize
using the thigh and groin muscles as well as the hips and low back.

58: Single-Leg Stair Bound

/ 00:00

a.
b.
c.
 d.

Introduction

This exercise emphasizes decreasing the impact of landing on an elevated

surface while attending to the mechanics needed for optimal execution. Closed
stairs, those having facing panels (e.g., stadium steps, not bleachers), are
necessary to ensure that the lead foot does not catch underneath.

Starting Position

Balance on one leg on the second step from the bottom, with the opposite leg
poised slightly behind and above the step adjacently below.


Action Sequence

Come off the top foot and drop down to the step below on the opposite foot
(see figures a and b). When the back foot contacts the lower step, immediately
explode and push off, simultaneously driving the original lead knee upward and
onto a step or two above the starting step (see figures c and d). This sequence of
right leg, drop to left, bound up onto right, galloping continues for an allotted
number of repetitions. Then repeat by switching the lead and push-off legs (e.g.,
left, drop to right, bound to left) and performing the same number of repetitions
to complete a set.

59: Double-Leg Incline Bound

/ 00:00

a.
b.
 c.

Introduction

Perform this exercise on closed stairs, stadium steps, or a sloped hill.

Working up the incline reduces the impact of landing forces and places greater
emphasis on extension and takeoff forces.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed semisquat stance on the front portion of the step. Relax the
arms and hold them slightly behind the body in preparation for blocking.

Action Sequence

Like many others, this exercise has a progression. Perform the single-
response mode on stairs or a hill. Do a countermovement jump into full
extension and explosion forward and upward into the incline, followed by
flexion into proper, full-foot landings with upright posture (see figures a–c).
Reset between repetitions. Multiple-response bounds are best performed on
steps. From the ready position, drop back onto the previous step to initiate
movement. During the drop, maintain a posture that allows hip projection
upward and forward. With as rapid a takeoff as possible, bound up as many steps
as good landing technique will allow, ready to drop and take off again.

60: Lateral Stair Bound

/ 00:00

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise is the progressive combination of a multiple-response version

of the lateral bound on the decreased landing impact of elevated surfaces. Like
the single-leg stair bound, this exercise uses the dropping back of one step and
an explosive sideways bounding action up several more.

Starting Position

Begin in a semisquat stance with shoulders perpendicular to the stairs and the
weight on the upstairs leg.

Action Sequence

In the same manner as the other stair bound exercises, keep the weight
shifted into the steps, drop back one step with the downside leg, and, with
immediate extension of that leg and knee, drive off the upside leg and quickly
bound upward and inward two or three steps (see figures a-c). Continue this drop
one, bound two or three up sequence; then repeat facing the opposite direction.

61: Alternate-Leg Stair Bound

a.
b.

c.
 d.

Introduction

This exercise is next in the progression of exercises addressing horizontal hip

projection. It involves alternate-leg landings of decreased impact using an
incline surface such as a hill or enclosed stairs.

Starting Position

Assume a comfortable stance with one foot slightly ahead of the other to
initiate a step; the arms should be relaxed and at the sides. Variations on a
stationary start are walking and running starts, which improve performance
efficiency.

Action Sequence
 Begin by running up the steps, with maximal extension of the support leg
and maximal knee drive of the swing leg, forward and into the stairs (see figures
a-d). Maintain a toes-up, heels-up posture for quick takeoffs and explosiveness,
and refrain from overstriding and lengthy time on each step.

62: Alternate-Leg Bound

/ 00:00

a.
b.
c.
d.
 e.

Introduction

This exercise is the prime exercise for developing explosive leg and hip
power. Alternating the legs works the flexor and extensor muscles of the thighs
and hips and enhances running, sprinting, and jumping actions.

Starting Position

Assume a comfortable stance with one foot slightly ahead of the other to
initiate a step; the arms should be relaxed and at the sides. Variations on a
stationary start are walking and running starts, which improve performance
efficiency. Other variations include alternating the landings (e.g., right-right-left,
left-left-right, right-right-left-left) to emphasize the acceleration and
reacceleration of the stride mechanics.

Action Sequence

Begin by pushing off with the back leg and driving the knee forward and
upward to gain as much height and distance as possible before landing (see
figures a–e). Repeat the sequence (driving with the other leg) upon landing.
Keep the ankle locked in dorsiflexion and the heel up under the hips to reduce
ground contact time and promote efficient hip projection on the subsequent
takeoff. Either block with the arms in a contralateral motion, as in normal
running, or execute a double-arm swing.

63: Alternate-Leg Diagonal Bound

/ 00:00


a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise introduces a variation of the normal bounding pattern that aids
in power cutting maneuvers (lateral changes of direction by planting the outside
foot). It enhances the ability to gain distance at angles as well as forward.

Starting Position

Assume a comfortable stance with one foot slightly ahead of the other to
initiate a step; the arms should be relaxed and at the sides. Variations on a
stationary start are walking and running starts, which improve performance
efficiency.

Action Sequence

Begin by pushing off with the back leg, and then drive the knee forward and
upward to gain as much height and distance as possible before landing (see
figures a–c). Repeat the sequence (driving with the other leg) upon landing.
Keep the ankle locked in dorsiflexion and the heel up under the hips to reduce
ground contact time and promote efficient hip projection on the subsequent
takeoff. Either block with the arms in a contralateral motion, as in normal
running, or execute a double-arm swing. As you progress in skill, increase the
distance from side to side as well as forward upon landing.

64: Box Skip

a.
b.

c.
 d.

e.

Introduction

This exercise requires two to four boxes 8 to 24 inches (20 to 60 cm) high.
This is an advanced shock-method exercise for elite practitioners involved in
jumping events such as track and field, basketball, and volleyball.

Starting Position

Place the boxes in any order of height about 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3 m) apart.
Facing the first box from about two steps away, assume an upright stance with
one leg slightly behind the other. The arms should be relaxed at the sides.

Action Sequence

Drive off the back leg and attempt to gain as much height with the hips as
possible. Block with the arms and drive the knee upward to assist in the
explosive extension of the push-off leg (see figures a and b). Immediately upon
landing on a box, drive the other leg forward and upward to gain maximal height
and distance (see figures c– e). Use momentum from this action to leap onto the
ground between the first and second boxes with the same leg as the one that
landed on the first box; then step to the next box (i.e., skip). Continue this skip
action sequence over the remaining boxes. Concentrate on push-off and knee
drive with quickness and maximal force to maximize liftoff and hang time.

65: Box Bound

a.

b.
 c.

d.

e.



Introduction

Using two to four boxes 8 to 24 inches (20 to 60 cm) high, as in the box skip
exercise, places more resistive overloads on the specific sprinting and jumping
musculature. Because this exercise is of shock intensity, it is reserved for athletes
in advanced stages of training who are highly competent and have high training
maturity. This is why it appears last in this segment’s continuum of exercises.

Starting Position

Assume a comfortable stance two or three steps in front of a series of boxes

spaced according to your abilities as well as technique. Place one foot slightly
ahead of the other to initiate a step; the arms should be relaxed and at the sides.

