St. Mary’s College of Tagum, Inc.

Teacher Education Program

LEARNING
MODULE

ANGLO-AMERICAN
LITERATURE (LIT 1)

MARY JASTINE S. TORREON, MAED

INSTRUCTOR
 ST. MARY’S COLLEGE OF TAGUM, INC.
Tagum City, Davao del Norte
TEACHER-EDUCATION PROGRAM

PREFACE
This Anglo-American literature is a collection of readings which gives the readers an overview of
literature in the United States and England including biographies of their representative writers
who greatly influenced life and who continue to have affected English and American thought.
The readers and students of literature are encouraged to look for many of the universal ideals
which motivated writers and for many of the personal experiences these writers have had, in
asserting those ideals, which may be experiences shared by people of other nations.
Some of the representative writings have themes which are typical of the 21 st century
English/American prose and verse. The other purpose of the module is to make available in
convenient form interesting commentaries on English/American novels or short stories giving the
reader a fuller understanding of problems concerning the growth and development of
representative forms, recommended for students of literary criticism and of literature classes.
This module also includes a collection of activity enhancers for reading and receptive language
skills. With activity enhancers, literature students can formulate anticipation process laying the
literary background, setting expectations, and posing questions for them to keep in mind as they
keep on reading the selections.
The readers may focus on what they understand or they may pass over unknown or unintelligible
vocabulary items (for instance) and concentrate upon identifying the main idea or following its
course of development. Lastly, the contextualization process may allow the reader or literature
students to transfer into our permanent story of knowledge those ideas gleaned from reading.
Through this, a personalized response to the formation we read is made, as well as those
information being put into our own frame of reference.
Generally, this module can be used flexibly and effectively by the literature students where the
text presents representative writings that are easy to read and follow but never are
condescending. Weighing the need and expectations of today’s literature students, this module
has designed rhetoric-reading materials that can serve as a major text for English and American
literature.

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Tagum City, Davao del Norte
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PARTS OF THE MODULE

MODULE TITLE
This part presents the title of the module and the learning outcomes.

BIBLE
VERSE

The Word of God, the anchor of the lesson, is then presented and
followed by the Ignacian Core and Related Values

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
This part serves as the motivation and the bridge to the lesson. The
activities also activate students’ prior knowledge of the topic and an
overview of the scope of the module.

LEARNING CONTENT
This part emphasizes the three dimensions of the module – Cognitive,
Affective, and Psychomotor but with emphasis on the cognitive
dimension with the abstraction of the concepts.

APPLICATION
This part serves as the students’ activity applying the learned lessons
into actual experiential settings, be it personal or social experiences.

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TEACHER-EDUCATION PROGRAM

LEARNING ASSESSMENT

This part evaluates the lessons learned by the students in their

cognitive and affective levels.

SELF-REFLECTION

This is provided for the students to relate the lessons in their personal
life for them make clearer visions and meaningful life decisions. This is
the part where they can discuss everything they have learned from the
module.

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TEACHER-EDUCATION PROGRAM

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to the people whom I

dedicate this work especially to my students in literature classes. You are my
inspiration in crafting this compilation of contents as your guide in learning
literature. I hope you find this humble work worthy of your time in exploring the
wonders of literature and find the motivation to apply your knowledge and become
effective teachers in literature soon.

To the School President, S. Maria Nora R. Joson, R.V.M. and the

administration, thank you for your continuous support in providing quality
education despite the challenges in this time of pandemic.

I would also like to extend my sincerest gratitude to the Dean of the Higher
Education, Josefina S. Balote, R.N., M.N., and the Teacher-Education Program Head,
Gina M. Oracion, Ph.D., for your consistent guidance and consideration. Your
supervision are a big help in directing our instructional deliveries to the goals of the
program, and the institution.

Above all, to the Almighty Father, for being my rock and greatest source of
strength especially in these trying times.

To everyone whom I failed to mention but has contributed much in this work,
thank you very much.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Module 1 INTRODUCTION TO LITEARTURE AND ANGLO-SAXON CULTURE………7

Lesson 1: Definition and Importance of Literature……………………………........10
Lesson 2: History of the Anglo-Saxon Culture ………….......................................15

Module 2 THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD……………………………………………………41

Lesson 1: Beowulf……………………………………………………………………..43
Lesson 2: The Wanderer……………………………………………………………...65
Lesson 3: Riddles……………………………………………………………………...65

Module 3 MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD……………………………………………………..69

Lesson 1: Geoffrey Chaucer in the Middle English Period….…………………….70
Lesson 2: The Canterbury Tales……………………………………………………..74
Lesson 3: The Pardoner’s Tale ……………………………………………………...75

Module 4 RENAISSANCE PERIOD………………………………………………………...77

Leeson 1: Sonnets of William Shakespeare…………………………..……………78
Lesson 2: The Passionate Shepherd to His Love...………………………………..80
Module 5 AGE OF REASON ………………………………………………………………..86
Leeson 1: Francis Bacon……………………………………………………………..89
Lesson 2: The Essays…………………………………………………………………88
Lesson 3: Paradise Lost Paradise Regained ………………………………………92
Module 6 RESTORATION & CONTEMPORARYAMERICAN LITERATURE………….94
Leeson 1: Modern English and Contemporary Literature………………………....95
Lesson 2: Modern American Writers and Works…………………………………..96
Lesson 3: Literature of Exploration …………………………………………………97
REFERENCES ………..……………………………………………………………………..103

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WEEK TOPICS
1 I. INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE AND ANGLO-SAXON
CULTURE
A. Definition and Importance of Literature
B. History of the Anglo-Saxon Culture
2-3 II. THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD
A. Beowulf
B. The Wanderer
C. Riddles
4-6 III. MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD
A. Geoffrey Chaucer in the Middle English Period
B. The Canterbury
C. The Pardoner’s Tale
7-9 IV. RENAISSANCE PERIOD
A. Sonnets of William Shakespeare
B. The Passionate Shepherd to His Love
10-13 V. AGE OF REASON
A. Francis Bacon
B. The Essays
C. Paradise Lost Paradise Regained
14-15 VI. VICTORIAN AGE
A. Intorduction to Victorian Age
B. Life and Works of:
 Elizabeth Barrett Browning
 Robert Browning
 Lewis Caroll
16-18 VII. CONTEMPORARY AND AMERICAN LITERATURE
A. Modern English and Contemporary Literature
B. Modern Amrican Writers and Works
C. Litearture of Exploration

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MODULE 1 (WEEKS 1-2)

INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

BIBLE As for these four youths, God gave them learning and skill in all
literature and wisdom, and Daniel had understanding in all
VERSE visions and dreams. (Daniel 1:17)

Ignacian Core and Related Values: EXCELLENCE and Competence

“M. Ignacia made clear in the 1726 Rules the goal of life in the beaterio: “to serve God with all their
hearts and to acquire necessary knowledge to reach the road of perfection” (I.1). The beatas were
faithful to practices that enabled them to grow in the knowledge and love of God. They sought
opportunities to share their knowledge and skills with others. (I.1,17,30,49; II.3,16, 17,26; III.5,17;
VI.2,6,12)

Learning Outcomes
1. Define literature and highlight its importance;
2. Distinguish prose and poetry and its forms;
3. Explain each of the form under prose and poetry;
4. Identify the discuss the elements of a short story; and
5. Analyze a certain literary piece and identify its elements.

INTRODUCTION
Literature, in its broadest sense, is any written work. Etymologically, the term derives from Latin
litaritura/litteratura “writing formed with letters,” although some definitions include spoken or sung texts. More
restrictively, it is writing that possesses literary merit. Literature can be classified according to whether it is
fiction or non-fiction and whether it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms
such as the novel, short story or drama, and works are often categorized according to historical periods or
their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre).

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LEARNING CONTENT

MAJOR FORMS OF LITERATURE

Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke
meanings in addition to, or in place of, prosaic ostensible meaning (ordinary intended meaning). Poetry has
traditionally been distinguished from prose by its being set in verse;prose is cast in sentences, poetry in lines;
the syntax of prose is dictated by meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across meter or the visual aspects
of the poem.
Prior to the nineteenth century, poetry was commonly understood to be something set in metrical
lines; accordingly, in 1658 a definition of poetry is “any kind of subject consisting of Rythm or Verses”.
Possibly as a result of Aristotle’s influence (his Poetics), “poetry” before the nineteenth century was usually
less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art. As a form it may
pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition;[8] hence
it constitutes the earliest example of literature.
Types of Poetry
 Narrative: It is a poetry that tells a story.
 Dramatic: It is meant to be performed on stage.
 Lyric: A kind of poetry that is intended to be sung to the accompaniment of a lyre.
Prose
Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech rather than rhythmic
structure; in which regard, along with its measurement in sentences rather than lines, it differs from poetry. It
may include the following sub-forms:
 Novel: a long fictional prose narrative.

 Novella: The novella exists between the novel and short story; the publisher Melville House classifies
it as “too short to be a novel, too long to be a short story.”

 Short story: a dilemma in defining the “short story” as a literary form is how to, or whether one should,
distinguish it from any short narrative. Apart from its distinct size, various theorists have suggested
that the short story has a characteristic subject matter or structure; these discussions often position
the form in some relation to the novel.

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 Legend: It talks about origins.

 Myth: Deals with the stories about gods and goddesses.

 Fable: The characters are animals with human attributes.

 Parable: Stories usually Biblical in nature

 Anecdote: It is an interesting, amusing incident generally characterized by human interest.

 Chronicle: A historical account of facts or events in order of time. It is detailed but without analysis
or interpretation.

 Biography: Records the facts and events of a person’s life that is written by another person.

 Autobiography: Deals with facts and events of a person’s life written by himself.

 Essay: A critical literary composition about a topic or subject from a limited often personal point of
view.

 News: An account of everyday events in society, government, science or industry.

 Oration: A formal treatment of a subject and is intended for the delivery in public.

 Play: Also called drama, it is written to be performed on stage.

 Diary: It is the daily record of events and experiences in the author’s life.

ELEMENTS OF A SHORT STORY

1. Setting
Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place. In a short story there are fewer
settings compared to a novel. The time is more limited. Ask yourself the following questions:
 How is the setting created? Consider geography, weather, time of day, social conditions,
etc.
 What role does setting play in the story? Is it an important part of the plot or theme? Or is it
just a backdrop against which the action takes place?
 Does the setting change? If so, how?

Study the time period, which is also part of the setting, and ask yourself the following:

 When was the story written?

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 Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future?

 How does the time period affect the language, atmosphere or social circumstances of the
short story?

2. Characterization
Characterization deals with how the characters in the story are described. In short stories there are
usually fewer characters compared to a novel. They usually focus on one central character or
protagonist. Ask yourself the following:

 Who is the main character?

 Who or what is the antagonist?
 Are the main character and other characters described through dialogue – by the way they
speak (dialect or slang for instance)?
 Has the author described the characters by physical appearance, thoughts and feelings, and
interaction (the way they act towards others)?
 Are they static characters who do not change?
 Are they dynamic characters who change?
 What type of characters are they? What qualities stand out? Are they stereotypes?
 Are the characters believable?
 Do the characters symbolize something?

3. Plot and Structure

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The plot is the main sequence of events that make up the story. In short stories the plot is usually centered
around one experience or significant moment. Consider the following questions:

What is the most important event?

How is the plot structured? Is it linear, chronological or does it move around?
Is the plot believable?

ELEMENTS OF THE PYRAMID THE PLOT PATTERN

 Exposition: The storyteller sets the scene and the character’s background.
 Rising Action: The story builds. There is often a complication, which means the problem the
character tried to solve gets more complex.
 Climax: The story reaches the point of greatest tension between the protagonist and antagonist (or
if there is only one main character, the darkness or lightness of that character appears to take
control).
 Falling Action: The story shifts to action that happens as a result of the climax, which can also
contain a reversal (when the character shows how they are changed by events of the climax).

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 Denouement: French for “the ending,” the denouement is often happy if it’s a comedy, and dark and
sad if it’s a tragedy.

ACTIVITY

1. Select one (1) literary piece under Anglo-American literature. Analyze it and identify its
elements of the story. Use the illustration below in the presentation of the plot.

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SYNTHESIS

The study of literature is important because it, at its most basic, improves reading skills. From this
involved reading of quality literature a student then develops their writing skills, as the two go hand in hand
(the best writers are avid readers, typically). Beyond these basic benefits is the development of critical
thinking and analysis skills through the study of literature.

The study of literature also helps students see the world - people, places, things, events - through
different eyes and by way of a different viewpoint. This contributes to a student forming and developing their
own belief set, opinions, views, and such.
Good stories, whether novels, short stories, plays, or poems, help students experience, in their
mind, new vistas, customs, cultures, and ways of life. This helps students see how life is different (and the
same in some ways) in other countries. Reading international literature gives students a glimpse of how
people live and view life in other lands.

SELF-REFLECTION

In what particular way will you make the literature of your own country preserve its richness and identity?
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MODULE 2 (WEEK 3)

APPROACHES TO LITERARY CRITICISM

Let no corrupting talk come out of your mouths, but only such as is
BIBLE good for building up, as fits the occasion, that it may give grace to
VERSE those who hear. (Ephesians 4:29)

Ignacian Core and Related Values: EXCELLENCE and Competence

“The beatas listened attentively to homilies and conferences for spiritual growth. As women who
earned their own living, they helped one another to develop their skills for better service. They had
regular time
for spiritual reading. (1726 Rules III.17; VI.6,12)

Learning Outcomes
 Define and differentiate a theory and approach.
 Acknowledge the importance of viewing literature in different lens of perspective using
multidisciplinary fields.
 Identify the elements of a theory and approach.
 Describe how a literary piece can be analyzed through an approach.

INTRODUCTION
“Literary Criticism – The analysis of a literary text though various lenses that
highlight authorial stance, purpose, and perspective”
Part of the fun of reading good literature is looking for all its meanings and messages. Since people
have written literature, critics have been interpreting it …. going all the way back to ancient Greece and Rome.
For many centuries, literary criticism has been limited to some basic approaches involving historical, moral
and biographical perspectives. But during the 20th century, critical approaches have become much more
varied due to the huge increase of educated people and their widely diverse reactions to literature. As the
meaning of what literature is and can be or should be has changed, so has the critics’ responses to it.

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Crews (2014), an Emeritus Professor of English at University of California, Berkeley, strengthened

that Literary Criticism applies, as a term, to any argumentation about literature, whether or not specific works
are analyzed. Plato’s cautions against the risky consequences of poetic inspiration in general in his Republic
are thus often taken as the earliest important example of literary criticism.

The functions of literary criticism vary widely, ranging from the reviewing
of books as they are published to systematic theoretical discussion. Though
reviews may sometimes determine whether a given book will be widely sold,
many works succeed commercially despite negative reviews, and many classic
works, including Herman Melville’s Moby Dick (1851), have acquired appreciative
publics long after being unfavourably reviewed and at first neglected. One of
criticism’s principal functions is to express the shifts in sensibility that make such
revaluations possible. The minimal condition for such a new appraisal is, of
course, that the original text survive. The literary critic is sometimes cast in the
role of scholarly detective, unearthing, authenticating, and editing unknown
manuscripts. Thus, even rarefied scholarly skills may be put to criticism’s most
elementary use, the bringing of literary works to a public’s attention.

LEARNING CONTENT

LITERATURE AND LITERARY THEORY

 Traditionally, literature is regarded as a homogenous body of works with similar characteristics
which are read in similar ways by an undifferentiated audience.
 Today with the impact of literary theory to the study of literature, the latter is seen as an area in a
state of flux.
 Literature, as a body of writing together with its moral and aesthetic qualities, can be seen as a site
of struggle where meanings are contested rather than regarded as something possessing timeless
and universal values and truths.
 Literary theories can offer various ways of reading, interpreting, and analyzing literature, but they
do not offer any easy solutions as to what literature is, or what its study should be.
 These theories aim to explain, or at times demystify, some of the assumptions or beliefs implicit in
literature and literary criticism.

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LITERARY CRITICISM AND LITERARY THEORY

 Literary criticism involves the reading, interpretation and commentary of a specific text or texts
which have been designated as literature.
 Two conventions or assumptions which tend to be inherent in its practice are: a) that criticism is
secondary to literature itself and dependent on it and b) that critical interpretations or judgments
seem to assume that the literary text which they are addressing is unquestionably literature.
 If literary criticism involves the reading, analysis, explication, and interpretation of texts which are
designated as literary, then literary theory should do two things:
 it ought to provide the readers with a range of criteria for identifying literature in the first place, and
an awareness of these criteria should inform critical practice; and
 it should make us aware of the methods and procedures which we employ in the practice of literary
criticism, so that we not only interrogate the text, but also the ways in which we read and interpret
the text.
 Literary criticism is best understood as the application of a literary theory to specific texts.
 Literary criticism also involves the understanding and appreciation of literary texts.
 Two primary questions of literary criticism are:
a) why does a piece of literature have the precise characteristics that it has? (how does it work?)
and b) what is the value of literature?
 Any literary theory has to account for:
a) the nature of representation in the text;
b) the nature of reality and its relation to representation;
c) how the representation of reality is accomplished or subverted and denied; and
d) what conventions or codes particular writers, literary schools or periods might employ to achieve
representation.
 Literary theory also addresses questions of what makes literary language literary, as well as the
structures of literary language and literary texts, and how these work.
 Literary theory is also concerned with the study of the function of the literary text in social and
cultural terms, which in turn leads to a construction of its value.

LITERARY THEORIES/APPROACHES
Standard critical thinking tools, so useful elsewhere, are readily adaptable to the study of literature. It's
possible to analyze, question, interpret, synthesize, and evaluate the literary works you read in the course of
pondering, analyzing and discussing them. Literary criticism is the field of study which systematizes this sort
of activity, and several critical approaches to literature are possible. Example of this is the
Formalism/Formalist Approach or New Criticism.

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A. Formalism
Literary critics and thinkers of various historical periods have placed emphasis on the formal aspects
of art and literature. Aristotle, ancient and medieval rhetoricians, Kant, many of the Romantics, and writers
in the nineteenth-century movements of symbolism and aestheticism all placed a high priority on literary
form. This emphasis reached a new intensity and self-consciousness in the literatures and critical theories
of the early twentieth century, beginning with the Formalist movement in Russia and with European
modernism, extending subsequently to the New Criticism in England and America and later schools such as
the neo-Aristotelians. In general, an emphasis on form parenthesizes concern for the representational,
imitative, and cognitive aspects of literature. Literature is no longer viewed as aiming to represent reality or
character or to impart moral or intellectual lessons, but is considered to be an object in its own right,
autonomous (possessing its own laws) and autotelic (having its aims internal to itself ). Moreover, in this
formalist view, literature does not convey any clear or paraphrasable message; rather it communicates what
is otherwise ineffable. Literature is regarded as a unique mode of expression, not an extension of rhetoric or
philosophy or history or social or psychological documentary. Critics have variously theorized that
preoccupation with form betokens social alienation, a withdrawal from the world, an acknowledgment of
political helplessness, and a retreat into the aesthetic as a refuge of sensibility and humanistic values. Such
an insular disposition also betokens a retreat from history and biography, effectively isolating the literary
artifact from both broad social forces and the more localized and personal circumstances of its author.
The New Criticism
Around the beginning of the twentieth century, the predominant critical modes were biographical,
historical, psychological, romantic, and impressionistic. Liberal critics such as Parrington and F. O.
Matthiessen employed a historical approach to literature but Matthiessen insisted on addressing its aesthetic
dimensions. This formalist disposition became intensified in both the New Criticism and the Chicago School.
The term “The New Criticism” was coined as early as 1910 in a lecture of that title by Joel Spingarn who,
influenced by Croce’s expressionist theory of art, advocated a creative and imaginative criticism which gave
primacy to the aesthetic qualities of literature over historical, psychological, and moral considerations.
Spingarn, however, was not directly related to the New Criticism that developed in subsequent decades.
Some of the important features of the New Criticism originated in England during the 1920s in the work of T.
S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, as well as in seminal studies by I. A. Richards and William Empson. Richards’
Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) advanced literary critical notions such as irony, tension, and balance,
as well as distinguishing between poetic and other uses of language. His Practical Criticism (1929), based
on student analyses of poetry, emphasized the importance of “objective” and balanced close reading which
was sensitive to the figurative language of literature. Richards’ student William Empson produced an

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influential work, Seven Types of Ambiguity (1930), which was held up as a model of New Critical close
reading.
Russian Formalism
This theory stresses that art is artificial and that a great deal of acquired skill goes into it as opposed
to the old classical maxim that true art conceals its art. The Russian Formalists, led by Viktor Shklovsky,
aimed to establish a ‘science of literature’ – a complete knowledge of the formal effects (devices, techniques,
etc.) which together make up what is called literature. The Formalists read literature to discover its literariness
– to highlight the devices and technical elements introduced by the writer in order to make language literary.

The key ideas in this theory are:

 Baring the device – this practice refers to the presentation of devices without any realistic
‘motivation’ – they are presented purely as devices. For example, fiction operates by distorting
time in various ways – foreshortening, skipping, expanding, transposing, reversing, flashback
and flashforward, and so on.
 Defamilairization – this means making strange. Everything must be dwelt upon and described
as if for the first time. Ordinary language encourages the automatization of our perceptions
and tends to diminish our awareness of reality. It simply confirms things as we know them
(e.g. the leaves are falling from the trees; the leaves are green).
 Retardation of the narrative – the technique of delaying and protracting actions. Shklovsky
draws attention to the ways in which familiar actions are defamiliarized by being slowed down,
drawn out or interrupted. Digressions, displacement of the parts of the book, and extended
descriptions are all devices to make us attend to form.
 Naturalization – refers to how we endlessly become inventive in finding ways of making sense
of the most random or chaotic utterances or discourse. We refuse to allow a text to remain
alien and stay outside our frames of reference – we insist on ‘naturalizing’ it.
 Carnivalization – the term Mikhail Bakhtin uses to describe the shaping effect of carnival on
literary texts. The festivities associated with the Carnival are collective and popular;
hierarchies are turned on their heads (fools become wise; kings become beggars); opposites
are mingled (fact and fantasy, heaven and hell); the sacred is profaned; the rigid or serious is
subverted, mocked or loosened.

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old age sticks

up Keep
Off
signs) &

youth yanks them

down (old
age
cries No

Tres) & (pas)

youth laughs
(sing
old age

scolds Forbid
den Stop
Must
n’t Don’t

&) youth goes

right on
gr
owing old
e.e. cummings

What Are Some Good Examples of Formalism in Literature?

Formalism is a method of criticism which “examines a literary text or artwork through its
aesthetic composition such as form, language, technique and style”. Formalism began in Russia during
the 20th century by a group of linguists who desired a straightforward analysis to text examination.
Rather than incorporating societal, historical, or cultural influences into a critique of a literary work,
proponents of formalism believe in examining the work as it is. Although outside influences can improve
one’s understanding of a composition, there must first be a focus on the composition itself.
One story that is closely examined in a formalist fashion is Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka.
A man named Gregor Samsa is suddenly transformed into a bug. His “abrupt and unexplained
transformation is juxtaposed with a lot of really mundane day-to-day details” (Shmoop Editorial Team,
2008). From a close reading, one can get a glimpse of the loneliness that Gregor feels on a daily basis
and the transformation could be a literal manifestation of Gregor’s alienation from society.

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Another literary work that can be closely examined is Translations from the Natural World by
Les Murray. In this poetry book, “Murray makes birds, cows, bats, and other favorites of the animal
kingdom talk” (Shmoop Editorial Team, 2008). The structure, language, and literary devices presented
in each poem provide a unique way in which Murray can express a different emotion. By closely
analyzing the text, one can appreciate the artistry of his words while also understanding the importance
of viewing life through a different lens.
Academia has long relied on a formalist approach to literary work. Students are first encouraged
to study the intricacies of the text before integrating the external influences. To analyze a piece of art,
one must first be acquainted with the way it is presented. Only then can it be appreciated for what it is,
rather than how it relates to broader context.
A LIST OF FORMALIST CRITICAL QUESTIONS
 How is the work structured or organized? How does it begin? Where does it go next? How does it end?
What is the work’s plot? How is its plot related to its structure?
 What is the relationship of each part of the work to the work as a whole? How are the parts related to
one another?
 Who is narrating or telling what happens in the work? How is the narrator, speaker, or character revealed
to the readers? How do we come to know and understand this figure?
 Who are the major and minor characters, what do they represent, and how do they relate to one
another?
 What are the time and place of the work- its setting? How is the setting related to what we know of the
characters and their actions? To what extent is the setting symbolic?
 What kind of language does the author use to describe, narrate, explain, or otherwise create the world
of the literary work? More specifically, what images, similes, metaphors, symbols appear in the work?
What is their function? What meanings do they convey?

COMPREHENSION CHECK

2. According to the intentional fallacy of formalism, what are the following things that readers
should consider in using the formalist approach?
Answer:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________

3. Cite 5 things that formalists are mostly concerned with in any literary texts.
Answer:
___________________________________________________________________
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LEARNING CONTENT
Psychological Principles

B. ARCHETYPAL APPROACH

Archetypal literary criticism is a theory that interprets a text by focusing on recurring myths and
archetypes in the narrative and symbols, images character types in a literary work. Archetype denotes
recurrent narrative designs, patterns of action, character types, themes and images which are identifiable in
a wide variety of works of literature, as well as in myths, dreams and even social rituals. Such recurrent items
result from elemental and universal patterns in the human psyche.

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Swiss born psychoanalyst, Carl G. Jung’s (1875-1961) work

speculates about myths and archetypes in relation to the unconscious.
According to him, myths are the “culturally elaborated representations of
the contents of the deepest recess of the human psyche: the world of the
archetypes”. He used the term archetype to refer to the experiences of
our ancestors which get lodged in the ‘collective unconscious’ of the
whole race. Jungian psychoanalysis distinguishes between the personal
and collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a number of
innate thoughts, feelings, instincts and memories that reside in the
unconsciousness of all the people; ‘collective unconscious’ is the ‘psychic
disposition shaped by the forces of heredity’. The content of the collective
unconscious are the archetypes which are expressed in myths, religions,
dreams and private fantasies as well as in works of literature.

Archetypal criticism, based on Jung’s psychology, searches texts for collective motifs of the human
psyche, which are held to be common to different historical periods and languages. These archetypes
represent primordial images of the human unconscious which have retained their structures in various
cultures and epochs. It is through primordial images that universal archetypes are experienced and more
importantly, that the unconscious is revealed. Archetypes such as shadow, fire, snake, paradise-garden, hell,
mother-figure etc. constantly surface in myth and literature as a limited number of basic patterns of psychic
images which lend themselves to a structural model of explanation. Various cultures, religions, myths and
literatures have recourse to primordial images or archetypes which like a subconscious language express
human fears and hopes. A Jungian analysis perceives the death-rebirth archetype (Frazer’s) as a symbolic
expression of a process taking place not in the world but in the mind. That process is the return of the go to
the unconscious – a kind of temporary death of the ego – and its re-emergence, or rebirth, from the
unconscious.

The aim of archetypal criticism is in line with the methodology of formalist schools, which delves
beneath the surface of literary texts in their search for recurrent deep structures. Some other important
practitioners of various modes of archetypal criticism are [Link] Knight , Robert Graves, Philip
Wheelwright, Richard Chase, Leslie Fielder and Joseph Campbell, who emphasized the persistence of
mythical patterns in literature.

This approach to literary study is based on Carl Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious. Repeated or
dominant images or patterns of human experience are identified in the text: the changing of seasons, the
cycle of birth, death and rebirth, the heroic quest, or immortality. Myths are universal although every nation

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has its own distinctive mythology. Similar motifs or themes may be found among many different mythologies,
and certain images that recur in the myths of people separated in time and place tend to have a common
meaning, elicit comparable psychological responses, and serve similar cultural functions. Such motifs and
images are called archetypes.

This approach also uses Northrop Frye’s assertion

that literature consists of variations on a great mythic
theme that contains the following:

 the creation and life in paradise: garden

 displacement or banishment from paradise:
alienation
 a time of trial and tribulation, usually a wandering:
journey
 a self-discovery as a result of struggle: epiphany
 a return to paradise: rebirth/resurrection

e.g.

Lam-ang – archetype of immortality

Superman in the movie Superman Returns – death and rebirth archetype

Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings – wise old man archetype

Odysseus - hero of initiation

Aeneas – hero of the quest

Jesus Christ – sacrificial scapegoat

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A LIST OF ARCHETYPAL CRITICAL QUESTIONS

 How does this story resemble other stories in plot, character, setting, or symbolism?
 What universal experiences are depicted?
 Are patterns suggested? Are seasons used to suggest a pattern or cycle?
 Does the protagonist undergo any kind of transformation, such as movement from innocence to
 experience, that seems archetypal?
 Are the names significant?
 Is there a Christ-like figure in the work?
 Does the writer allude to biblical or mythological literature? For what purpose?
 What aspects of the work create deep universal responses to it?
 How does the work reflect the hopes, fears, and expectations of entire cultures (for example,
 the ancient Greeks)?
 How do myths attempt to explain the unexplainable: origin of man? Purpose and destiny of
 human beings?
 What common human concerns are revealed in the story?
 How do stories from one culture correspond to those of another? (For example, creation myths,
 flood myths, etc.)
 How does the story reflect the experiences of death and rebirth?
 What archetypal events occur in the story? (Quest? Initiation? Scapegoating? Descents into the
 underworld? Ascents into heaven?)
 What archetypal images occur? (Water, rising sun, setting sun, symbolic colors)
 What archetypal characters appear in the story? (Mother Earth? Femme Fatal? Wise old man?
 Wanderer?)
 What archetypal settings appear? (Garden? Desert?)
 How and why are these archetypes embodied in the work?

COMPREHENSION CHECK

 Check your understanding of the input by answering the following questions:

1. Does the culture of the reader influence his/her interpretation of the text using the
archetypal approach? Explain your side comprehensively with concrete examples.
Answer:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________
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2. What do literary critics do when they interpret a text using the archetypal approach?
Answer:
___________________________________________________________________
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LEARNING CONTENT

C. FEMINIST APPROACH
Feminist literary criticism (also known as feminist criticism) is the literary analysis that arises from
the viewpoint of feminism, feminist theory, and/or feminist politics.
Critical Methodology
A feminist literary critic resists traditional assumptions while reading a text. In addition to challenging
assumptions which were thought to be universal, feminist literary criticism actively supports including
women's knowledge in literature and valuing women's experiences. The basic methods of feminist literary
criticism include:
1. Identifying with female characters: By examining the way female characters are defined, critics
challenge the male-centered outlook of authors. Feminist literary criticism suggests that women
in literature have been historically presented as objects seen from a male perspective.
2. Reevaluating literature and the world in which literature is read: By revisiting the classic literature,
the critic can question whether society has predominantly valued male authors and their literary
works because it has valued males more than females.