Action Sequence

Begin by pushing off with the back leg and driving the knee forward and
upward to gain as much height and distance as possible before landing (see
figures a and b). Repeat the sequence (driving with the other leg) upon landing
as in the alternate-leg bound except that you take every other step from a box
(see figures c-e). Emphasize landing and foot placement to maintain an erect
torso and allow immediate forward hip projection. Eliminate landing positions
that foster overstriding or pulling the hips over and off the box.
Hops

66: Double-Leg Hop

a.

b.
 c.

d.



Introduction

The hop exercises in this section are presented in a progression. In the early
stages, work on developing consistent, proper takeoff and landing techniques.
Cones or small hurdles can help.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with the knees slightly bent and the arms
at the sides. Stand directly in front of a series of three to five hurdles spaced
approximately 3 feet (1 m) apart.

Action Sequence

Using a quick countermovement jump, extend the hips for vertical height
(see figures a and b). At full extension, tuck the toes, knees, and heels upward in
a cycling motion to clear the hurdle (see figure c). Maintain your posture and
upright position by blocking with the arms. For single response, upon clearing
the first hurdle, land with full-foot contact and give at the knees and hips (see
figure d). After sticking this landing, pause, and then reset the body position,
stance, and relationship to the next hurdle. Then execute the next hop. This reset
allows for a reeducation of landing and takeoff technique. Perform this exercise
using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple response
with pause, and multiple response.
For multiple response, how well you land dictates how well you take off.
Execute these hops by pausing for a brief moment, in the best landing position
possible, and then perform the next takeoff without resetting the lower or upper
body.

67: Double-Leg Speed Hop

 / 00:00

Introduction

This exercise builds speed and power in the leg and hip muscles. It is useful
for developing explosiveness and specifically applies to the mechanics of speed
work required in running.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with the knees slightly bent and the arms
at the sides. Stand directly in front of a series of three to five hurdles spaced
approximately 3 feet (1 m) apart.

Action Sequence
 Using a quick countermovement jump, extend the hips for vertical height. At
full extension, tuck the toes, knees, and heels upward in a cycling motion to
clear the hurdle. Maintain your posture and upright position by blocking with the
arms. Upon each landing, take off quickly upward with the same cycling action
of the legs. Execute the action sequence as rapidly as possible. Work for height
and distance, but not at the expense of repetition rate.

68: Incremental Vertical Hop

/ 00:00

a.
b.
c.
 d.

Introduction

This exercise requires elastic tubing or a rope approximately 15 feet (5 m)

long. Attach one end to a wall or pole at eye level and the other end to a
semireleasable object at ground level. This exercise is excellent for all activities
because it enhances stability during explosive cycling action.

Starting Position

With feet together, assume a relaxed position facing the wall or pole and
immediately to the side of the lower end of the rope or tubing. Prepare the arms
for blocking to provide lift.


Action Sequence

Hopping back and forth over the tubing, advance up the tubing as high as
possible (see figures a-d). Bring the knees forward and upward toward the chest
while tucking the feet underneath the hips. Continue up the tubing as far as
possible, thus completing the set.

69: Side Hop

/ 00:00

a.

b.

c.
 d.

Introduction

This exercise requires two cones approximately 18 to 26 inches (46 to 66

cm) high. The movement specifically enhances explosive lateral power
throughout the legs and hips. This exercise is useful for all activities employing
lateral movement.

Starting Position

Set both cones side by side approximately 2 feet (60 cm) apart; increase the
distance progressively as performance improves. Assume a relaxed upright
stance to the outside of one cone (see figure a). Keep the feet together and
pointing straight ahead, and cock the arms to be ready to provide lift and aid in
balance.

Action Sequence

With both feet, take off sideways over the first cone (see figures b–d) and
then the second one. Without hesitating, change direction by jumping back over
the second cone and then the first one. Continue this back-and-forth sequence.
Block with the arms in an upward thrusting motion to aid in lift and maintain
your posture.

70: Side Hop-Sprint

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.


Introduction

This exercise requires a bag, low bench, tackling dummy, or similar object to
hop over. Combining a series of hops with a full sprint for a short, accelerated
distance, this exercise enhances the coordination needed for rapidly changing
direction. It applies to tennis, basketball, baseball, football, and many other
sports that require changes of direction.

Starting Position

Stand on one side of the bag with feet together and pointing straight ahead.
An advanced progression would be to stand with your back to the bag and the
toes pointing directly away from it.

Action Sequence

Begin by hopping sideways back and forth over the bag for a designated
number of repetitions (approximately six) (see figures a–d). Execute the hops as
rapidly and efficiently as possible. The primary objective of the exercise is to
work on the rate of execution, not the height of the hops. Keep the trunk and hips
centered over the bag, because posture is of prime importance to optimal
execution. Anticipate the landing on the last repetition; land in a sprint starting
posture and accelerate forward past a designated finish line (see figure e).
Several participants using several bags can race; the participant completing the
designated number of hops first would have an advantage in finishing first.

71: Angle Hop

a.

b.
 c.

d.

Introduction

This exercise is best performed on a multiple-angle box or similar apparatus,

which must be securely attached to the ground so it does not move or slip during
the hops. Angle hops improve balance and lateral movement. This exercise is
useful for alpine skiing, tennis, American football, and gymnastics, as well as
other sports.

Starting Position

Stand in a relaxed position on one angled surface of the box.

Action Sequence

Hop laterally from one side of the box to the next sequentially, emphasizing
a rapid side-to-side and forward motion (see figures a–c). At the apex of the hop,
the knees are brought up toward the body (see figure d). Once skill has
improved, progress to more distinct angles. Block with the arms for balance.

72: Single-Leg Pogo

/ 00:00

a.
b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise enhances landing and takeoff mechanics from the ankle
through the hip. This beginning single-leg exercise helps train or rehabilitate
sprinting posture and ground negotiation. This exercise is crucial for training
directing sprinting ground reaction forces downward into the ground from an
erect position directly above the contact point, as mentioned in earlier chapters.

Starting Position

Stand tall with one leg flexed at the hip, the ankle lifted and locked, and the
toes up. The knee should be held above the level of the hip, with the heel in front
of the support knee.

Action Sequence

Flex and then extend the support leg upward and forward (see figures a and
b). Land each time on the full foot, with the shin and body weight over the instep
(see figure c). Each landing and takeoff should be felt high in the upper leg and
hip, not around the knee (which indicates landing too much on the toes).
Variations from barefoot are landings on targets (plates) to create full-foot,
stabilized landings. Variations of the forward pogo action are lateral takeoffs and
landings both to the inside and outside of each leg. If posture begins to falter, the
repetitions are too high or the distance of travel is too far.

73: Single-Leg Slide Kick

/ 00:00

a.
b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise has prime value in all sprinting and single-leg jumping
activities. It is also excellent for determining the ability to handle the posture,
balance, stability, and flexibility of single-leg work.

Starting Position

Adopt an upright stance with knees slightly bent, chest out, and shoulders
back. Lift one leg by pulling the heel upward at hip level and the heel up
underneath the hamstring. As mentioned, this position is very important for
training postural-integrity sprint mechanics.