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Embodying or Undercutting Stereotypes

Feminist literary criticism recognizes

that literature both reflects and shapes
stereotypes and other cultural
assumptions. Thus, feminist literary criticism
examines how works of literature embody
patriarchal attitudes or undercut them,
sometimes both happening within the same
work.

Feminist theory and various forms of

feminist critique began long before the formal
naming of the school of literary criticism. In so-
called first-wave feminism, the "Woman's
Bible," written in the late 19th century
by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, is an example of a
work of criticism firmly in this school, looking beyond the more obvious male-centered outlook and
interpretation.

During the period of second-wave feminism, academic circles increasingly challenged the male
literary canon. Feminist literary criticism has since intertwined with postmodernism and increasingly complex
questions of gender and societal roles.

Tools of the Feminist Literary Critic

Feminist literary criticism may bring in tools from other critical disciplines, such as historical analysis,
psychology, linguistics, sociological analysis, and economic analysis. Feminist criticism may also look at
intersectionality, looking at how factors including race, sexuality, physical ability, and class are also involved.

Feminist literary criticism may use any of the following methods:

 Deconstructing the way that women characters are described in novels, stories, plays,
biographies, and histories, especially if the author is male
 Deconstructing how one's own gender influences how one reads and interprets a text, and
which characters and how the reader identifies depending on the reader's gender
 Deconstructing how women autobiographers and biographers of women treat their subjects,
and how biographers treat women who are secondary to the main subject
 Describing relationships between the literary text and ideas about power and sexuality and
gender

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 Critique of patriarchal or woman-marginalizing language, such as a "universal" use of the

masculine pronouns "he" and "him"
 Noticing and unpacking differences in how men and women write: a style, for instance,
where women use more reflexive language and men use more direct language (example:
"she let herself in" versus "he opened the door")
 Reclaiming women writers who are little known or have been marginalized or undervalued,
sometimes referred to as expanding or criticizing the canon—the usual list of "important"
authors and works (Examples include raising up the contributions of early playwright Aphra
Behn and showing how she was treated differently than male writers from her own time
forward, and the retrieval of Zora Neale Hurston's writing by Alice Walker.)
 Reclaiming the "female voice" as a valuable contribution to literature, even if formerly
marginalized or ignored
 Analyzing multiple works in a genre as an overview of a feminist approach to that genre: for
example, science fiction or detective fiction
 Analyzing multiple works by a single author (often female)
 Examining how relationships between men and women and those assuming male and
female roles are depicted in the text, including power relations
 Examining the text to find ways in which patriarchy is resisted or could have been resisted
 Feminist literary criticism is distinguished from gynocriticism because feminist literary
criticism may also analyze and deconstruct literary works of men.

Gynocriticism

Gynocriticism, or gynocritics, refers to the literary study of women as writers. It is a critical practice
exploring and recording female creativity. Gynocriticism attempts to understand women’s writing as a
fundamental part of female reality. Some critics now use “gynocriticism” to refer to the practice and
“gynocritics” to refer to the practitioners

American literary critic Elaine Showalter coined the term "gynocritics" in her 1979 essay “Towards a
Feminist Poetics.” Unlike feminist literary criticism, which might analyze works by male authors from a feminist
perspective, gynocriticism wanted to establish a literary tradition of women without incorporating male
authors. Showalter felt that feminist criticism still worked within male assumptions, while gynocriticism would
begin a new phase of women’s self-discovery.

Feminist Theory's alignment with the THREE WAVES OF FEMINISM

Feminist criticism has roughly aligned with the three waves of feminism, so there are three rough
periods of feminist criticism, each with their own defining characteristics, that correspond with each phase of
women's overall political emancipation.

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First wave feminism: men's treatment of women (late 1700s-early 1900s)

The first wave of feminists largely focused on inequalities between the sexes. This is also the wave
of feminism that contains the women's suffrage movement, led by Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull.

Thus, the first wave of feminist criticism largely focused on how male authors and novelists view and
portray women in their works. Critics in this time considered the ways in which novelists discriminate against
and marginalize women characters.

Some key books from this time are Geoffrey Chaucer's "Wife of Bath," Mary Wollstonecraft's "A
Vindication of the Rights of Women" (1792), Marry Ellman's "Thinking About Women" (1968) and Kate Millet's
"Sexual Politics" (1969). Ellman, Millet and Germaine Greer played an important role in raising questions
about the practice of showing feminism in both contemporary and canon literature.

Second wave feminism: gynocriticism (early 1960s-late 1970s)

The second wave of feminism focused on establishing more equal working conditions, which were
necessary in the U.S. during World War II, and bringing women together for feminist political activism.

The feminist criticism during this wave is also called "gynocriticism," and it involves three major
aspects:

 Examination and recognition of female writers' work.

 Consideration of the treatment of women in literary works by both male and female authors.
 Exploring the canon of literature written by female writers in order to understand female
writers' contributions in the context of female empowerment and criticizing the ways women
have been treated (and mistreated) in various cultures.

During this time, Simone de Beauvoir ("Le Deuxième Sexe", 1949) and Elaine Showalter established the
groundwork for feminist theories and helped them spread more broadly.

In her book "A Literature of Their Own," Showalter proposed three phases of women writing:

 Feminine Phase: women writers try to follow the rules made by male writers, try to avoid
debating and questioning women's place in the literature, and try to write as men by using
male pseudonyms.
 Feminist Phase: women writers begin criticizing women's treatment in society and literature,
and the oppression of women in society is the main theme of gender criticism in their works.
 Female Phase: women writers begin moving from merely providing the woman's perspective
to having confidence in their work and assuming that whatever they have written is valid and
doesn't need aggressive arguments and support to prove its authenticity.

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Third wave feminism (early 1990s-present)

This wave of feminism seeks to resist the perceived essentialist (overgeneralized, oversimplified)
ideologies and white, heterosexual, middle-class focus of second wave feminism. It borrows from post-
structural and contemporary race and gender theories to expand on marginalized populations' experiences.
Third wave feminists emphasize individual rights, as well as acceptance of diversity.

The third wave's roots are in the "riot grrl" feminist punk subculture that begin in Olympia, Washington
in the early 1990s. That subculture began with the purpose of bringing consciousness and politics together
through punk style.

In this time, writers such as Alice Walker work to reconcile feminism with their own minority
communities' concerns. Some key works to understand this wave's feminist criticisms are Deborah
McDowell's "New Directions for Black Feminist Criticism" (1980), Alice Walker's "In Search of Our Mother's
Gardens" (1983), Lillian S. Robinson's "Treason out Text: Feminist Challenges to the Literary Canon" (1983),
and Camille Paglia's "Sexual Personae: The Androgyne in Literature and Art" (1990). Riot grrls and Sarah
Dyer's Action Girl Newsletter also played important roles in creating the iconography and style for the zine
movement for women in this era.

The Practice of Feminist Criticism

Feminist criticism is applied to literature by examining the characters' portrayals, the text's language,
the author's attitude, and the inter-character relationships. Feminist critics also consider the author's apparent
commentary about society as a whole.
A LIST OF FEMINISM QUESTIONS
 How is the relationship between men and women portrayed?
 What are the power relationships between men and women?
 How are male and female roles defined?
 What constitutes masculinity and femininity?
 What does the work reveal about the operations (economic, political, social, or psychological) of
patriarchy?
 What does the work imply about the possibilities of sisterhood as a mode of resisting patriarchy?
 What does the work say about women's creativity?
 What does the history of the work's reception by the public and by the critics tell us about the
operation of patriarchy?
Feminist criticism has gone far beyond its initial revision of the canon, or its rereading of particular texts,
to argue successfully that the histories of representation very broadly conceived are fundamentally altered
when gender is located at the centre of cultural analysis. The politics of subjectivity remains at the heart of

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feminist criticism’s concern with gender and representation. However, the political and epistemological status
of the female subject herself as author, reader, character, or supposed historical actor has become a question
for discussion, not an assumed referent. Feminist criticism has become increasingly concerned with
historicizing and theorizing the discursive construction of the gendered subject, and understanding how that
semiosis always operates under and through the signs of other social and psychic systems of meaning.

The ‘new colours and shadows’ that inform feminist criticism today have put feminism itself, in its earlier
paradigms and definitions, into question, shaking up, and in some cases breaking up, its philosophical,
epistemological and political certainties, but confirming its importance as an analytic perspective. That
interrogative force may, in the end, be its greatest strength and its most enduring contribution.

COMPREHENSION CHECK

 Check your understanding of the input by answering the following questions:

1. Based on what you have read and observed on media, what are the following feminist
movements achieved in our country? Cite three (3) examples and relate it to literary
criticism.
Answer:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________

2. What constitutes masculinity and femininity in some of the English and American
literatary texts?
Answer:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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LEARNING CONTENT

D. Marxist Approach
In a posthumously published fragment on method Walter Benjamin spoke of the temptation of
analysing the literary text as though it were a ‘thing in itself’, a self-contained entity; and he likened literary
tradition to a river, fed by numerous springs (or ‘sources’—the German Quellen means both) and flowing for
as far as the eye can see between finely outlined slopes. But, he went on, a Marxist literary theory will refuse
the traditional substantialist categories, the familiarity of the ‘landscape’, and the sublimated interests the
‘river’ reflects:
It doesn’t seek the image of the clouds in this river. Even less does it turn
away from it, to ‘drink at the source’ and pursue the ‘thing itself’ behind men’s
backs. Whose mill does the river drive? Who fishes in it?—these are the
questions that critical theory asks, and it alters the image of the landscape
by calling not only the physical but also the social forces at work in it by their
names. (Benjamin, 1969, p. 1)
The core claim of Marxist criticism is that it cannot be ranked on the same level as other critical
methods. It has a different task, works to a different urgency, asks different questions. It is or should be unlike
any conventional discipline in its radical discomfort with the way things are, in its insistence on redefining—to
switch metaphors—the contours of its field of study and what goes on inside this field, and in thinking this field
in relation to its social determinations. However theoretically sophisticated it might become, it persists in
asking crude and awkward questions about power, privilege and benefit. At the same time it must be
recognized that the questions asked by Marxist criticism derive as much from the disciplinary formations of
general aesthetics and literary criticism as from an autonomous Marxist theory.

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MARXISM
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was primarily a theorist and historian
(less the evil pinko commie demon that McCarthyism fretted about).
After examining social organization in a scientific way (thereby creating
a methodology for social science: political science), he perceived human
history to have consisted of a series of struggles between classes--
between the oppressed and the oppressing. Whereas Freud saw
"sexual energy" to be the motivating factor behind human endeavor and
Nabokov seemed to feel artistic impulse was the real factor, Marx
thought that "historical materialism" was the ultimate driving force, a
notion involving the distribution of resources, gain, production, and such
matters.
The supposedly "natural" political evolution involved (and would
in the future involve) "feudalism" leading to "bourgeois capitalism"
leading to "socialism" and finally to "utopian communism." In bourgeois
capitalism, the privileged bourgeoisie rely on the proletariat--the labor
force responsible for survival. Marx theorized that when profits are not
reinvested in the workers but in creating more factories, the workers will
grow poorer and poorer until no short-term patching is possible or
successful. At a crisis point, revolt will lead to a restructuring of the
system.

For a political system to be considered communist, the underclasses must own the means of
production--not the government nor the police force. Therefore, aside from certain first-century Christian
communities and other temporary communes, communism has not yet really existed. (The Soviet Union was
actually state-run capitalism.)
Marx is known also for saying that "Religion is the opiate of the people," so he was somewhat aware
of the problem that Lenin later dwelt on. Lenin was convinced that workers remain largely unaware of their
own oppression since they are convinced by the state to be selfless. One might point to many "opiates of the
people" under most political systems--diversions that prevent real consideration of trying to change unjust
economic conditions.
Whom Does It Benefit?
Based on the theories of Karl Marx (and so influenced by philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel),
this school concerns itself with class differences, economic and otherwise, as well as the implications and
complications of the capitalist system: "Marxism attempts to reveal the ways in which our socioeconomic
system is the ultimate source of our experience" (Tyson 277).
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Theorists working in the Marxist tradition, therefore, are interested in answering the overarching
question, whom does it [the work, the effort, the policy, the road, etc.] benefit? The elite? The middle class?
Marxist critics are also interested in how the lower or working classes are oppressed - in everyday life and in
literature.
The Material Dialectic
The Marxist school follows a process of thinking called the material dialectic. This belief system
maintains that "...what drives historical change are the material realities of the economic base of society,
rather than the ideological superstructure of politics, law, philosophy, religion, and art that is built upon that
economic base" (Richter 1088).
Marx asserts that "...stable societies develop sites of resistance: contradictions build into the social
system that ultimately lead to social revolution and the development of a new society upon the old" (1088).
This cycle of contradiction, tension, and revolution must continue: there will always be conflict between the
upper, middle, and lower (working) classes and this conflict will be reflected in literature and other forms of
expression - art, music, movies, etc.
Marxist Literary Theory
This theory aims to explain literature in relation to society – that literature can only be properly
understood within a larger framework of social reality. Marxists believe that any theory that treats literature
in isolation (for instance, as pure structure or as a product of the author’s individual mental processes) and
keeps it in isolation, divorcing it from history and society, will be deficient in its ability to explain what literature
is.

Marxist literary critics start by looking at the structure of history and society and then see whether
the literary work reflects or distorts this structure. Literature must have a social dimension – it exists in time
and space; in history and society. A literary work must speak to concerns that readers recognize as relevant
to their lives.
Marxist literary criticism maintains that a writer’s social class and its prevailing ‘ideology’ (outlook,
values, tacit assumptions, etc.) have a major bearing on what is written by a member of that class. The
writers are constantly formed by their social contexts.
Classical Marxism: Basic Principles
According to Marxism, society progresses through the struggle between opposing forces. It is this
struggle between opposing classes that result in social transformation. History progresses through this class
struggle. Class struggle originates out of the exploitation of one class by another throughout history. During
the feudal period the tension was between the feudal lords and the peasants, and in the Industrial age the
struggle was between the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) and the industrial working class (the proletariat).
Classes have common interests. In a capitalist system the proletariat is always in conflict with the capitalist
class. This confrontation, according to Marx, will finally result in replacing the system by socialism.

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Another important concept used by Marx was the dialectic which was originally developed by the 18th
century German philosopher Hegel. Hegel was an idealist philosopher who used this term to refer to the
process of emergence of new ideas through the confrontation of opposing ideas. He believed that the world
is governed by thought and material existence is the expression of an immaterial spiritual essence. But Marx
used the same concept to interpret the progress of the material world. According to him Hegel put the world
upside down by giving primacy to ideas whereas Marx’s attempt was to reverse it. So Marx’s dialectic is
known as dialectical materialism. Marx argued that all mental( ideological) systems are products of real
social and economic existence. For example, the legal system reflects the interests of the dominant class in
particular historical periods rather than the manifestation of divine reason. Marxist dialectic can be understood
as the science of the general and abstract laws of development of nature, society and thoughts. It considers
the universe as an integral whole in which things are interdependent, rather than a mixture of things isolated
from each other. All things contain within themselves internal dialectical contradictions, which are the primary
cause of motion, change and development in the world. Dialectical materialism was an effective tool in the
hands of Marxists, in revealing the secrets behind the social processes and their future course of
development.