Action Sequence

Using a quick countermovement jump, extend the hips for vertical height
(see figures a–c). At full extension, tuck the toes and heel of the takeoff leg
upward as if backed up against a wall, thereby needing to slide the heels up. The
knee rises upward and forward attempting to match the position of the other
knee. Maintain your posture and upright position by blocking with the arms.
Perform all the repetitions with one leg; then switch to the other. Perform this
exercise using the progressions detailed in chapter 3: single response, multiple
response with pause, and multiple response.

74: Single-Leg Hop

a.
b.
c.
 d.

Introduction

The double-leg hop technique applies to advancing into hopping in its most
definitive form, with a single leg. Evaluation of optimal posture, balance,
stability, and flexibility is even more important with one-leg landings and
takeoffs over a row of small cones or minihurdles.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with the knees slightly bent and the arms
at the sides. Completely balance on one leg while keeping the other leg in a
flexed position with the toes up, the knee in front of the body at hip level, and
the heel up underneath the hamstring (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Using the countermoving effects of the swing leg for lift and drive, and at
full extension, tuck the toes, knees, and heels upward in a cycling motion to
clear the cones or minihurdles (see figures b-d). Maintain your posture and
upright position by blocking with the arms. Upon each landing, take off quickly
upward again with the same cycling action of the legs. Execute the action
sequence as rapidly as possible. Work for height and distance, but not at the
expense of repetition rate.

75: Single-Leg Speed Hop

/ 00:00

Introduction

This multiple-response version of true hopping is the ultimate exercise for

developing the explosive, reactive, and cyclic action of sprinting. The skill
requirements are the same as for the single-leg hop.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with the knees slightly bent and the arms
at the sides. Completely balance on one leg while keeping the other leg in a
flexed position with the toes up, the knee in front of the body at hip level, and
the heel up underneath the hamstring.

Action Sequence

Use the multiple-response action of rapid yet fully explosive cyclic action for
height and distance. Using a quick countermovement jump, extend the hips for
vertical height, and at full extension, tuck the toes, knees, and heels upward in a
cycling motion. Maintain your posture and upright position by blocking with the
arms. Upon each landing, take off quickly upward again with the same cycling
action of the stance leg. Execute the action sequence as rapidly as possible.
Display the locked ankle, heel up, and fast recovering action necessary for
optimal execution.

76: Single-Leg Diagonal Hop

a.
b.
c.
 d.

Introduction

This exercise is slightly higher in stress load than the previous straight-ahead
single-leg hop progression because of the lateral stability necessary for
performing these takeoffs and landings.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position to one side of a series of small (6-12 in.)
cones or collapsible hurdles, with the knees slightly bent and the arms at the
sides. Completely balance on one leg while keeping the other leg in a flexed
position with the toes up, the knee in front of the body at hip level, and the heel
up underneath the hamstring (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Upon takeoff, project the hips at a 45-degree angle inside or outside the
takeoff point for a diagonal path, forward down the cone line (see figures b–d).
Progress by performing the exercise to the outside, then inside, and finally,
crossing back and forth.

77: Single-Leg Lateral Hop

a.
b.

c.
 d.

Introduction

This is an excellent exercise for training lateral movement and improving the
execution of speed and power cutting in athletic movements.

Starting Position

Assume a relaxed standing position with the knees slightly bent and the arms
relaxed to the side of a row of small cones or imaginary hurdles placed
perpendicular to the stance. Completely balance on one leg while keeping the
other leg in a flexed position with the toes up, the knee in front of the body at hip
level, and the heel up underneath the hamstring (see figure a).

Action Sequence

Upon takeoff, project the hips directly to the side of the takeoff point. Then
execute the vertical lift and pistonlike leg action over cones or imaginary
minihurdles. The key is to keep upright postural control while flexing the
hopping leg upward at the hip rather than backward at the knee (see figures b–d).
Progress by performing the exercise to the outside, to the inside, or back and
forth.

 78: Decline Hop

a.
 b.

c.



Introduction

Use a grassy hill of about 1 to 3 degrees of inclination. (Note: Do not attempt

this exercise on steps, bleachers, or a wet, slick surface.) This exercise develops
elastic reactivity in the lower body through increased shock on the musculature
and increased downward speed.

Starting Position

Assume a quarter-squat stance at the top of the hill with the body facing
down the fall line.

Action Sequence

Execute this movement the same as all other forward hopping movements.
Execute the hops by gaining vertical height and cycling the feet up over
imaginary knee-high hurdles that are placed in a line down the incline runway.
(see figures a-c). Performing this hop on the decline requires even greater
emphasis on repetition rate and movement speed, so this exercise is suggested
only after mastering all of the previous hop exercises.
Ricochet

79: Incline Ricochet

a.

b.
 c.

Introduction

This exercise requires a set of stairs or stadium steps. The stairs must be
solid, with no openings in which toes and feet may become entrapped. This
exercise trains reflexive quickness in more of an unloaded, or overspeed,
manner. It is well suited for all sports involving fast footwork.

Starting Position

Stand at the bottom of the steps facing them in a relaxed upright position
with feet together and arms to the sides and cocked at the elbows.

Action Sequence
 Rapidly move up every step at the highest rate possible without tripping (see
figures a-c). Use the arms for balance, keeping the thumbs up, and also for
assisting in explosion from step to step. Quickness is most important in this
exercise, so focus on relaxation. Anticipate hopping or stepping rapidly to each
succeeding step. Think of being light on the feet. Variations of the ricochet
include angling to the right or left of the steps or facing completely sideways.
The ricochet can be done with feet together, in carioca step fashion, with a four-
step sequence, or on one leg if you are advanced.