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One of the fundamental concepts of classical

Marxist thought is the concept of base and
superstructure which refers to the relationship between
the material means of production and the cultural world
of art and ideas. It is essentially a symbolic concept
which employed the structure of a building to explain
this relationship. The foundation or the base stands for
the socio-economic relations and the mode of
production and the superstructure stands for art, law,
politics, religion and, above all, ideology. Broadly
speaking it refers to the idea that culture is governed by
historical conditions and the relations of dominance and
subordination prevalent in a particular society. Morality,
religion, art and philosophy are seen as echoes of real
life processes. In Marx’s own words, they are
“phantoms formed in the brains of men.” From this point
of view all cultural products are directly related to the
economic base in a given society.

EXAMPLES OF MARXIST LITERARY CRITICISM

We can see examples of this criticism in two stories: “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been” by Joyce
Carol Oates, and “A Good Man Is Hard To Find” by Flannery O’Conner.

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“Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been”

Connie’s ability to be in a high social class derives from her good
appearance.
“Her name was Connie. She had a quick nervous giggling habit of craning
her neck to glance into mirrors, or checking other people’s faces to make
sure her own was alright.” P.318
“…she knew that she was pretty and that was everything.” P.318

Her mother and the rest of her family did not like that an individual
of a higher class lived amongst them, so constantly they tried to put
her down to try and lower her social class in their own minds.
“Her mother had been pretty once too…but now her looks were gone and
that was why she was always after Connie.”
“Her sister June…was so plain and chunky and steady that Connie had to
hear her praised all the time by her mother and her mother’s sisters.”

Power over other people is acquired as individuals of higher classes

can oppress those of lower classes.
“…Right away someone leaned out of a car window and invited them over,
but it was just a boy from high school they didn’t like. It made her feel good
to be able to ignore him.”

We realize that Arnold Friend is pretending to be of a higher class than Connie, for her the epitome of what is
popular, because he knows that this is how he can appeal to Connie, because all people want to associate with
higher classes, hoping to raise into it.
“Then he began to smile again. She watched this smile come, awkward as if he was smiling from behind a mask, she
thought wildly, tanned down onto his throat but then running out as if he had plastered make up on his face but had forgotten
about his throat.”
“..The boots must have been stuffed with something so that he would seem taller.”

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“A Good Man Is Hard To Find” : Compare the economic classes

of central characters Granny and Misfit, in the following
excerpts.
Granny
“The old lady settled herself comfortably, removing her white cotton
gloves and putting them up with her purse…the grandmother had on
a navy blue straw sailor hat with a violets on the brim and a navy blue
dress with a small white dot on the print. Her collars and cuffs were
white organdy trimmed with lace and at her neckline she had pinned
a purple spray of cloth violets containing a sachet . In case of an
accident anyone seeing her dead on the highway would know that
she was a lady”
“…with the mileage on the car at 55,890.”
Misfit
“…didn’t have on any shirt or undershirt . He had on blue jeans that
were too tight for him and was holding a black hat”
“He had on a tan and white shoes and no socks”
“It was a big black battered house like automobile”

COMPREHENSION CHECK
Check your understanding of the input by answering the following questions:

1. What does "class" mean in Marxist theory?

Answer:
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2. Within the logic of Marxist theory, where does competition come from and what role does
it play in the analysis?
Answer:
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3. According to Marx’s analysis, how does the conflict between the nobility and bourgeoisie
differ from the conflict between the bourgeoisie and proletariat?
Answer:
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4. Why and how surplus labor and surplus value significant to a Marxist analysis?
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SYNTHESIS

Literary criticism is an extension of this social activity of interpreting. One reader writes down his or
her views on what a particular work of literature means so that others can respond to that interpretation. The
critic's specific purpose may be to make value judgements on a work, to explain his or her interpretation of
the work, or to provide other readers with relevant historical or biographical information. The critic's general
purpose, in most cases, is to enrich the reader's understanding of the literary work. Critics typically engage
in dialogue or debate with other critics, using the views of other critics to develop their own points.
Unfortunately, when critics assume that their readers are already familiar with previous criticism, the
argument may be difficult to follow.
As a reader of literature, you may find the views of others very helpful in developing your own
interpretations. When you write an essay about literature, you will also find criticism helpful for supporting
your points. But criticism should never be a substitute for your own original views--only in very rare cases
would an assignment require you to summarize a critical work without including your interpretation of the
literature. Besides being useful, good literary criticism can be fun in itself, like listening to and participating in
a lively discussion among friends. By reading the critic, you add yet another point of view to yours and the
author's.
Certainly if a critic has added to your appreciation of a literary work, then that person has been useful.
But as you read a variety of criticism on a given author, you will discover that some criticism more useful than
others, and you may find some completely useless, particularly if it only summarizes the plot, focuses on an
issue you're not interested in, concentrates too much on other critics or theories and not on the literature
itself, or uses an unnecessarily technical vocabulary. As in all fields, there are those whose main goal seems
to be to confuse or impress rather than to communicate. Still, an article or book that at first seems difficult or
irrelevant may be very valuable in supporting your opinion once you see the overall picture. Since your goal
in reading the article is to enrich your view, you may find only part of the argument valid, and you may even
challenge the views of other critics as a means of explaining and developing your own views

SELF-REFLECTION

Literary criticism involves the reading, interpretation and commentary of a specific text or texts which have
been designated as literature. Different approaches can be used to attain various and unique understanding
of every literary text. With that being said, how can those different approaches be combined with one another
to create a more competent or comprehensive understanding of such literary text? Whose freedom of thought

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or movement might be constrained implicitly or explicitly by this work? Lastly, how may these events be
relevant to the text under such analysis.
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MODULE 3 (WEEKS 3-5)

OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

BIBLE Seek justice, rescue the oppressed, defend the

orphan, plead for the widow (Isaiah 1:16-17)
VERSE

Ignacian Core and Related Values: EXCELLENCE and Discipline

Respects and nurtures the giftedness in others to promote the growth of persons and communities.

Learning Outcomes
 Read excerpts from old English literary texts like Beowulf, The Wanderer and Riddles.
 Analyze excerpts from the translated text into own understanding.
 Identify the literary devices that are found in Old English texts.
 Respond to how language was developed through its Old English roots in a creative
topic presentation.
 Define literary devices found in Old English texts.
 Elaborate how literary devices are used in the present.

INTRODUCTION: THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

English literature, defined here as the body of written works produced in the
English language by inhabitants of the British Isles (including Ireland) from the
7th century to the present day, has sometimes been stigmatized as insular. It
can be argued that no single English novel attains the universality of the
Russian writer Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace or the French writer Gustave
Flaubert’s Madame Bovary. Yet in the Middle Ages the Old English literature
of the subjugated Saxons was leavened by the Latin and Anglo-Norman
writings, eminently foreign in origin, in which the churchmen and the Norman
conquerors expressed themselves. From this combination emerged a flexible
and subtle linguistic instrument exploited by Geoffrey Chaucer and brought to

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supreme application by William Shakespeare. During the Renaissance the renewed interest in Classical
learning and values had an important effect on English literature, as on all the arts. Ideas of Augustan literary
propriety in the 18th century and reverence in the 19th century for a less specific, though still selectively
viewed, Classical antiquity continued to shape the literature. All three of these impulses derived from a foreign
source, namely the Mediterranean basin. The Decadents of the late 19th century and the Modernists of the
early 20th looked to continental European individuals and movements for inspiration. Nor was attraction
toward European intellectualism dead in the late 20th century, for by the mid-1980s the approach known as
structuralism, a phenomenon predominantly French and German in origin, infused the very study of English
literature itself in a host of published critical studies and university departments. Additional influence was
exercised by deconstructionist analysis, based largely on the work of French philosopher Jacques Derrida.
Further, Britain’s past imperial activities around the globe continued to inspire literature—in some cases
wistful, in other cases hostile.

Finally, English literature has enjoyed a certain diffusion abroad, not only in predominantly English-speaking
countries but also in all those others where English is the first choice of study as a second language. English
literature is therefore not so much insular as detached from the continental European tradition across the
Channel. It is strong in all the conventional categories of the bookseller’s list: in Shakespeare it has a
dramatist of world renown; in poetry, a genre notoriously resistant to adequate translation and therefore
difficult to compare with the poetry of other literatures, it is so peculiarly rich as to merit inclusion in the front
rank; English literature’s humor has been found as hard to convey to foreigners as poetry, if not more so—a
fact at any rate permitting bestowal of the label “idiosyncratic”; English literature’s remarkable body of travel
writings constitutes another counterthrust to the charge of insularity; in autobiography, biography, and
historical writing, English literature compares with the best of any culture; and children’s literature, fantasy,
essays, and journals, which tend to be considered minor genres, are all fields of exceptional achievement as
regards English literature. Even in philosophical writings, popularly thought of as hard to combine with literary
value, thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, David Hume, John Stuart Mill, and Bertrand Russell
stand comparison for lucidity and grace with the best of the French philosophers and the masters of Classical
antiquity.

LEARNING CONTENT

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

We speak English but do we know where it comes from? We did not know until we start to study on
this subject and we learn where it comes from and how it has developed. The importance of this part is that
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we can not understand reading literature if we do not know the history of the language, the culture, and the
people.
The history of English begins a little after A.D. 600. The ancestors of the language were wandering
in the forests of northern Europe. Their language was a part of Germanic branch of Indo‐European Family.
The people talking this language spread to the northern coast of Europe in the time of Roman Empire. Among
this people the tribes called Angels,Saxons,Jutes which is called Anglo‐Saxons come to England. The first
Latin effect was in that period. Latin effected the language with the merchants traveling the tribes. Some of
the words taken from Latin are; kettle,wine,cheese, butter, cheap.
When Anglo‐Saxons became Christian in 597 they learned Latin. According to the effects to English,
the history of the language divided in to three; Old English(7th century‐1100), Middle English(1100‐
1450/1500), Modern English (1500‐ now). In some books Modern English is divided in to two Early modern
(1500‐1700), Late Modern (1700‐now).
When England was established there were several kingdoms and the most advanced one was
Nurthumbria. It was this period that the best of the Old English literature was written, including the epic poem
Beowulf, that is why we must read part of this epic poem.
In the 8th century Nurthumbrian power declined, West Saxons became the leading power. The most
famous king of the West Saxons was Alfred the Great, who founded and established schools, translated or
caused to be translated many books from Latin in to English.
After many years of hit‐and‐run raids between the European kingdoms, the Norseman landed in the
year of 866 and later the east coast of the island was Norseman’s. Norse language effected the English
considerably. Norse wasn’t so different from English and English people could understand Norseman. There
were considerable interchanges and word borrowings (sky,give,law,egg,outlaw,leg,ugly,talk). Also borrowed
pronouns like they,their,them. It is supposed also that the Norseman influenced the sound structure and the
grammar of English.
Also in the 14th century Rome Empire weakened because Goths attacked to Mediterranean
countries of Roman Empire and Anglo‐Saxons attacked to empire. On the other hand the Celtic tribes in
Scotland and Wales developed. At the end in 410 the last roman emperor left the island to Celtic and Anglo‐
Saxons. Celtic and Anglo‐Saxons fought for 100 years and Anglo‐Saxons killed all the Celtics. In 550 Anglo
–Saxons established England. During Roma Empire Latin was not the native language of the kingdom
because people in the country were talking Celtic.
Old English had some sound which we do not know have now. In grammar , Old English was much
more highly inflected that Middle English because there were case endings for nouns, more person and
number endings of words and a more complicated pronoun systems, various endings for adjectives. In
vocabulary Old English is quiet different from Middle English. Most of the Old English words are native English

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which were not borrowed from other languages. On the other hand Old English contains borrowed words
coming from Norse and Latin.

Old English, until 1066 ‐ Immigrants from Denmark and NW Germany arrived in Britain in the 5th and 6th
Centuries A.D., speaking in related dialects belonging to the Germanic and Teutonic branches of the Indo‐
European language family. Today, English is most closely related to Flemish, Dutch, and German, and is
somewhat related to Icelandic, Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish. Icelandic, unchanged for 1,000 years, is
very close to Old English. Viking invasions, begun in the 8th Century, gave English a Norwegian and Danish
influence which lasted until the Norman Conquest of 1066.
Old English Words‐ The Angles came from an angle‐shaped land area in contemporary Germany. Their
name "Angli" from the Latin and commonly‐spoken, pre‐5th Century German mutated into the Old English
"Engle". Later, "Engle" changed to "Angel‐cyn" meaning "Angle‐race" by A.D. 1000, changing to "Engla‐
land". Some Old English words which have survived intact include: feet, geese, teeth, men, women, lice, and
mice. The modern word "like" can be a noun, adjective, verb, and preposition. In Old English, though, the
word was different for each type: gelica as a noun, geic as an adjective, lician as a verb, and gelice as a
preposition.
Middle English, from 1066 until the 15th Century ‐ The Norman Invasion and Conquest of Britain in 1066
and the resulting French Court of William the Conqueror gave the Norwegian‐Dutch influenced English a
Norman‐Parisian‐ French effect. From 1066 until about 1400, Latin, French, and English were spoken.
English almost disappeared entirely into obscurity during this period by the French and Latin dominated court
and government. However, in 1362, the Parliament opened with English as the language of choice, and the

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language was saved from extinction. Present‐day English is approximately 50% Germanic (English and
Scandinavian) and 50% Romance (French and Latin).
Middle English Words‐ Many new words added to Middle English during this period came from Norman
French, Parisian French, and Scandinavian. Norman French words imported into Middle English include:
catch, wage, warden, reward, and warrant. Parisian French gave Middle English: chase, guarantee, regard,
guardian, and gage. Scandinavian gave to Middle English the important word of law. English nobility had
titles which were derived from both Middle English and French. French provided: prince, duke, peer, marquis,
viscount, and baron. Middle English independently developed king, queen, lord, lady, and earl. Governmental
administrative divisions from French include county, city, village, justice, palace, mansion, and residence.
Middle English words include town, home, house, and hall.
Early Modern English, from the 15th Century to the 17th Century‐ During this period, English became
more organized and began to resemble the modern version of English. Although the word order and sentence
construction was still slightly different, Early Modern English was at least recognizable to the Early Modern
English speaker. For example, the Old English "To us pleases sailing" became "We like sailing." Classical
elements, from Greek and Latin, profoundly influenced work creation and origin. From Greek, Early Modern
English received grammar, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Also, the "tele‐" prefix
meaning "far" later used to develop telephone and television was taken.
Modern English, from the 17th Century to Modern Times‐ Modern English developed through the efforts
of literary and political writings, where literacy was uniformly found. Modern English was heavily influenced
by classical usage, the emergence of the university‐educated class, Shakespeare, the common language
found in the East Midlands section of present‐day England, and an organized effort to document and
standardize English. Current inflections have remained almost unchanged for 400 years, but sounds of
vowels and consonants have changed greatly. As a result, spelling has also changed considerably. For
example, from Early English to Modern English, lyf became life, deel became deal, hoom became home,
mone became moon, and hous became house.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Modern English‐ Modern English is composed of several languages,
with grammar rules, spelling, and word usage both complimenting and competing for clarity. The
disadvantages of Modern English include: an alphabet which is unable to adequately represent all needed
sounds without using repeated or combined letters, a limit of 23 letters of the 26 in the alphabet which can
effectively express twice the number of sounds actually needed, and a system of spelling which is not based
upon pronunciation but foreign language word origin and countless changes throughout history. The
advantages of Modern English include: single consonants which are clearly understood and usually represent
the same sounds in the same positions, the lack of accent marks found in other languages which permits
quicker writing, and the present spelling displays European language origins and connections which allows
European language speakers to become immediately aware of thousands of words.