 Part III
Plyometric Programming
 Chapter 8
Complex Training

/ 00:00
Complex training is the coupling of strength and speed, or the incorporating
of training loads, speeds, and styles in the quest for athletic power. Complex
training requires exercises that are biomechanical and athletically specific
(especially in terms of velocities) to the endeavors of the athlete’s sport.
Olympic-style lifts that employ the entire body across multiple joints and use
highly synchronized loads and speeds are very applicable to the biomechanics of
many sports and athletic activities. This training mode should be performed early
in the workout when dynamic work is optimal, prior to any heavily loaded, slow,
or single-joint isolation exercises. This provides greater work intensity and
velocity and the inclusion of multijoint combinations (Ebben and Blackard
1997). This chapter offers several definitions and examples of both complex and
combination training and explains their applications to program design.
Definitions of complex training have existed for many years. In 1966
Verkhoshansky described it as a complex of exercises united according to the
principle that basic exercises for the development of reactive ability via
heightened excitability of the CNS by exercise requiring great power. In 1986
Fleck and Kontor described it as a series of exercises performed in succession
designed to increase the ability to produce power quickly. Chu (1996) suggested
the definition of a workout system that combines strength work and speed work
for an optimal training effect. Ebben and Blackard (1997) explained complex
training as a training system that alternates biomechanically similar high-load
weight training and plyometric exercises, set for set, within the same workout.
They considered it a convenient and optimal training strategy for the
development of sport-specific athletic power. The loads in the weight training
sets complement those in the ensuing elastic–reactive exercise sets, thereby
optimizing neuromuscular adaptations.
Our definition of complex training is training that involves alternating sets of
two exercise styles by set (e.g., a set of one exercise followed by a set of
another). Combination training, on the other hand, we define as the alternating of
two exercise styles within a single set, or by rep. For example, we consider a set
of three repetitions of the clean and jerk to be combination training (clean and
jerk). An athlete performs one clean repetition, followed by the jerk repetition,
then repeats this sequence twice more. Had the athlete completed all three clean
repetitions followed by the three jerk repetitions, this would be complex training
(clean, then jerk) (Gambetta and Radcliffe 1989).
Complex training methods can also involve combining two exercises that are
similar in movement pattern and yet different in terms of absolute or relative
strength (speed is not a factor), and those of elastic (speed and rebound ability).
Ebben and Blackard (1997) considered two biomechanically similar exercises to
be a complex pair; including a third similar exercise creates a complex triad.
For further definitions of these strength terms, refer to chapter 2. Complexes
of absolute strength and elastic strength (weights and plyometrics) that we have
found to be effective are squatting then jumping, pressing then passing, pulling
then tossing or throwing, and lunging then bounding or skipping.
Following are examples of sequences that combine strength and speed
exercises.
Barbell Back Squat Then Squat Jump × 4
Perform a set of four repetitions of the barbell back squat followed
immediately by a set of four squat jumps; then rest. Increase the weight of the
barbell; then repeat the sequence for three more sets. You may eventually
perform the squat jumps with a light weight, such as a 25-pound (or 10 kg)
sandbag. In the beginning use only body weight.
Incline Press or Bench Press Then Medicine Ball Chest Pass (for height)
× 5
Perform a set of five repetitions of the incline press followed immediately by
five repetitions of the medicine ball chest pass with a 7- to 15-pound (3 to 7 kg)
medicine ball; then rest. Increase the weight on the barbell if necessary to
intensify the repetitions, and repeat the sequence. Do not increase the weight of
the medicine ball.
 How Complex Training Works
The rationale for complex training is relatively simple. Practitioners claim
that complex training offers the following benefits:

Better use of time within the workout session

Better use of floor and work space within the training area
More efficient use of equipment (e.g., barbells, dumbbells, medicine balls)
Increase in quality training volume (keeping a power perspective to the sets
and reps)
Increase in the variations of workout and training cycles
Increase in metabolic work capacity

Chapter 1 addressed the concepts of strength work as well as the aspects of

rate of force development (RFD). Strength work alone is not as beneficial in this
process, especially when comparing time of force for a heavy squat to the rate of
force in athletic ground contact times. Developing rate of force and the
neuromuscular components involved (Type IIx muscle fibers) requires a
combination of strength and elastic–reactive work.
On some combined strength and elastic workdays, strength, speed, and
elastic complexes provide an efficient use of time and the facility. Complex
training in this way can result in greater neuromuscular recruitment and
subsequent improvements in RFD. The concept is that, when matching pairs of
biomechanically similar exercises, the resistance exercise stimulates the central
nervous system (CNS) into greater action, recruiting more Type IIx fibers for the
explosive exercise.
Many researchers and practitioners describe the physiological rationale for
complexing as follows:

The precontraction of antagonistic muscles counters the inhibitory neural

mechanisms in the agonists (Fees 1997).
Combination programs may produce superior strength and power
performance measurements as observed in weightlifters’ power outputs and
rate of force development (Harris et al. 2000)
A wider range of stimuli to the muscle encourages the development of both
speed and strength. This is due to an increase in motor neuron excitability
(Jones and Lees 2003).
 Increased excitability of the CNS occurs as a result of postactivation
potentiation (PAP). Heavy loading induces neural stimulation, which
improves muscle twitch force (French et al. 2003).

Participants must work at high intensities during both the strength and the
speed portions of the complex. As a result, the volume should be low enough to
guard against undue fatigue; limited repetitions of all-out efforts should be
performed to ensure these intensities. Complex training may be used from one to
three times per week with adequate recovery between sessions
(recommendations are for at least 48 and not more than 96 hours).
Experts vary widely in their recommendations for the timing of within-set
rest periods (from 30 seconds to 20 minutes). The optimal range for performance
improvement seems to be between three and eight minutes. Obviously, given that
one of the reasons for the use of complex or combined training sequences is a
more efficient use of time, the optimal recommendation for within-set rest
periods is from one to four minutes. In a review of the research, Ebben (2002)
concluded that four minutes was the preferred time allotment. Comyns and
colleagues (2006) found similar benefits in rest interval but also supported the
use of individually assigning rest intervals for optimal performance. A review of
the research also offered a look at effectiveness. Eleven of 14 studies indicated
positive effects of complex training protocols. Two studies offered no evidence
of effectiveness, and one revealed negative training effects. The results of a more
recent study of complex training effects on power development suggested that
the method may not be better than traditional training methods that use either
strength training or plyometric training on their own. On the other hand, it did
not reveal any decrement. Therefore, because complex training incorporates
multiple methods into a single work session, it offers effective variable and
efficient training (MacDonald et al. 2013).
The benefits of this training style appear to be organizational, although
improvements seem to increase over time with continued training. Significant
strength levels and plyometric progressions (along the continuum) should be a
requirement for application (Duthie, Young, and Aitken 2002).
Probably most important in the practice of complex training methodologies
is understanding the biomechanical requirements of the activities being matched
and then working from that point forward in a progressive manner. As depicted
in figure 8.1, some of the strength and speed, or strength versus speed, qualities
can be combined with biomechanical qualities, direction of force applications,
and reactive response modes.
 Figure 8.1 Combinations of concepts.

 Planning Complex Training
As with all forms of training, a model of planned performance protocols, or
periodization, is implemented to optimize progressive improvement. Complex
training is of greatest value when placed at certain times in training and
competitive periods, phases, and cycles. If complex training were to occur prior
to working on technical and biological development, it would not be as
beneficial. For example, placing a complex of squats and jumps into the training
before the athlete has achieved good squat technique at fairly high loads, and
before he could execute good jumping techniques of fairly high quality, the
complex would have much less value. As explained in earlier chapters, proper
planning and progression throughout both the strength training and the
plyometric work leads to better performance when it is time to couple the two.
Within the yearly plan of training for performance enhancement,
progressions are used in the postseason, off-season, and preseason training
periods. Because the specific technical developments can be acquired in the
postseason and the off-season, the precompetitive training period is the ideal
time to begin plugging in complex training.
 Exercise Methodologies
Once we understand the concepts behind what, when, how, and why we are
complexing the training methods, the list of possible exercise combinations is
vast. However, we must keep in mind that one of the main goals of this process
is to optimize training efficiency. Creating a complicated set of exercises just
because we can will only slow down or negate some of the positive effects of the
methodology. Being in tune with the why of exercise selection is the key. Taking
that into account, following are a few of the categories and modes of complex
and combination exercises.