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Modern English Words ‐ British English, known as Standard English or Oxford English, underwent
changes as the colonization of North American and the creation of the United States occurred. British English
words changed into American English words, such as centre to center, metre to meter, theatre to theater,
favour to favor, honour to honor, labour to labor, neighbour to neighbor, cheque to check, connexion to
connection, gaol to jail, the storey of a house to story, and tyre for tire. Since 1900, words with consistent
spelling but different meanings from British English to American English include: to let for to rent, dual
carriageway for divided highway, lift for elevator, amber for yellow, to ring for to telephone, zebra crossing for
pedestrian crossing, and pavement for sidewalk.
American English, from the 18th Century until Modern Times‐ Until the 18th Century, British and
American English were remarkably similar with almost no variance. Immigration to America by other English
peoples changed the language by 1700. Noah Webster, author of the first authoritative American English
dictionary, created many changes. The "‐re" endings became "‐er" and the "‐our" endings became "‐or".
Spelling by pronunciation and personal choice from Webster were influences.
Cough, Sought, Thorough, Thought, and Through‐ Why do these "ough" words have the same central
spelling but are so different? This is a characteristic of English, which imported similarly spelled or defined
words from different languages over the past 1,000 years.
Cough ‐ From the Middle High German kuchen meaning to breathe heavily, to the French‐Old English
cohhian, to the Middle English coughen is derived the current word cough.
Sought ‐ From the Greek hegeisthai meaning to lead, to the Latin sagire meaning to perceive keenly, to the
Old High German suohhen meaning to seek, to the French‐Old English secan, to the Middle English sekken,
is derived the past tense sought of the present tense of the verb to seek.
Thorough ‐ From the French‐Old English thurh and thuruh to the Middle English thorow is derived the
current word thorough.
Thought ‐ From the Old English thencan, which is related to the French‐Old English word hoht, which
remained the same in Middle English, is derived the current word thought.
Through ‐From the Sanskrit word tarati, meaning he crossed over, came the Latin word, trans meaning
across or beyond. Beginning with Old High German durh, to the French‐Old English thurh, to the Middle
English thurh, thruh, or through, is derived the current word through.

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PERIODS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

The Old English Period or the Anglo‐Saxon Period refers to the literature produced from the invasion of
Celtic England by Germanic tribes in the first half of the fifth century to the conquest of England in 1066 by
William the Conqueror. During the Old English Period, written literature began to develop from oral tradition,
and in the eighth century poetry written in the vernacular Anglo Saxon or Old English appeared. One of the
most well‐known eighth century Old English pieces of literature is Beowulf, a great Germanic epic poem.
Two poets of Old English Period who wrote on biblical and religious themes were Caedmon and Cynewulf.

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The Middle English Period consists of the literature produced in the four and a half centuries between the
Norman Conquest of 1066 and about 1500, when the standard literary language, derived from the dialect of
the London area, became recognizable as "modern English."
Prior to the second half of the fourteenth century, vernacular literature consisted primarily of religious writings.
The second half of the fourteenth century produced the first great age of secular literature. The most widely
known of these writings are Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, the anonymous Sir Gawain and the
Green Knight, and Thomas Malory's Morte d’Arthur.

While the English Renaissance began with the ascent of the House of Tudor to the English throne in 1485,
the English Literary Renaissance began with English humanists such as Sir Thomas more and Sir Thomas
Wyatt.

In addition, the English Literary Renaissance consists of four subsets: The Elizabethan Age, the
Jacobean Age, the Caroline Age, and the Commonwealth Period (which is also known as the Puritan
Interregnum).

 The Elizabethan Age of English Literature coincides with the reign of Elizabeth I, 1558 ‐ 1603.
During this time, medieval tradition was blended with Renaissance optimism. Lyric poetry, prose,
and drama were the major styles of literature that flowered during the Elizabethan Age. Some
important writers of the Elizabethan Age include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe,
Edmund Spenser, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Ben Jonson.

 The Jacobean Age of English Literature coincides with the reign of James I, 1603 ‐ 1625. During
this time the literature became sophisticated, sombre, and conscious of social abuse and rivalry. The
Jacobean Age produced rich prose and drama as well as The king James translation of the Bible.
Shakespeare and Jonson wrote during the Jacobean Age, as well as John Donne, Francis bacon,
and Thomas Middleton.

 The Caroline Age of English Literature coincides with the reign of Charles I, 1625 ‐ 1649. The writers
of this age wrote with refinement and elegance. This era produced a circle of poets known as the
“Cavalier Poets” and the dramatists of this age were the last to write in the Elizabethan tradition.

 The Commonwealth Period, also known as the Puritan Interregnum, of English Literature includes
the literature produced during the time of Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell. This period produced the
political writings of John Milton, Thomas Hobbes’ political treatise Leviathan, and the prose of Andrew
Marvell. In September of 1642, the Puritans closed theatres on moral and religious grounds. For the
next eighteen years the theatres remained closed, accounting for the lack of drama produced during
this time period.

The Neoclassical Period of English literature (1660 ‐ 1785) was much influenced by contemporary French
literature, which was in the midst of its greatest age. The literature of this time is known for its use of

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philosophy, reason, skepticism, wit, and refinement. The Neoclassical Period also marks the first great age
of English literary criticism.

Much like the English Literary Renaissance, the Neoclassical Period can be divided into three subsets: the
Restoration, the Augustan Age, and the Age of Sensibility.

 The Restoration, 1660 ‐ 1700, is marked by the restoration of the monarchy and the triumph of
reason and tolerance over religious and political passion.

 The Restoration produced an abundance of prose and poetry and the distinctive comedy of manners
known as Restoration comedy. It was during the Restoration that John Milton published Paradise
Lost and Paradise Regained.

 Other major writers of the era include John Dryden, John Wilmot 2nd Earl of Rochester, and John
Locke.
 The English Augustan Age derives its name from the brilliant literary period of Virgil and Ovid under
the Roman emperor Augustus (27 B.C. ‐ A.D. 14). In English literature, the Augustan Age,
1700 ‐ 1745, refers to literature with the predominant characteristics of refinement, clarity, elegance,
and balance of judgment. Well‐known writers of the Augustan Age include Jonathan Swift, Alexander
Pope, and Daniel Defoe. A significant contribution of this time period included the release of the first
English novels by Defoe, and the "novel of character," Pamela, by Samuel Richardson, in 1740.

 During the Age of Sensibility, literature reflected the worldview of Enlightenment and began to
emphasize instinct and feeling, rather than judgment and restraint. A growing sympathy for the
Middle Ages during the Age of Sensibility sparked an interest in medieval ballads and folk literature.
Another name for this period is the Age of Johnson because the dominant authors of this period were
Samuel Johnson and his literary and intellectual circle. This period also produced some of the
greatest early novels of the English language, including Richardson's Clarissa (1748) and Henry
Fielding's Tom Jones (1749).

The Romantic Period of English literature began in the late 18th century and lasted until approximately
1832. In general, Romantic literature can be characterized by its personal nature, its strong use of feeling, its
abundant use of symbolism, and its exploration of nature and the supernatural. In addition, the writings of the
Romantics were considered innovative based on their belief that literature should be spontaneous,
imaginative, personal, and free. The Romantic Period produced a wealth of authors including Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, William Wordsworth, Jane Austen, and Lord Byron.

It was during the Romantic Period that Gothic literature was born. Traits of Gothic literature are dark and
gloomy settings and characters and situations that are fantastic, grotesque, wild, savage, mysterious, and
often melodramatic. Two of the most famous Gothic novelists are Anne Radcliffe and Mary Shelley.

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The Victorian Period of English literature began with the accession of Queen Victoria to the throne in 1837,
and lasted until her death in 1901. Because the Victorian Period of English literature spans over six decades,
the year 1870 is often used to divide the era into "early Victorian" and "late Victorian." In general, Victorian
literature deals with the issues and problems of the day. Some contemporary issues that the Victorians dealt
with include the social, economic, religious, and intellectual issues and problems surrounding the Industrial
Revolution, growing class tensions, the early feminist movement, pressures toward political and social
reform, and the impact of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution on philosophy and religion. Some of the most
recognized authors of the Victorian era include Alfred Lord Tennyson, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, her
husband Robert, Matthew Arnold, Charles Dickens, Charlotte Brontë, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy.

Within the Victorian Period, two other literary movements, that of The Pre‐Raphaelites (1848‐1860) and
the movement of Aestheticism and Decadence (1880‐1900), gained prominence.

 In 1848, a group of English artists, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, formed the "Pre‐Raphaelite
Brotherhood." It was the aim of this group to return painting to a style of truthfulness, simplicity, and
religious devotion that had reigned prior to Raphael and the high Italian Renaissance. Rossetti and
his literary circle, which included his sister Christina, incorporated these ideals into their literature,
and the result was that of the literary Pre‐Raphaelites.

 The Aestheticism and Decadence movement of English literature grew out of the French
movement of the same name. The authors of this movement encouraged experimentation and held
the view that art is totally opposed "natural" norms of morality. This style of literature opposed the
dominance of scientific thinking and defied the hostility of society to any art that was not useful or did
not teach moral values. It was from the movement of Aestheticism and Decadence that the phrase
art for art's sake emerged. A well‐known author of the English Aestheticism and Decadence
movement is Oscar Wilde.

The Edwardian Period is named for King Edward VII and spans the time from Queen Victoria's death (1901)
to the beginning of World War I (1914). During this time, The British Empire was at its height and the wealthy
lived lives of materialistic luxury. However, four fifths of the English population lived in squalor. The writings
of the Edwardian Period reflect and comment on these social conditions. For example, writers such as
George Bernard Shaw and H.G. Wells attacked social injustice and the selfishness of the upper classes.
Other writers of the time include William Butler Yeats, Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling, Henry James, and
E.m. Forster.

The Georgian Period refers to the period of British Literature that is named for the reign of George V (1910‐
36). Many writers of the Edwardian Period continued to write during the Georgian Period. This era also
produced a group of poets known as the Georgian poets. These writers, now regarded as minor poets, were
published in four anthologies entitled Georgian Poetry, published by Edward Marsh between 1912 and 1922.
Georgian poetry tends to focus on rural subject matter and is traditional in technique and form.

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The Modern Period applies to British literature written since the beginning of World War I in 1914. The
authors of the Modern Period have experimented with subject matter, form, and style and have produced
achievements in all literary genres. Poets of the period include Yeats, T.S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, and Seamus
Heaney. Novelists include James Joyce, D.H. Lawrence, and Virginia Woolf. Dramatists include Noel Coward
and Samuel Beckett..

Following World War II (1939‐1945), the Postmodern Period of British Literature developed. Postmodernism
blends literary genres and styles and attempts to break free of modernist forms. While the British literary
scene at the turn of the new millennium is crowded and varied, the authors still fall into the categories of
modernism and postmodernism. However, with the passage of time the Modern era may be reorganized and
expanded

ACTIVITY

Unleash your inner artist! Create an AUTHOR CHART for the MAJOR PERIODS in British
Literary Period using the T-Charts provided below. In every major period (literary movement), just
give one (1) profound author and cite his/her magnum opus. You may DRAW or PRINT the
needed pictures. You will be graded according to the given VISUAL VOCABULARY RUBRIC.
You may use the given example for as a guide.

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OLD ENGLISH AUTHORS EXAMPLE

MIDDLE ENGLISH AUTHORS EXAMPLE

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RENAISSANCE AUTHORS EXAMPLE

NEO-CLASSICAL AUTHORS EXAMPLE

ROMANTIC AUTHORS EXAMPLE

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VICTORIAN AUTHORS EXAMPLE

EDWARDIAN AUTHORS EXAMPLE

GEORGIAN AUTHORS EXAMPLE

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MODERN AUTHORS EXAMPLE

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LEARNING CONTENT

THE MAJOR MANUSCRIPTS (OLD ENGLISH PERIOD)

Most Old English poetry is preserved in four manuscripts of the late 10th and early 11th centuries.
The Beowulf Manuscript (British Library) contains Beowulf, Judith, and three prose tracts; the Exeter Book
(Exeter Cathedral) is a miscellaneous gathering of lyrics, riddles, didactic poems, and religious narratives;
the Junius Manuscript (Bodleian Library, Oxford)—also called the Caedmon Manuscript, even though its
contents are no longer attributed to Caedmon—contains biblical paraphrases; and the Vercelli Book (found
in the cathedral library in Vercelli, Italy) contains saints’ lives, several short religious poems, and prose
homilies. In addition to the poems in these books are historical poems in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; poetic
renderings of Psalms 51–150; the 31 Metres included in King Alfred the Great’s translation of Boethius’s De
consolatione philosophiae (Consolation of Philosophy); magical, didactic, elegiac, and heroic poems; and
others, miscellaneously interspersed with prose, jotted in margins, and even worked in stone or metal.

1. Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Written by The Venerable Bede (673-735) who is
considered as the Father of English History and regarded as the greatest Anglo-Saxon scholar.
Saint Bede the Venerable was an Anglo-Saxon theologian, historian, and chronologist best known
today for his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, a source vital to the history of the conversion to
Christianity of the AngloSaxon tribes. During his lifetime and throughout the Middle Ages Bede’s reputation
was based mainly on his scriptural commentaries, copies of which found their way to many of the monastic
libraries of western Europe. His method of dating events from the time of the incarnation, or Christ’s birth—
i.e., AD—came into general use through the popularity of the Ecclesiastical History and the two works on
chronology. Bede’s influence was perpetuated at home through the school founded at York by his pupil
Archbishop Egbert of York and was transmitted to the Continent by Alcuin, who studied there before
becoming master of Charlemagne’s palace school at Aachen.

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Nothing is known of Bede’s parentage. At the age of seven he was taken to the Monastery of St.
Peter, founded at Wearmouth (near Sunderland, Durham) by Abbot St. Benedict Biscop, to whose care he
was entrusted. By 685 he was moved to Biscop’s newer Monastery of St. Paul at Jarrow. Bede (also spelled
as Baeda or Beda) was ordained deacon when 19 years old and priest when 30. Apart from visits to
Lindisfarne and York, he seems never to have left
Wearmouth–Jarrow. Buried at Jarrow, his remains
were removed to Durham and are now entombed
in the Galilee Chapel of Durham Cathedral. Bede’s
works fall into three groups: grammatical and
“scientific,” scriptural commentary, and historical
and biographical. His earliest works include
treatises on spelling, hymns, figures of speech,
verse, and epigrams. His first treatise on
chronology, De temporibus (“On Times”), with a
brief chronicle attached, was written in 703. In 725
he completed a greatly amplified version, De
temporum ratione (“On the Reckoning of Time”),
with a much longer chronicle. Both these books
were mainly concerned with the reckoning of
Easter. His earliest biblical commentary was
probably that on the Revelation to John (703?–
709). In this and many similar works, his aim was
to transmit and explain relevant passages from the
Fathers of the Church. Although his interpretations
were mainly allegorical, treating much of the
biblical text as symbolic of deeper meanings, he
used some critical judgment and attempted to rationalize discrepancies. Among his most notable are his verse
(705–716) and prose (before 721) lives of St. Cuthbert, bishop of Lindisfarne. These works are uncritical and
abound with accounts of miracles. A more exclusively historical work is Historia abbatum (c. 725; “Lives of
the Abbots”). In 731/732 Bede completed his Ecclesiastical History. Divided into five books, it recorded events
in Britain from the raids by Julius Caesar (55–54 BCE) to the arrival in Kent (597 CE) of St. Augustine. For
his sources he claimed the authority of ancient letters, the “traditions of our forefathers,” and his own
knowledge of contemporary events. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History leaves gaps tantalizing to secular historians.
Although overloaded with the miraculous, it is the work of a scholar anxious to assess the accuracy of his
sources and to record only what he regarded as trustworthy evidence. It remains an indispensable source for
some of the facts and much of the feel of early AngloSaxon history.
2. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Different monks traces the annals that chronicle Anglo-Saxon history, life and
culture after the Roman invasion

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 Alfred the Great (848?-899) who was King of the southern Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex from
871-899 championed Anglo-Saxon culture by writing in his native tongue and by encouraging
scholarly translations from Latin into Old English (Anglo-Saxon). It is believed that the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle was begun during his reign.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a chronological account of events in Anglo-Saxon and Norman England, is
a compilation of seven surviving interrelated manuscript records that is the primary source for the early history
of England. The narrative was first assembled in the reign of King Alfred (871–899) from materials that
included some epitome of universal history: Bede’s Ecclesiastical History, genealogies, regnal and episcopal
lists, a few northern annals, and probably some sets of earlier West Saxon annals. The compiler also had
access to a set of Frankish annals for the late 9th century.
Soon after the year 890, several manuscripts were being circulated. One was available to Asser in 893,
another, which appears to have gone no further than that year, to the late 10th-century chronicler Aethelweard,
while one version, which eventually reached the north, stopped in 892. Some of the manuscripts circulated at
this time were continued in various religious houses, sometimes with annals that occur in more than one
manuscript, sometimes with local material, confined to one version. The fullness and quality of the entries
vary at different periods.
The Chronicle is a rather barren document for the mid-10th century and for the reign of Canute, for
example, but it is an excellent authority for the reign of Aethelred the Unready and from the reign of Edward
the Confessor until the version that was kept up longest ends with annal 1154. The Chronicle survived to the
modern period in seven manuscripts (one of these being destroyed in the 18th century) and a fragment, which
are generally known by letters of the alphabet.
[Link]’s Hymn. (7th century). An unlearned cowherd who was inspired by a vision and miraculously
acquired the gift of poetic song produced this nine-line alliterative vernacular praise poem in honor of God.
Caedmon was the first Old English Christian poet. His fragmentary hymn to the creation remains a
symbol of the adaptation of the aristocratic-heroic Anglo-Saxon verse tradition to the expression of Christian
themes. His story is known from Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which tells how
Caedmon, an illiterate herdsman, retired from company one night in shame because he could not comply with
the demand made of each guest to sing. Then in a dream a stranger appeared commanding him to sing of
“the beginning of things,” and the herdsman found himself uttering “verses which he had never heard.” When
Caedmon awoke he related his dream to the farm bailiff under whom he worked and was conducted by him
to the monastery at Streaneshalch (now called Whitby). The abbess St. Hilda believed that Caedmon was
divinely inspired and, to test his powers, proposed that he should render into verse a portion of sacred history,
which the monks explained. By the following morning he had fulfilled the task. At the request of the abbess,
he became an inmate of the monastery.
Throughout the remainder of his life, his more learned brethren expounded Scripture to him, and all
that he heard he reproduced in vernacular poetry. All of his poetry was on sacred themes, and its unvarying
aim was to turn men from sin to righteousness. In spite of all the poetic renderings that Caedmon supposedly
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made, however, it is only the original dream hymn of nine historically precious, but poetically uninspired, lines
that can be attributed to him with confidence. The hymn—extant in 17 manu scripts, some in the poet’s
Northumbrian dialect, some in other Old English dialects—set the pattern for almost the whole art of Anglo-
Saxon verse.

[Link] of the Apostles, Juliana, Elene, and Christ II or The Ascension. These Old English Christian
poems were popularized by Cynewulf in the 8th century.
Cynewulf, whose name is sometimes spelled Cynwulf or Kynewulf, is considered the author of four
Old English poems preserved in late 10th-century manuscripts. Elene and The Fates of the Apostles are in
the Vercelli Book, and The Ascension (which forms the second part of a trilogy, Christ, and is also called
Christ II) and Juliana are in the Exeter Book. An epilogue to each poem, asking for prayers for the author,
contains runic characters representing the letters c, y, n, (e), w, u, l, f, which are thought to spell his name. A
rhymed passage in the Elene shows that Cynewulf wrote in the Northumbrian or Mercian dialect. Nothing is
known of him outside his poems, as there is no reason to identify him with any of the recorded persons
bearing this common name. He may have been a learned cleric since all of the poems are based on Latin
sources.
Elene, a poem of 1,321 lines, is an account of the finding of the True Cross by St. Helena. The Fates
of the Apostles, at 122 lines, is a versified martyrology describing the mission and death of each of the Twelve
Apostles. Christ II (The Ascension) is a lyrical version of a homily on the Ascension written by Pope Gregory
I the Great. It is part of a trilogy on Christ by different authors. Juliana, a poem of 731 lines, is a retelling of a
Latin prose life of St. Juliana, a maiden who rejected the suit of a Roman prefect, Eleusius, because of her
faith and consequently was made to suffer numerous torments.
Although the poems do not have great power or originality, they are more than mere paraphrases.
Imagery from everyday Old English life and from the Germanic epic tradition enlivens descriptions of battles
and sea voyages. At the same time, the poet, a careful and skillful craftsman, consciously applies the
principles of Latin rhetoric to achieve a clarity and orderly narrative progress that is quite unlike the confusion
and circumlocution of the native English style.
[Link]. Beowulf is the greatest monument of Old English literature. Its story of the prince Beowulf and
the monster Grendel still captivates readers today; a translation into modern English by the Irish poet Seamus
Heaney became an international best seller at the turn of the 21st century Yet other texts, in prose and in
verse, are just as important to understanding the period during which they were written.

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The heroic poem Beowulf is the highest achievement of

Old English literature and the earliest European vernacular epic.
Preserved in a single manuscript (Cotton Vitellius A XV) from c.
1000, it deals with events of the early 6th century and is believed
to have been composed between 700 and 750. It did not appear
in print until 1815. Although originally untitled, it was later named
after the Scandinavian hero Beowulf, whose exploits and
character provide its connecting theme. There is no evidence of
a historical Beowulf, but some characters, sites, and events in
the poem can be historically verified.
The poem falls into two parts. It opens in Denmark,
where King Hrothgar’s splendid mead hall, Heorot, has been
ravaged for 12 years by nightly visits from an evil monster,
Grendel, who carries off Hrothgar’s warriors and devours them.
Unexpectedly, young Beowulf, a prince of the Geats of southern
Sweden, arrives with a small band of retainers and offers to
cleanse Heorot of its monster. The King is astonished at the
little-known hero’s daring but welcomes him, and after an
evening of feasting, much courtesy, and some discourtesy, the King retires, leaving Beowulf in
charge. During the night Grendel comes from the moors, tears open the heavy doors, and devours
one of the sleeping Geats. He then grapples with Beowulf, whose powerful grip he cannot escape.
Grendel wrenches himself free, tearing off his arm, and leaves, mortally wounded.
The next day is one of rejoicing in Heorot. But at night as the warriors sleep, Grendel’s
mother comes to avenge her son, killing one of Hrothgar’s men. In the morning Beowulf seeks her
out in her cave at the bottom of a mere and kills her. He cuts the head from Grendel’s corpse and
returns to Heorot. The Danes rejoice once more. Hrothgar makes a farewell speech about the
character of the true hero, as Beowulf, enriched with honours and princely gifts, returns home to King
Hygelac of the Geats.
The second part passes rapidly over King Hygelac’s subsequent death in a battle (of
historical record), the death of his son, and Beowulf ’s succession to the kingship and his peaceful
rule of 50 years. But now a fire-breathing dragon ravages his land and the doughty but aging Beowulf
engages it. The fight is long and terrible and a painful contrast to the battles of his youth. Painful,
too, is the desertion of his retainers except for his young kinsman Wiglaf. Beowulf kills the dragon
but is mortally wounded. The poem ends with his funeral rites and a lament.
Beowulf belongs metrically, stylistically, and thematically to the inherited Germanic heroic
tradition. Many incidents, such as Beowulf ’s tearing off the monster’s arm and his descent into the
mere, are familiar motifs from folklore. The ethical values are manifestly the Germanic code of loyalty

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to chief and tribe and vengeance to enemies. Yet the poem is so infused with a Christian spirit that
it lacks the grim fatality of many of the Eddic lays or the Icelandic sagas. Beowulf himself seems
more altruistic than other Germanic heroes or the heroes of the Iliad. It is significant that his three
battles are not against men, which would entail the retaliation of the blood feud, but against evil
monsters, enemies of the whole community and of civilization itself. Many critics have seen the poem
as a Christian allegory, with Beowulf the champion of goodness and light against the forces of evil
and darkness. His sacrificial death is not seen as tragic but as the fitting end of a good (some would
say “too good”) hero’s life.
That is not to say that Beowulf is an optimistic poem. The English critic J.R.R. Tolkien
suggests that its total effect is more like a long, lyrical elegy than an epic. Even the earlier, happier
section in Denmark is filled with ominous allusions that were well understood by contemporary
audiences. Thus, after Grendel’s death, King Hrothgar speaks sanguinely of the future, which the
audience knows will end with the destruction of his line and the burning of Heorot. In the second part
the movement is slow and funereal. Scenes from Beowulf ’s youth are replayed in a minor key as a
counterpoint to his last battle, and the mood becomes increasingly sombre as the wyrd (fate) that
comes to all men closes in on him.

COMPREHENSION CHECK

1. What is significant about Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People? Relate it to
any current situation that we are facing now in our country.
Answer:
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2. Who were the Anglo-Saxons, and what was Old English?

Answer:
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___________________________________________________________________
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________________________

3. Does the miraculous backstory provided by Bede make Caedmon's Hymn more or less
impressive? Why do you think so?
Answer:
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4. Compare and contrast the following works of Cynewulf: Fates of the Apostles; Juliana;
Elene; and Christ II or The Ascension.
Answer:
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5. Why is the focus of the story on Beowulf as a hero rather than a king? What is the
difference? Does Beowulf die a heroic death? Did he live a heroic life? Provide evidence and
analysis to support your assertions.
Answer:
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___________________________________________________________________
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LEARNING CONTENT

6. Dream of the Rood. One of the earliest Christian poems preserved in the 10th century Vercelli book.
The poem makes use of dream vision to narrate the death and resurrection of Christ from the perspective
of the Cross or Rood itself.
“The Dream of the Rood” is an Old English lyric, the earliest dream poem and one of the finest
religious poems in the English language, once, but no longer, attributed to Caedmon or Cynewulf. In a dream
the unknown poet beholds a beautiful tree—the rood, or cross, on which Christ died. The rood tells him its
own story. Forced to be the instrument of the saviour’s death, it describes how it suffered the nail wounds,
spear shafts, and insults along with Christ to fulfill God’s will. Once blood-stained and horrible, it is now the
resplendent sign of mankind’s redemption. The poem was originally known only in fragmentary form from
some 8th-century runic inscriptions on the Ruthwell Cross, now standing in the parish church of Ruthwell,
now Dumfries District, Dumfries and Galloway Region, Scot. The complete version became known with the
discovery of the 10th-century Vercelli Book in northern Italy in 1822.
7. The Battle of Brunanburh. This is a heroic old English poem that records, in nationalistic tone, the triumph
of the English against the combined forces of the Scots, Vikings and Britons in AD 937.

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“The Battle of Brunanburh” is an Old

English poem of 73 lines included in the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle under the year 937. As
previously mentioned, it relates the victory of
the Saxon king Athelstan over the allied Norse,
Scots, and Strathclyde Briton invaders under
the leadership of Olaf Guthfrithson, king of
Dublin and claimant to the throne of York. The
poem is probably a panegyric composed for
Athelstan to celebrate his victory. It counts the
dead kings and earls on the battlefield and
pictures the Norsemen slinking back to Dublin
in their ships while their dead sons are being
devoured by ravens and wolves. The poem
claims that this was the greatest battle ever
fought in England.

[Link] Battle of Maldon. Another heroic poem that recounts the fall of the English army led by Birhtnoth in
the hands of the Viking invaders in AD 991.
The Battle of Maldon is an Old English heroic poem describing a historical skirmish between East
Saxons and Viking (mainly Norwegian) raiders in 991. It is incomplete, its beginning and ending both lost.
The poem is remarkable for its vivid, dramatic combat scenes and for its expression of the Germanic ethos
of loyalty to a leader.
The poem, as it survives, opens with the war parties aligned on either side of a stream (the present
River Blackwater near Maldon, Essex). The Vikings offer the cynical suggestion that the English may buy
their peace with golden rings. The English commander Earl Byrhtnoth replies that they will pay their tribute
in spears and darts. When the Vikings cannot advance because of their poor position, Byrhtnoth recklessly
allows them safe conduct across the stream, and the battle follows. In spite of Byrhtnoth’s supreme feats of
courage, he is finally slain. In panic some of the English warriors desert. The names of the deserters are
carefully recorded in the poem along with the names and genealogies of the loyal retainers who stand fast to
avenge Byrhtnoth’s death.
The 325-line fragment ends with the rallying speech of the old warrior Byrhtwold (here in modern English):
Mind must be firmer, heart the more fierce,
Courage the greater, as our strength diminishes ….

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9. Exeter Book

The Exeter Book is the largest extant collection of Old English poetry. Copied c. 975, the manuscript
was given to Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofric (d. 1072). It begins with some long religious poems: the
Christ, in three parts; two poems on St. Guthlac; the fragmentary “Azarius”; and the allegorical Phoenix.
Following these are a number of shorter religious verses intermingled with poems of types that have
survived only in this codex. All the extant AngloSaxon lyrics, or elegies, as they are usually called—“The
Wanderer,” “The Seafarer,” “The Wife’s Lament,” “The Husband’s Message,” and “The Ruin”—are
found here. These are secular poems evoking a poignant sense of desolation and loneliness in their
descriptions of the separation of lovers, the sorrows of exile, or the terrors and attractions of the sea, although
some of them—e.g., “The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer”—also carry the weight of religious allegory. In
addition, the Exeter Book preserves 95 riddles, a genre that would otherwise have been represented by a
solitary example.
The remaining part of the Exeter Book includes “The Rhyming Poem,” which is the only example of
its kind; the gnomic verses; “Widsith,” the heroic narrative of a fictitious bard; and the two refrain poems,
“Deor” and “Wulf and Eadwacer.” The arrangement of the poems appears to be haphazard, and the book is
believed to be copied from an earlier collection.