Lifting Complexes

Lifting complexes are repetitions of two or more lifting exercise movements

within the same set. The following complexes provide a sample of exercises in
the pulling, squatting, and pushing categories and show how they interact to aid
in movement synchronization.
Pull–Squat

Double- or single-leg good morning; and overhead or back squat, lunge, or

step-up
Double- or single-leg deadlift; and overhead or front squat, lunge, or step-
up
Clean; and front squat, lunge, or step-up
Snatch; and overhead squat, lunge, or step-up

Squat–Push

Overhead squat or lunge; and press or jerk

Front squat, lunge, or step-up; and press or jerk
Back squat, lunge, or step-up; and press or jerk

Push–Squat

Press from behind or in front; and squat, lunge, or step-up

Jerk from behind or in front; and squat, lunge, or step-up

Pull–Push
 Double- or single-leg good morning; and press or jerk from behind
Double- or single-leg deadlift; and press or jerk from the front
Clean; and press or jerk from the front
Snatch; and press or jerk from behind

Pull–Squat–Push or Pull–Push–Squat

Double- or single-leg good morning; press or jerk from behind; and

overhead squat, lunge, or step-up
Double- or single-leg deadlift; press or jerk from the front; and overhead
squat, lunge, or step-up
Clean; front squat or lunge; and press or jerk

Lifting Combinations

Lifting combinations involve barbells or dumbbells and alternate repetitions

of two or more lifting styles within the same set.
Pull–Squat

Double- or single-leg good morning; and overhead or back squat, lunge, or

step-up
Double- or single-leg deadlift; and overhead or front squat, lunge, or step-
up
Clean; and front squat, lunge, or step-up
Snatch; and overhead squat, lunge, or step-up

Squat–Push

Overhead squat or lunge; and press or jerk

Front squat, lunge, or step-up; and press or jerk
Back squat, lunge, or step-up; and press or jerk

Push–Squat

Press from behind or in front; and squat, lunge, or step-up

Jerk from behind or in front; and squat, lunge, or step-up

Pull–Push

Double- or single-leg good morning; and press or jerk from behind

 Double- or single-leg deadlift; and squat, lunge, or step-up from the front
Clean; and press or jerk from the front
Snatch; and press or jerk from behind

Pull–Squat–Push or Pull–Push–Squat

Double- or single-leg good morning; press or jerk from behind; and

overhead squat, lunge, or step-up
Double- or single-leg deadlift; press or jerk from the front; and overhead
squat, lunge, or step-up
Clean; front squat or lunge; and press or jerk
Snatch; overhead squat or lunge; and press or jerk

Strength and Speed Complexes

In the beginning of this chapter, our definition of complexing focused on the

combinations of heavy strength work and dynamic elastic–reactive work.
Following are some strength and speed complexes and their exercise modes.
Pull and Toss or Throw
The following movements are biomechanically and dynamically alike:

Clean or snatch pull; and medicine ball toss or throw

Clean or snatch pull; and bar kip-up
Clean or snatch; and medicine ball toss or throw or kip-up
Clean or snatch; and rocket, star, or tuck jump
Split snatch; and split or scissors jump

Squat or Lunge and Jump or Bound

The following movements are biomechanically and dynamically alike:

Overhead, front, or back squat; and squat, rocket, or tuck jump

Overhead, front, or back squat; and double-leg stair bound
Overhead, front, or back lunge; and split, scissors, or stride jump
Overhead, front, or back lunge; and single-leg stair bound or lunge jump
45-degree or side lunge; and stride jump crossover or diagonal, or lateral
(stair) bound
Push and pass

The following movements are biomechanically and dynamically alike:

 Push press or jerk (in front or from behind); and squat or squared chest pass
Split jerk (in front or from behind); and staggered heavy bag press punch
Bench or incline press; and medicine ball chest pass or drop push-up
(similar angles)
Dumbbell alternating press; and medicine ball wall put (shot style)
Front or back squat; and medicine ball squat chest pass

Pull and Squat or Push and Hop

The following movements are biomechanically and dynamically alike:

Clean, snatch, or squat; and double-leg speed hop

Split snatch, lunge, or split jerk; and single-leg speed hop
45-degree or side lunge, and diagonal or side hop

Pull and Throw

The following movements are biomechanically and dynamically opposite:

Clean, snatch, or high pull; and medicine ball overhead throw forward
(kneeling or standing)
Clean, snatch, or high pull; and floor or bar kip-up