 The Wanderer. The lyric poem is composed of 115 lines of alliterative verse that
reminisces a wanderer’s (eardstapa) past glory in the company of his lord and comrades
and his solitary exile upon the loss of his kinsmen in battles.
 The Seafarer. An Old English lyric recorded in the Exeter Book that begins by recounting
in elegiac tone the perils of seafaring and ends with a praise of God.

COMPREHENSION CHECK

1. How does the personification of the cross in "The Dream of the Rood" help convey the
poem's hopeful theme?

Answer:
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2. Give a critical description of Old English heroic poetry. Use the Battle of Brunanburh
and Battle of Maldon as the concrete examples.
Answer:
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3. Give a critical survey of Old English Christian poetry.

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4. What Christian attitudes are found reflected in the following elegies: "The Wanderer"
and "The Seafarer?" Relate your answer to the common Filipino attitudes usually shown
during this pandemic.

Answer:
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4. What Christian attitudes are found reflected in the following elegies: "The Wanderer"
and "The Seafarer?" Relate your answer to the common Filipino attitudes usually shown
during this pandemic.

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SYNTHESIS

The term Anglo-Saxon comes from two Germanic tribes: the Angles and the Saxons. This period
of literature dates back to their invasion (along with the Jutes) of Celtic England circa 450. The era ends in
1066 when Norman France, under William, conquered England.
Much of the first half of this period—prior to the seventh century, at least—had oral literature. A lot
of the prose during this time was a translation of something else or otherwise legal, medical, or religious in
nature; however, some works, such as Beowulf and those by period poets Caedmon and Cynewulf, are
important.
Even within England, culturally and historically the dominant partner in the union of territories
comprising Britain, literature has been as enriched by strongly provincial writers as by metropolitan ones.
Another contrast more fruitful than not for English letters has been that between social milieus, however much
observers of Britain in their own writings may have deplored the survival of class distinctions. As far back as
medieval times, a courtly tradition in literature cross-fertilized with an earthier demotic one. Shakespeare’s
frequent juxtaposition of royalty in one scene with plebeians in the next reflects a very British way of looking
at society. This awareness of differences between high life and low, a state of affairs fertile in creative
tensions, is observable throughout the history of English literature.

SELF-REFLECTION

Many of the early works frequently dove-tail with politics and could serve as a useful theme for
discussing a definition of (and examples of) leadership: Malory, Gawain poet, Beowulf come to mind.
What does "kingship" mean and how is that reflected in some of these (or other) works? How is good
leadership best defined, given some of the leaders we've met in our readings? Relate your answers
to our current leaders in the Philippines. Answer this comprehensively.

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MODULE 4 (WEEKS 6-8)

MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

BIBLE A legitimate government upholds the rights of the

poor and vulnerable. (Jeremiah 22: 13-16)
VERSE

Ignacian Core and Related Values: SERVICE and Humility

(Accepts one’s giftedness and limitations with graciousness and sincerity)

Learning Outcomes
 Discuss events that happened in the Middle English period.
 Elaborate how Old English evolved.
 Name and discuss significant people who took part into the Middle English society.
 Act out different characters and their functions from the Canterbury Tales.
 Describe the roles of a Pardoner during the Middle English period.
 Justify the behavior of the characters in the Pardoner’s Tale.

INTRODUCTION
Middle English was the language spoken in Britain from approximately 1100 to 1500. Five major
dialects of Middle English have been distinguished. Major literary works composed in Middle
English incorporate, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Everyman, Le Morte D’arthur and Geoffrey
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The frame of Middle English that's most recognizable to present day
readers is the London language, which was the dialect of Chaucer and the premise of what would
inevitably gotten to be standard English.
Old English was smothered in records and official settings in favor of the Norman French dialect.
In any case, the English dialect survived among the prevailed Anglo-Saxons. The laborer classes
spoke as it were English, and the Normans who spread out into the farmland to require over
domains before long learned English of need. By the 14th century, English reemerged as the
overwhelming dialect but in a frame exceptionally diverse from Anglo-Saxon Old English.

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Journalists of the 13th and 14th centuries depicted the co-existence of Norman French and the
developing English presently known as Middle English.

LEARNING CONTENT

1. Everyman is regarded as the best of the morality plays. It talks about Everyman facing
Death. He summons the help of all his friends but only Good Deeds is able to help him.
Characters in this morality play are personifications of abstractions like Everyman, Death,
Fellowships, Cousins, Kindred, Goods, Good Deeds, etc. which makes the play allegorical in
nature.
 Allegory is a form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a
narrative, have meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning
has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often
personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy.
 Everyman is regarded as the best morality plays. It talks about Everyman facing Death.
He summons the help of all his friends but only Good Deeds is able to help him.
 Allegory is a form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a
narrative, have meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has
moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications
of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy.
CHARACTER LIST
These are the characters that appears in the story of Everyman and description of each are as
follows:

MESSENGER COUSINS STRENGTH

GOD GOODS BEAUTY

EVERYMAN GOOD DEEDS FIVE WITS

DEATH KNOWLEDGE ANGEL

FELLOWSHIP CONFESSION DOCTOR

KINDERED DISCRETION

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MESSENGER
 The first character to appear.
 The has no role within the story of the play itself, but simply speaks the prologue outlining
what the play will be like.
GOD
 Appears only at the very beginning of the play.
 Angry with the way humans are behaving on Earth, God summons Death to visit Everyman
and call him to account.
EVERYMAN
 The representative of mankind in general, has neglected this spiritual life.
 He agrees to undergo a pilgrimage to repent his sins and liberate himself of sins.
DEATH
 God's "mighty messenger", who visits Everyman at the very start of the play to inform him
that he is going to die and be judge by God.
FELLOWSHIP

 Represent friendship. Everyman's friend and the very first one to forsake him.
 Fellowship suggest going drinking or consorting with woman rather than going on a
pilgrimage to death.
KINDRED

 A friend of Everyman's, who deserts him along cousin. 'Kindred' means ' of the same
family', so when Kindred forsakes Everyman, it represents family members deserting him.
COUSINS
 A friend of Everyman's, who deserts him along with Kindred. 'Cousin' means 'related', so
when Kindred forsakes Everyman, it represents family members and perhaps close
friends deserting him.
GOODS
 Represents objects- goods, stuff, belongings- and when Everyman's goods forsake him,
the play is hammering home the fact you can't take belongings with you to the grave.
GOOD DEEDS
 Is the only character who does not forsake Everyman and at the end of the play,
accompanies him to his grave.
KNOWLEDGE

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 Guides Everyman from around the middle of the play, and leads him to Confession.
 'Knowledge' is perhaps best defined as 'acknowledgement' of sin'.
CONFESSION

 Allow Everyman to confess and repent for his sins.

DISCRETION
 One of the second group of character who deserts Everyman in the second half of the
play.
STRENGTH
 One of the second group of character who deserts Everyman in the second half of play.
BEAUTY
 One of the second group of character who deserts Everyman in the second half of play.
FIVE WITS
 Represents the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste , smell. One of the second group
of characters who deserts Everyman in the second half of the play.
ANGEL

 Appears at the very end of the play with Everyman's Book of reckoning to receive
Everyman's soul.
DOCTOR
 A generic character who only appears to speak the epilogue at the very end of the play.
EXPLANATION
Messenger draws the audience's attention to himself. The tale starts with God lamenting the fact
that men have been thoroughly evil and have taken everything He has given them for granted.
Death is summoned, and he is ordered to hold Everyman to account. Death is obedient, and he
comes upon Everyman as he walks alone. He asks Everyman if he has forgotten God, and then
informs him that he must go to the afterlife to be judged. He will never be able to return from this
trip. Everyman takes a breather, asking for more time. He bemoans the fact that he was not
expecting Death. Death advises him he should have known better and offers him a small window
of opportunity to plan.
Everybody bemoans his lot in life. He seeks assistance from Communion, who serves his earthly
friends. Fellowship vows that he will follow Everyman to hell. When he learns that Everyman is
really going to the afterlife, he instantly changes his mind. He believes that if Everyman wishes to
enjoy life, he will be with him, but he will not accompany him on this journey. Everyman looks to
Kindred and Nephew, who make identical promises but leave him once they find out where he is

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headed. Everyman addresses Goods, who reflects his riches and worldly possessions, and
declares that he loves Goods the most. Goods claims to be able to solve every earthly question,
but he can only damage Everyman's case with Heaven, as greed is a pit that damns souls.
Everyman summons Good-Deeds to join him in speaking to Heaven. If she weren't so frail from
the weight of his sin, she claims she would. She points him in the direction of her sister
Information, who will assist him. Everyman is brought to Confession through knowledge, and
everyman is offered a penance to absolve his sins. Everybody does their penance and asks God
for forgiveness. Good-Deeds has been cured and is now free to join him. Everyman is advised by
Wisdom and Good-Deeds to gather the virtues of Elegance, Courage, Discretion, and Five-Wits.
Everyman should receive communion and extreme unction before he dies, according to the
virtues. Five-Wits and Wisdom address sacraments and how priests are God's on-Earth actors,
recognizing that redemption is unlikely without their critical service. Everyman is ready to die when
he returns from the sacraments, but his earthly virtues—Beauty, Courage, Discretion, and Five-
Wits—leave him as he dies. She can't pursue him after he dies because knowledge remains with
him until the end. She does, however, hear the angels sing and understands that Good-Deeds
has gone to heaven with Everyman, where he has been rescued.

2. English and Scottish ballads preserved the local events, beliefs, and characters in an easily
remembered form. One familiar ballad is Sir Patrick Spens, which concerns Sir Patrick’s
death by drowning.
 Ballad. A narrative poem meant to be sung. It is characterized by repetition and often by
a repeated refrain (a recurrent phrase or series of phrases). The earliest ballads were
anonymous works transmitted orally from person to person through generations. A
narrative poem meant to be sung. It is characterized by repetition and often by a repeated
refrain (a recurrent phrase or series of phrases). The earliest ballads were anonymous
works transmitted orally from person to person through generations. Francis James Child
anthologized 305 popular ballads from England and Scotland, as well as their American
variants, in the second half of the nineteenth century. The English and Scottish Common
Ballads was a compilation of their lyrics and Child's studies of them. Bertrand Harris
Bronson compiled and published the tunes for most of the ballads in and around the
1960s.

 English and Scottish ballads preserved the local events, beliefs, and characters
in an easily remembered form. One familiar ballad is Sir Patrick Spens, which
concerns Sir Patrick’s death by drowning.

3. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The best example of the romance of the Middle Ages
attributed to the Pearl Poet (14th century).
 Medieval Romance is a long narrative poem idealizing knight errantry. As such, it
pictures chivalrous knights engaged in a number of adventures to protect their King,
to pay homage to their lady love and to prove their honor.
 The Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a poem that consists of 2530 lines long and
organized into 101 stanzas. Each of these stanzas comprises of a arrangement of

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alliterative long lines taken after by a five-line 'bob and wheel' that incorporate one
single-stress line and four three-stress lines, rhyming ababa. This poem is one of the
leading and best known Arthurian stories, and is of a sort known as the “beheading
game.” The story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight starts when a unusual Green
Knight enters King Arthur's court amid a New Year's feast and proposes a challenge.
Gawain, a knight of King Arthur's court, concurs to strike the Green Knight a blow to
the neck, promising to go discover the Green Knight a year afterward, when the blow
will be responded. After the Green Knight survives beheading and exits the court, the
story takes after Gawain on his journey for the Green Chapel, amid which Gawain has
both his mettle and his chivalric excellence put to the test.

4. The Canterbury Tales. Geoffrey Chaucer’s frame narrative (story within a story) which
showcases the stories told by 29 pilgrims on their way to the shrine of the martyr Saint Thomas
Becket at Canterbury - the seat of religious activities during the Middle English period. The
collection of tales presents a microcosm of the Middle English society composed of the
nobility, the religious, the merchant class and the commoners.
 The 24 tales in the Canterbury Tales are as follows:
 The Knight’s Tale, The Miller’s Tale, The Reeve’s Tale, The Cook’s Tale, The Man of
Law’s Tale, The Wife of Bath’s Tale, The Friar’s Tale, The Summoner’s Tale, The Clerk’s
Tale, The Merchant’s Tale, The Squire’s Tale, The Franklin’s Tale, The Second Nun’s
Tale, The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale, The Physician’s Tale, The Pardoner’s Tale, The
Shipman’s Tale, The Prioress’s Tale, The Tale of Sir Thopas, The Tale of Melibeus (in
prose), The Monk’s Tale, The Nun’s Priest’s Tale, The Manciple’s Tale, and The Parson’s
Tale (in prose), and ends with “Chaucer’s Retraction.” Not all the tales are complete;
several contain their own prologues or epilogues.
 Geoffrey Chaucer's long poem the Canterbury tales takes after the journey of a group of
travelers, in 29 pilgrims from the Tabard Hotel in Southwark to St Thomas à Becket's holy
place at Canterbury Cathedral. The host at the hotel proposes each pioneer to tell two
stories on the way to the Shrine of Saint Becket and two on the way home to assist
whereas absent their time on the street. The finest storyteller is to be remunerated with a
free dinner on their return. This literary device gives Chaucer the opportunity to paint a
arrangement of distinctive word representations of a cross-section of his society, from a
knight and prioress, to a carpenter and cook; a much-married spouse of Shower, to a off
color mill operator – an occupation respected in Chaucer's day as sneaky and dishonest.
Chaucer blends parody and authenticity in enthusiastic characterizations of his pioneers.
A few of the lessons are love conquers all, desire as it were gets you in inconvenience,
religion and profound quality is ethical, and honor and trustworthiness is esteemed. In
spite of the fact that there are a few conflicting stories, Chaucer kept to this set of ethics
through most of his stories. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of 24 stories or tales that
runs to over 17,000 lines written in Middle English.

5. Le Morte d'Arthur. Originally written in eight books, Sir Thomas Mallory’s collection of stories
revolves around the life and adventures of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
 Le Morte D’arthur is translated in English language as Death of Arthur. It tells the popular
legend of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere, the knights of the Round Table and their

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journey for the magical Holy Grail. Malory worked from a late-14th-century French poem,
including a few fabric from other sources, to create his English exposition translation. In
21 books, the story covers the establishing of Arthur’s kingdom and the institution of the
Round Table; the different experiences of person knights; the journey for the Holy Grail;
the death of Arthur and the fall of his kingdom. The story depicts the theme of betrayal
and dishonesty and the story start when Arthur was born to King Uther and a lady named
Igraine. His mother was married to another man.
 Arthur developed up with his foster father Sir Ector in secret. A magician named Merlin
proposed it would be way better on the off chance that no one knew Arthur was the child
of the Lord. Arthur served as squire for his foster brother and in the long run got to be king
since he pulled a sword from a stone. While he was ruler, Arthur was effective in
overcoming numerous enemies. King Arthur at that point chosen to assist others who
needed help in conjunction with his Knights of the roundtable. Merlin, a astute conjurer,
made a difference Arthur in fights all through Arthur's life. One of Arthur's best knights,
Lancelot fell in love with King Arthur's spouse Guinevere. Lancelot attempted to stand up
to his sentiments for the queen by going on a few journeys to discover The Holy Grail.
Lancelot was incapable to stand up to his crave for Guinevere and proceeded his issue
with her; this inevitably driven to the destruction of Arthur's kingdom. King Arthur wanted
to punish his spouse and his knight for their issue and arranged to burn his spouse at the
stake. Lancelot spared Guinevere from her death. One of Arthur's knights, his child
Mordred, needed to gotten to be king and empowered King Arthur to fight Lancelot.
Mordred persuaded everybody that King Arthur died in fight and Mordred overtook the
throne. When King Arthur found his son's disloyalty, he went home to recover his throne.
Whereas in fight with his child Mordred, King Arthur died and Mordred was moreover
lethally injured. After his death, King Arthur's body was sent on a boat down the Isle of
Avalon, never to be seen once more. Le Morte D’arthur is in sequence form from the day
that King Arthur was born, his struggles and up until to his death.