The list of types, subtypes, and styles of complex training methodology is

long. Those outlined here can be either hugely expanded or meticulously pared
down according to training objectives.
We like to use the lifting complexes and combinations for specific warm-up
routines with a bar or dumbbells, especially once time gets tight (e.g., during in-
season training). The heavier lifting complexes and combinations are especially
handy during the preseason and in-season, because time is a factor and optimally
coordinated and synchronized lifting and performing is important. We try to take
three or four minutes between the loaded strength sets and the dynamic, or
elastic, set. When time becomes an issue, such as during in-season training, the
time between the strength and speed sets is as follows: a heavy set of few
repetitions (two to five) followed by a change of weights (if necessary) for the
training partners; then the dynamic, or elastic, set (30 seconds maximum),
followed by a change of the weight again; then the third partner goes, and the
sequence repeats. We have found this to be a very good use of load, intensity,
and time.
 Chapter 9
Sport-Specific Training
One way to take advantage of explosive training is to tailor exercises to the
sport played. Doing so not only motivates athletes because they know that the
exercises will help them in their sports, but also gives direction to the individual
workouts and progressions. You should not alter the plan to progress from
general to specific, from simple to complex, from low to high and shock
intensity.
The following plyometric workout programs follow the stress continuum.
The first section in each table offers an all-encompassing, basic continuum of
exercises to use at the beginning of all plyometric training programs. Sport-
specific exercises, known as the sport’s desirables, follow. These can accompany
the program basics as the athlete progresses through the continuum. Athletes can
use any program for the full 12 weeks or any length of time. Athletes and
coaches can tailor the time individually or to fit the phasic constraints of the
periodized training cycle (see chapter 10). For example, collegiate athletes who
are on the quarter system of the academic calendar rarely get a full 12 weeks of
training without a break. Therefore, they must step back a week or two and
continue to progress with the continuum. The exercise dosage in each column is
for spreading over two days within the week. We call these continuum cards for
specific sports.
After these sport-specific exercises we present a special feature for beyond
basic continuum training—what we call mountains and rivers. These routines,
named for particular mountains and rivers based on their use of power, stability,
and continual flow toward certain goals, are advanced and appropriate for the
competitive phase of training.
Following is a list of sports and activities in no particular order or ranking;
these are simply the most common ones we and our colleagues deal with
regularly. If your particular sport or activity is not listed here, do not let that
deter you. You know your sport or activity well, and with the guidelines in this
book and the following examples, you will be able to set up your own continuum
card of specific training.
Soccer
Baseball, softball, and cricket
Volleyball
Cycling
Field hockey
Basketball and netball
Rowing
American football
Skiing
Lacrosse
Tennis, racquetball, squash, and handball
Track and field
Olympic weightlifting
Wrestling
Aussie football
 12-Week Conditioning Programs
Tables 9.1 through 9.21 present comprehensive, progressive plyometric
training programs for a variety of sports. The first 12 exercises at the top of each
table are called program basics because they are general conditioning exercises
for any training program, regardless of the sport. These basic exercises are a
lead-in, and they increase in complexity and specificity as the weeks continue.
The first few weeks of each program consist of program basics and, in most
cases, only a few sport-specific exercises. We call these sport-specific exercises
the desirables. Athletes should perform these exercises on the same days as the
program basics exercises. Eventually, some exercises may become technical
training, or even the warm-up, but during the 12-week program they are the
training itself. Each coach or athlete may add others or replace some with others;
they know their sports and activities and can apply the principles discussed. For
continuity, we provide 12 exercises for basic training and specific sport work.
Numbers represent the number of sets and repetitions (e.g., 2 × 4-6 indicates two
sets of four to six repetitions).
As mentioned, athletes should spread the exercises for each week over two
days, preferably with one or more days of nonelastic–reactive work between
them (refer to the section Rest in chapter 3). They can split the workload by
doing half the volume of every exercise on each of the two days. However, in
some cases, as in several of the third to eighth weeks, 14 to 18 exercises may be
scheduled for the week. What we have found to work well is to split the
exercises into two groups, either basics and specifics, or, even better, to split
them up to match the style of training for that day. Let’s say that on the third
week an athlete has the 11 program basics exercises as well as 5 to 10 desirable
exercises. On day 1, she does lifting and sprinting as well as the exercises. On
day 2, she does just the sprinting and the exercises. In this case, she should
choose some program basics exercises that fit either with the lifting (perhaps in
complex style), such as pogo, squat jump, box jump, split jump, or star jump, or
with the sprinting, such as prancing, galloping, skipping, or ankle flip. We could
term this a vertical versus horizontal split in the week’s exercises. On the other
hand, we have found it useful to split the exercises by complexity or intensity,
with the first several basics and desirable exercises on the day that has lifting and
running, and the latter exercises of each section on the day with only sprint
training.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
Click here to go the drill finder, which will link you to each exercise.
 Mountain and River Routines
Once athletes have performed the program basics and then the specific
desirable dozen exercises for their sport or activity, they can perform certain
routines on certain days either weekly or biweekly. These multiple plyometric
routines of jumps, bounds, hops, and throws are advanced based on dosages and
intensities, but they do not necessarily have to be high or shock stress.
The mountain and river routines fit best into the advanced or competitive
phase of training. (We call these routines mountains and rivers for convenience
in referring to them by name. Athletes might prefer to personalize them, perhaps
naming them after their favorite athletes. Coaches might name them after former
favorite students.) In any case, athletes should probably not advance to the
mountain and river routines until they have accomplished all the progressions
initially, rehabilitatively, and transitionally (from the end of the competitive
season into the next preparatory season). As discussed in chapter 10, athletes can
progress into and out of levels of stretch–shortening cycle training during phases
of the precompetitive and competitive periods in several ways. One way to do
this is to cycle variations of the mountain and river routines into particular
competitive training periods.
Athletes and coaches can set up their own series of mountains and rivers (see
table 9.22) based on athletes’ accomplishments and needs and the goals of the
competitive training period.
 Sport- and Event-Specific Routines
The routines in table 9.23 can be used to enhance specific aspects of events
that occur in many of the aforementioned sports.
 Chapter 10
Season-Long Power Maintenance
Training is organized instruction that is directed within a time framework
toward specific goals. The final task we undertake in this book is to look at the
stretch–shortening cycle in a broad sense, attempting to see as big a picture as
possible. Using terms associated with endurance training, muscular hypertrophy
training (bodybuilding), and absolute strength training has often been taboo in
plyometrics, simply because they tend to be on the other end of the training
spectrum from explosion, impulsion, and reaction. When we refer to explosive
power training, many of us, purists perhaps, still defend the true intentions of
plyometric (i.e., shock-style) training, in which long, slow overdosages intended
to produce size or cardiorespiratory improvements do not often fit. However, the
stretch–shortening cycle can still be a valuable tool to complement those training
areas.
Long-term planning and promotion are essential to mastering training and
performance, not to mention a sport itself. Program design—encompassing all
facets of strength, speed, agility, and plyometric training; the stretch–shortening
cycle; and evaluation—presents many questions, some of which can be
answered easily, some of which require research to answer, and others of which
can only be answered by trial, error, retrial, and the passage of time.
At some point, progressions (and progress!) take us from development to
refinement. Refining power is not ceasing the development process. Rather, it is
an elite approach to the transitional phase of skill mastery, the extreme
specificity of power as it applies to the movement, athlete, activity, and sport.
The concept of planned performance training, or periodization as it is known
to many, can be explained using the following analogy. If a single coach and one
or two athletes need to travel from Boston to Atlanta, the overall planning can be
fairly simple. Deciding what vehicle to use and what route to take is easy
because the group is small. They may not have to plan out their stops, meal
breaks, and bathroom breaks. They simply need to choose the best route and
make small adjustments so that they keep traveling on that route. On the other
hand, if a coach or coaching staff and 35 or 40 athletes need to get from Boston
to Atlanta, a plan becomes much more important. What form of transportation is
best— a plane, train, bus, or hot air balloon? What is best for the needs of the
group as a whole? If they choose ground travel, when and where will they stop?
Will it be every time someone is hungry or needs to use facilities? Or will there
be planned stops for the entire team? What if there is a detour or delay? Does the
group adjust for certain people, or for the entire group? How often?
These kinds of decisions are the reason for periodic planned performance
protocols, or periodization. These decisions are not, nor should they ever be,
written in stone (i.e., unchangeable). Just like the traveling party of three, which
can adjust easily to the needs of one, the party of 40 needs to adjust as well,
occasionally to the needs of one or two. If the plan is flexible and factors in
possible disasters, delays, and dilemmas, then the group can travel optimally to
the destination. Similarly, progressions in training address the fact that some
people will not be able to travel as quickly and easily down each planned route
as others might. They can still train and develop optimally, though, just at a
different pace. And they are still en route to the destination, often with fewer off-
route disasters because of the proper progressive approach.
 Year-Round Performance Training
Developing the goals of a training program involves establishing the peak, or
final competitions, and working backward from that point. Whether the peak is a
single competitive situation (e.g., the Tour de France), a portion of a season
(state playoffs), or a multipeaking competition (e.g., national, Pan-American,
world, or Olympic championships), each goal can be addressed by using the
evaluation continuums and the program hierarchy to map the route of the
stretch–shortening cycle training in each period of the yearly plan (see figure
10.1).
 Figure 10.1 The yearly overview.

Just as athletes progress and cycle through a training format for stretch–
shortening cycle, or plyometric, methodology, they can also progress and cycle
through phases, periods, and years—in both the short term and the long term.
Moreover, periods can be planned for both individuals and teams. The principle
of multilateral periodization (i.e., involving several systems of training), from
general to specific training, involves exposing younger athletes to mixed or
multidirectional training as mentioned in the previous discussion of hierarchy
concepts. Advanced athletes, those who have developed high levels of core,
relative, and dynamic strength, can use prioritized or unidirectional (i.e., highly
specific) training. In some situations, athletes perform no conventional strength
training in a microcycle dominated by elastic–reactive training. In all cases,
repetitions, sets, and rest periods should reflect training objectives.

Periods

Training year period objectives differ based on the training program. For
some athletes, periods merely reflect a change of season: in-season
(competitive), postseason (regenerative), off-season (general preparatory), and
preseason (special preparatory). For multisport athletes and those who perform
only in-season training, periods have different objectives. In many situations, the
competitive period is a time to back off ardent stretch–shortening cycle and
plyometric drills other than those designed to meet competition objectives (e.g.,
specific jumping, sprinting, and change-of-direction drills). Developing power
takes a back seat to refining speed skills.
 However, these athletes may miss all opportunities for basic and special
development. Applying methodologies within the power hierarchy can be
helpful in both cases. The stretch–shortening cycle is evident in many forms of
preparatory, or technical, work, as well as in developmental loading and specific
transitional work (see figure 10.2a for those new to plyometrics and 10.2b for
those experienced in explosive power). The program planner can prioritize the
training cycles within the competitive period, formulating a miniature version of
the combination of periods that mimic the progressive nature of the big picture.
 Figure 10.2 Use of the stretch–shortening cycle in (a) early training
periodization and (b) advanced periodization.

In summary, training periods are steps toward peak performance. Table 10.1
presents a list of periods and their objectives.
 Phases

As Bompa (1983) suggested, each period has cycled phases that generate the
advancement to specific objectives for each training season. Recommendations
to continue plyometric training over several months are not uncommon. Indeed,
we believe that athletes can adhere to a continuous, year-round approach. Some
believe that plyometric drills should be used only for three or four weeks of
training microcycles. This may come from some practitioners’ notion of a
limited ability to train certain speed segments. Zanon (1989), for example,
recommended a cyclic oscillatory trend of increased plyometric use for 10 days
and then decreased use for 10 days, regulated over a three-week cycle. When
using a progressive system of stress-continuum plyometrics, we believe that
elastic–reactive movements can be used throughout the training phase, at least
until major competitive peaking cycles occur. As a result of proprioceptive
progress, this can offer the advantage of year-round SSC and plyometric
attention. Periodic planning of the progressive methods of strength, speed, and
elastic training is presented in figure 10.3 (Bompa 1983 and Radcliffe 1998).
 Figure 10.3 Periodic phases of training methodologies.

At the end of the chapter we offer samples of procedures through a period of

training phases. The charts of the annual plans can be rotated to fit numerous
activities and their objectives. Athletes should apply progressive patterns
through the stretch–shortening cycle and plyometric forms of training and
consider their suitability in the hierarchy of power development. They can then
emphasize different areas of stretch–shortening cycle development, be it a
dynamic warm-up; technical, developmental, or specific mobility work during
training workouts; or competitive practices in each phase. To achieve sport-
specific goals, athletes must determine how much stretch–shortening cycle
training is needed and where. They can then analyze their performance in the
specific training to decide whether to continue at the same dosages, increase
volumes, taper dosages, or cease the training for specific competitive reasons.
For our purposes, and the efficiency of the weekly workload, we like to use
21- to 28-day training cycles (three to four weeks). Our most common practice is
to use a four-week block of 21 days of progressive development and an off-
loading or evaluation week (see figure 10.4).
 Figure 10.4 Four-week training cycles that progress in volume, intensity,
method, complexity, or total accumulated workload for the first three weeks,
then are off-loaded during the fourth week. Jumping or throwing tests can be
used to evaluate progress either at the beginning of specified weeks or during the
fourth week.

 Seasonal Conditioning
A power hierarchy (see figure 10.5) is useful in planning the types and
magnitudes of SSC work within the scope of a program. As athletes move
through the training phases, they can also move through the training methods
within the structure of the power hierarchy.
 Figure 10.5 Power hierarchy.

As the power hierarchy and the workout methods within it show, a great deal
of stretch–shortening cycle work can be accomplished throughout the entire
scope of the training. Throughout the stages of the program, each level has a
definite place in the workout’s power hierarchy. For example, the progression of
pogo, prancing, galloping, and so on, which was the main focus of the
plyometric and loading workout at the beginning of the program, can eventually
become part of the technical period (form running) and even the preparatory
period (dynamic warm-up). This provides constant attention to developing
biomechanical skills in their parts while progressing to the more complex and
intense forms of stretch–shortening cycle training as a whole. Often, planners
wonder when to emphasize plyometric drills versus weight training, and vice
versa. When working within the context of the hierarchy and the progressions
we provide, the main concern is meeting the objectives of the particular cycle in
the training phase.
Each workout, whether performed in a weight room, on a court, or on a field,
can adhere to the methodologies. The methodologies can be applied to a
preparatory session (dynamic and static flexibility), a technical session (form
running and lifting movements), a developmental session (all forms of loading,
extended durations, and speeds), or a transitional mobility session (changes of
direction, high-speed executions).
 If weight training includes postural and dynamic forms of lifting (which we
think it should), the timing of the training method merely depends on the
placement of the workout session. Some trainers and sport scientists suggest that
training sessions include a warm-up and dynamic work, followed by strength
work and speed work, and end with a cool-down. This is one way, as is the
power hierarchy method, of establishing when to emphasize the degree of
workload. We need to make several points about using stretch–shortening cycle
training, whether the design is for plyometrics, Olympic lifting, speed work, or
agility and mobility. We consider all these training types to be stretch–shortening
cycle training and see it, as mentioned in chapter 1 with certain goals and
objectives for dynamic force development, as an all-encompassing entity.
 Individualizing the Training Program
For best results, plyometric training programs should be individualized.
Following an evaluation, participants should be trained in the basics and
observed performing some exercises. This should provide a good idea of what
they are capable of and how fast they may progress. Despite continuing research
in the area of optimal training loads, as in so many other areas of sport training,
individualizing the stretch–shortening cycle training program is more of an art
than a science.
You may notice that in the progressive development of the stretch–shortening
cycle, or in a plyometric training program, some parts of the early drills and
exercises that are designed to foster correct technical and developmentally safe
performances do not adhere to the definitions of elastic, reactive, or plyometric
exercise training. If the objectives of the overall power development program are
sincere, then we must get beyond the discrepancies of single response, responses
with pause, and two-foot takeoffs so that the final outcome—the elite level of
progression—is truly explosive, impulsive, elastic–reactive, plyometric, and
impressive.
As Siff and Verkhoshansky (1996) pointed out, plyometric training can be
arranged in many categories. One example is the distinction between impact (an
eccentric movement that ends in contact with a surface) and nonimpact (no
surface contact ending stretch–shortening cycle movements). Distinctions also
exist between maximal exercises (producing rebound tensions and impulses of
the highest intensities) and submaximal exercises (exhibiting lesser impulses and
lower intensities and being less complex in execution). These distinctions fit
along the stress continuum explained in chapter 3.
Many movements may be preparatory, or supplemental, before progressing
to more classic plyometric movements. Again, understanding the concepts of the
training and the proper lead-up progressions and evaluating execution before
advancing are important to the development of the plyometric program.
Before beginning stretch–shortening cycle and plyometric training, athletes
should fully understand the program in which they want to incorporate it. This is
best accomplished by establishing objectives from the beginning. These
objectives help athletes define the training style, balance and progress the
exercises, and apply training principles throughout the program.
Here are examples of objectives for establishing a program:
 1. 1. Develop a well-balanced, well-rounded, progressive training program.
2. 2. Include the stretch–shortening cycle in all applications of basic training
development (e.g., preparatory, technical, developmental, and transitional).
3. 3. Individualize the program to safely help participants progress from
beginners to advanced or elite performers.
4. 4. Create a system for evaluating participants and the program.

The best training programs use proper progressions. By always checking the
posture, balance, stability, and flexibility of each athlete throughout the program,
coaches gather a great deal of information that can help them apply proper
dosages and load intensities.
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of Sports Medicine 33(4):492-501.
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Adams, T.M. 1984. An investigation of selected plyometric training exercises on
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39.
Bobbert, M.F., M. Mackey, D. Schinkelshoek, P. Huijing, and G. van Ingen
Schenau. 1986. Biomechanical analysis of drop and countermovement jumps.
European Journal of Applied Physiology 54: 566-573.
Bobbert, M.F., P.A. Huijing, and G.J. van Ingen Schenau. 1987a. Drop jumping
I: The influence of jumping technique on the biomechanics of jumping.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 332-338.
Bobbert, M.F., P.A. Huijing, and G.J. van Ingen Schenau. 1987b. Drop jumping
II: The influence of drop heights on the biomechanics of drop jumping.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 339-346.
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performance. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
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Toronto: Veritas.
Bosco C., and P.V. Komi. 1981. Potentiation of the mechanical behavior of the
human skeletal muscle through prestretching. Acta Physiologica Scandinavia
106: 467-472.
Bosco, C., and P.V. Komi. 1979. Mechanical characteristics and fiber
composition of human leg extensor muscles. European Journal of Applied
Physiology 41: 275-284.
Bosco, C., and P.V. Komi. 1979. Mechanical characteristics and fiber
composition of human leg extensor muscles. European Journal of Applied
Physiology 41: 275-284.
Bosco, C., and P.V. Komi. 1982. Muscle elasticity in athletes. In Exercise and
sport biology, edited by P.V. Komi. Champaign, IL: International Series on
Sports Sciences.
Bosco, C., and P.V. Komi. 1982. Muscle elasticity in athletes. In Exercise and
sport biology, edited by P.V. Komi. Champaign, IL: International Series on
Sports Sciences.
Clutch, D., M. Wilton, C. McGowan, and G.R. Bryce. 1983. The effects of depth
jumps and weight training on leg strength and vertical jump. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 54:5-10.
Curwin, S., and W.D. Stanish. 1984. Tendinitis: Its etiology and treatment.
 Lexington, MA: Collamore Press.
Hakkinen, K., M. Alen, and P.V. Komi. 1985. Changes in isometric force- and
relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fiber characteristics of human
skeletal muscle during strength training and detraining. Acta Physiologica
Scandinavia 125: 573-585.
Komi, P.V., and C. Bosco. 1978. Utilization of stored elastic energy in leg
extensor muscles by men and women. Medicine and Science in Sports 10:
261-265.
Radcliffe, J., and L. Osternig. 1995. Effects on performance of variable eccentric
loads during depth jumps. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 4: 31-41.
Radcliffe, J.C., and R.C. Farentinos 1998. High-powered plyometrics .
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Scoles, G. 1978. Depth jumping! Does it really work? Athletic Journal 58(5) 48-
49, 74-75.
Siff, M., and Y. Verkhoshansky. 1996. Supertraining : Special strength training
for sporting excellence. 2d ed. Pittsburgh: Sports Support Syndicate.
Verkhoshansky, Y. 1967. Are depth jumps useful? Track & Field 12:9.
Verkhoshansky, Y. 1968. Are depth jumps useful? Yessis Review of Soviet
Physical Education and Sports 3: 75-78.
Viitasalo, J.T. and Bosco, C. 1982. Electromechanical behaviour of human
muscles in vertical jumps. European Journal of Applied Physiology 48: 253-
261.
Zanon, S. 1989. Plyometrics: Past and present. New Studies in Athletics 4(1): 7-
17.
 About the Authors

Jim Radcliffe is one of the most overlooked elements in the success of

Oregon’s student-athletes. Now in his third decade as the school’s head strength
and conditioning coach, he not only plays a significant role in the Ducks football
program as the designer of the year-round conditioning calendar, but he also has
been quick to aid in the athletic development of athletes in all sports in his work
with Olympians and World Championship medalists.
Radcliffe has guided football, basketball, track and field, baseball, and
volleyball athletes during much of his career. He furnishes the student-athletes
with a variety of exercise through weight training and lifting systems and is a
noted authority on exercises dealing with the improvement of speed and
quickness. He became assistant strength coach at Oregon in 1985, a position he
held for two years before assuming the duties of head coach in that area.
Radcliffe taught and coached a variety of sports and was the athletic trainer
at Aloha High School from 1978 to 1983. He then did graduate studies at
Colorado and worked in private business before joining the Ducks staff.
Graduating from Pacific in Oregon with a degree in physical education and
health in 1980, he played four seasons as defensive back and was captain of the
special teams. Radcliffe earned his master’s degree in biomechanics from
Oregon.
Active in national organizations surrounding his profession, Radcliffe has
been certified by USA Weightlifting, CSCCa, and the NSCA. He also has written
books, been published in numerous professional journals, and produced videos
on plyometrics.

Bob Farentinos is a fitness professional and lifelong athlete. He has

competed in weightlifting, cross-country skiing, and rowing and has won
national titles and masters championships in all three sports. Farentinos earned
his PhD in biology from the University of Colorado and spent many years as a
professor and researcher at various universities, including Colorado, Michigan,
Ohio State, and Johns Hopkins. He has published extensively in scientific
journals and has written wildlife stories for children as well as numerous lay
articles on exercise, health, and fitness.
In the 1980s, Farentinos owned and managed a sport and fitness center in
Boulder, Colorado, designated as an official training facility for the U.S. ski
team. At the center he trained and coached Olympic and professional athletes in
cycling, running, triathlon, Nordic and alpine skiing, weightlifting, climbing, and
mountaineering. During that time he also worked with athletes and coaches at
the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs.
From 1984 through 1991, he competed in the United States Ski Association
(USSA) Great American Ski Chase, a national series of 50-kilometer cross-
country races, winning several age-class championships. He participated in the
1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary as a technical representative for one of his ski
equipment sponsors.
Farentinos began his rowing career in 2003 at the age of 62. Within a few
years he was rowing competitively, winning gold and silver medals in Northwest
Regional Masters Championships in single sculling. In 2007 he won the
Canadian National Masters Championship and has competed successfully since
then in national and regional regattas and head races in single and double
sculling.
Farentinos volunteers his time and expertise designing workout facilities and
exercise programs for youth dealing with substance abuse and addiction. He uses
exercise and sport to redirect their focus toward healthier and more productive
lifestyles.
Farentinos lives in Portland, Oregon.