COMPREHENSION CHECK

1. Select at least 3 tales in the 24 Canterbury Tales and provide its summary.
Afterwards, indicate the moral of the tale and how will it be applicable in the current daily
life situation.

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SYNTHESIS

 The Middle English Literature means English literature that developed during the period
from 1100 to 1500 century. During this unique period, English got maturity and widespread
popularity among people belonging to every strata of society. The English literature came
into being when the Anglos and Saxton and Jutes came to settle in England in the later
part of the fifth century and eventually gave the country its name and its language. The
Angles brought the story of Beowulf with them to England in the sixth century. This was
about seventy years about the death of Muhammad (PBUH) and in the same age as the
beginning of the great Tang Dynasty in China.
 Three hundred years later, the manuscript that still survives was written down. What
happened to it for the next seven hundred years is unknown. In 1706 it was recorded as
being in Sir Robert Cotton’s library. Only twenty six years later a disastrous fire broke out
in the library, and the Beowulf manuscript narrowly escaped. The charred edges of its
leaves can still be seen in the British Museum. Two fragments of another poem, Waldere,
which may originally have been as long as Beowulf, were found as recently as 1960 in the
binding of a book in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. Gradually, the English literature got
maturity and later on Chaucer’s poetry made English as a perfect medium for literature.
This was the beginning of English literature in the Middle Ages.

SELF-REFLECTION

 Select a characteristic of Middle English Period and relate its significance to the current
development of literature.
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MODULE 5 (WEEKS 8-10)

THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD

Let us love one another because love is from God

BIBLE (1 John 4:7-12)
VERSE

Ignacian Core and Related Values: SERVICE and Courage

Derives inspiration from significant events in the life of Mother Ignacia del Espiritu Santo

Learning Outcomes
1. Define Sonnet and its elements;
2. Recite several poems of William Shakespeare;
3. Assess the meaning of the sonnets through the Reader’s Response Approach;
4. State historical events in the Renaissance Period; and
5. Construct original sonnet.

RENAISSANCE

It means re-Birth or re-Awakening. Renaissance originated in Italy in the 13th century. Constantinople,
the capital of Byzantine Empire fell to the Turks on 1353. This is taken as the official date of the beginning
of Renaissance. But, it required more than 100 years to cross the English Channel and make its presence
established in English Soil. Generally described as taking place from the 14th century to the 17th century,
the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art. Some of the greatest
thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in human history thrived during this era, while global
exploration opened up new lands and cultures to European commerce. The Renaissance is credited with
bridging the gap between the middle Ages and modern-day civilization.

What type of literature was written during the Renaissance?

Poetry in the Renaissance became one of the most valued forms of literature and was often accompanied
by music. According to The Literature Network, the poetic forms most commonly employed during this
period were the lyric, tragedy, elegy or pastoral.

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LEARNING CONTENT

Literary Pieces in Renaissance Period

1. DOCTOR FAUSTUS BY CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE-

Christopher Marlowe

-Baptised 26 February 1564 – 30 May 1593

- English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era.

-He greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as Marlowe and who rose
to become the pre-eminent Elizabethan playwright after Marlowe’s mysterious early death. Marlowe’s
plays are known for the use of blank verse and their overreaching protagonists.

✣ About the book

Marlowe’s Plays are the following:

✣ Tamburlain the Great

✣ Dido Queen of Carthage
✣ Jew of Malta
✣ Doctor Faustus
✣ Edward II
✣ Massacre of Paris

How is Dr. Faustus a renaissance play?

-Dr. Faustus of Marlowe is rather an embodiment of the spirit of renaissance with its dream and desires,
with its yearning for limitless knowledge and power, with its craving for sensuousness and mundane
pleasures of life and not just a cunning magician of the medieval age indulging in his miraculous feats.

Marlowe Faustus has a revolutionary spirit and that is why he challenges God, religion and conventional
morality and dogmas of medieval Christianity.

2. THE FAERIE QUEENE by Edmund Spenser

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Edmund Spenser

- Ranks as the foremost English poet of the 16th century.

- Famous as the author of the unfinished epic poem The Faerie Queene, he is the poet of an ordered
yet passionate Elizabethan world.

- Edmund Spenser was a man of his times, and his work reflects the religious and humanistic ideals
as well as the intense but critical patriotism of Elizabethan England.

Faerie Queene

- One of the great long poems in the English language, written in the 16th century by Edmund Spenser.

- As originally conceived, the poem was to have been a religious-moral-political allegory in 12 books, each
consisting of the adventures of a knight representing a particular moral virtue.

-The Faerie Queene was written during the Reformation, a time of religious and political controversy.
After taking the throne following the death of her half-sister Mary, Elizabeth changed the official religion
of the nation to Protestantism.

✣ About the book

Form of the poem:

- Another important aspect of The Faerie Queene is its form is its form. It is the first work written
in the Spenserian stanzas- named after Edmund Spenser. Each Spenserian stanza contains nine
lines- two quatrains of iambic pentameter with differing rhyme schemes capped off by a single
line in iambic hexameter.

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✣ Book I is centered on the virtue of holiness as embodied in the Redcrosse Knight

✣ Book II is centered on the virtue of Tempereance as embodied in Sir Guyon
✣ Book III is centered on the virtue of Chastity as embodied in Britomart, a lady knight.
✣ Book IV, despite it’s title “The Legend of Cambell and Telamond or Of Friendship”, Cambell’s
companion in book IV is actually named Triamond
✣ Book V is centered on the virtue of Justice as embodied in Sir Artegall.
✣ Book VI is centered on the virtue of Courtesy as embodied in Sir Calidore.

3. SONG TO CELIA by Ben Jonson

Ben Jonson

-Best-known writers and theorists of English Renaissance literature, second in reputation only to
Shakespeare.

-He is now remembered primarily for his satirical comedies, he also distinguished himself as a poet,
preeminent writer of masques, erudite defender of his work, and the originator of English literary
criticism.
-Many critics now regard him as a fore-runner in the 17th-century movement toward classicism, and his
plays are often admired for their accurate depictions of the men and women of his day, their mastery of
form, and their successful blend of the serious and the comic, the topical, and the timeless

✣ About the book

SONG TO CELIA

Beautiful love poem presenting the love the poet has for his beloved. Dejection in love was a major theme
at that period when Jonson was writing this poem. It’s not that, it doesn’t have any appeal in the modern
era. However, there is a saying the manifestation changes but the essence remains the same. This is a
short monologue in which a lover addresses his lady in an effort to encourage her to express her love for
him. Jonson includes conventional imagery, such as eyes, roses, and wine, but employs them in inventive
ways.

Drink to me only with thine eyes,

And I will pledge with mine:
Or leave a kiss but in the cup,
And I'll not look for wine.
The thirst that from the soul doth rise 5

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Doth ask a drink divine

But might I of Jove's nectar sup,
I would not change for thine.
I sent thee late a rosy wreath,
Not so much honoring thee, 10
As giving hope that there
It could not withered be
But thou thereto didst only breathe
And sent it back to me;
Since when it grows and smells,
I swear, 15
Not of itself, but thee.

4. THE KING JAMES BIBLE by Richard Bancroft

Richard Bancroft

-Bancroft was born in September 1544 at Farnworth, now part of Widnes, Cheshire, second son of John
Bancroft, and his wife Mary. His mother was the daughter of James Curwen and niece to Hugh
Curwen, Archbishop of Dublin from 1555 to 1567, and then Bishop of Oxford until his death in
November 1568.

✣ About the book

- As king, James was also the head of the Church of England, and he had to approve of the new
English translation of the Bible, which was also dedicated to him.

- It was first printed by John Norton and Robert Barker, both holding the post of the King's Printer,
and was the third translation into English approved by the English Church authorities.

- It is likely the most famous translation of the bible and was the Standard English Bible for nearly
three centuries.

- Also called Authorized Version or King James Bible, English translation of the Bible, published in
1611 under the auspices of King James I of England.

- The translation had a marked influence on English literary style and was generally accepted as the
standard English Bible from the mid-17th to the early 20th century.

- Even today, many consider the King James Bible the ultimate translation in English and will allow
none other for use in church or personal devotions.

5. SHAKESPEAREAN SONNETS by William Shakespeare

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William Shakespeare

- England's national poet, is considered the greatest dramatist of all time. His works are loved
throughout the worCalled ld, but Shakespeare's personal life is shrouded in mystery.

- He was an important member of the King’s Men company of theatrical players from roughly 1594
onward. His most notable works include Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet.

✣ About the book

- Poem that has a variety of themes.

- When discussing or referring to Shakespeare's sonnets, it is almost always a reference to the 154
sonnets that were first published all together in a quarto in 1609.

- Shakespeare wrote the Sonnets to explore all aspects of love. In Shakespeare's day, a sonnet was
the quintessential expression of love. To capture the essence of love in all its forms in simple
poetry is not easy. Shakespeare sought to tell a story about everything related to love.

- A Shakespearean sonnet is a variation on the Italian sonnet tradition. The form evolved in
England during and around the time of the Elizabethan era.

- - These sonnets are sometimes referred to as Elizabethan sonnets or English sonnets.

- - Although Shakespeare’s sonnets have prominently endured for centuries, he was hardly alone
in his embrace of this poetic style.
Shakespearean sonnets feature the following elements:

- They are fourteen lines long.

- The fourteen lines are divided into four subgroups.
- The first three subgroups have four lines each, which makes them “quatrains,” with the second
and fourth lines of each group containing rhyming words.
- The sonnet then concludes with a two-line subgroup, and these two lines rhyme with each other.
- There are typically ten syllables per line, which are phrased in iambic pentameter.

6. ELIZABETH TRADEGIES, COMEDIES AND HISTORICAL PLAYS by William Shakespeare

✣ About the book

The plays can be generally classified into these three broad categories based on whether
the main character dies or is bequeathed a happy ending and whether Shakespeare was writing

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about a real person. This list identifies which plays are generally associated with which genre, but
the classification of some plays is open to interpretation and debate and changes over time.

 Shakespeare’s Tragedies

In Shakespeare's tragedies, the main protagonist has a flaw that leads to his (and/or her)
downfall. There are both internal and external struggles and often a bit of the supernatural
thrown in for good measure (and tension).

STORIES

Anthony and Cleopatra

Hamlet
Romeo and Juliet
Julius Caesar
Othello
Coriolanus
Macbeth
Timon of Athens
Titus Andronicus
 Shakespeare’s Comedies

Shakespeare's comedies are sometimes further subdivided into a group called

romances, tragicomedies, or "problem plays," which are the dramas that have elements
of humor, tragedy, and complex plots.

STORIES
 All's Well That Ends Well
 Cymbeline
 Love's Labour’s Lost
 Measure for Measure
 The Merry Wives of Windsor
 The Merchant of Venice
 A Midsummer Night's Dream
 Much Ado About Nothing
 Pericles, Prince of Tyre

 Shakespeare’s Histories

Sure, the history plays are all about real figures, but it can also be argued that with
the downfall portrayed of the kings in "Richard II" and "Richard III," those history
plays could also be classified as tragedies, as they were billed back in
Shakespeare's day.

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STORIES
 Henry IV, Part I
 Henry IV, Part II
 Henry V
 Henry VI, Part I
 Henry VI, Part II
 Henry VI, Part III
 Henry VIII
 King John
 Richard II
 Richard III

SYNTHESIS

 The term Renaissance means “Rebirth”. The movement had its origin in Italy and it gradually
spread throughout Europe. The movement had significant influence over the English Literature.
 In earlier times, literature was dominated by the spirit of religion and blind faith. However, in the
Renaissance Age, institutions were questioned and re-evaluated. Renaissance broadened and
took the cognitive level of the human mind to new heights.
 In the Renaissance age, it was the reason instead of the religion that governed human behavior.
The man was free to make the use of his power.
 Now reason dominated all the spheres of life that decreased the influence of religion on the
people. Most of the blind faiths and practices were given up.
 In the 13th century, Italian authors began writing in their native vernacular language rather than
in Latin, French, or Provençal. The earliest Renaissance literature appeared in 14th century Italy;
Dante, Petrarch, and Machiavelli are notable examples of Italian Renaissance writers.
 From Italy the influence of the Renaissance spread across Europe; the scholarly writings of
Erasmus and the plays of Shakespeare can be considered Renaissance in character.
 Renaissance literature is characterized by the adoption of a Humanist philosophy and the recovery
of the classical literature of Antiquity, and benefited from the spread of printing in the latter part
of the 15th century.

ACTIVITY

 Select a poem of William Shakespeare and deliver an excerpt of it through Poetry

Interpretation. Please be guided on the given rubric:

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Adopted from: [Link]

SELF-REFLECTION

 What transformations you had encountered in your life that you can consider as “rebirth”?
Please some instances.
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MODULE 6 (WEEKS 11-13)

THE AGE OF REASON PERIOD

BIBLE Faith without works is dead. (James 2:14-18)

VERSE

Ignacian Core and Related Values: FAITH and Justice

Strongly supports dialogue and due process in decision making.

Learning Outcomes
 Describe Francis Bacon and his contribution to English literature;
 Interpret excerpts from the essays of Francis Bacon;
 Deliver the essays of Francis Bacon;
 Differentiate fictional literature from essays; and
 Outline advice that were cited by Francis Bacon.

THE AGE OF REASON (17TH Century)

The Enlightenment – the great ‘Age of Reason’ – is defined as the period of rigorous scientific,
political and philosophical discourse that characterized European society during the ‘long’ 18th
century: from the late 17th century to the ending of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. This was a
period of huge change in thought and reason, which (in the words of historian Roy Porter) was
‘decisive in the making of modernity’. Centuries of custom and tradition were brushed aside in
favor of exploration, individualism, tolerance and scientific endeavor, which, in tandem with
developments in industry and politics, witnessed the emergence of the ‘modern world’.
1. The Essays (Francis Bacon)

 FRANCIS BACON
- The greatest literary contribution of the 17th century is the essay. He is hailed as the
Father of Inductive Reasoning and the Father of the English Essay.
- Bacon has been called the father of empiricism.
- three categories—history, poetry, and philosophy.

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- Bacon was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he rigorously followed the
medieval curriculum, largely in Latin.
- Bacon was the first recipient of the Queen's counsel designation, which was conferred
in 1597 when Elizabeth I of England reserved Bacon as her legal advisor.
- Scientific words, Religious and literary works, juridical works.
 THE ESSAYS
- Religious Meditations. Places of Perswasion and Disswasion. Seene and
Allowed (1597)
- was the first published book by the philosopher, statesman and jurist Francis Bacon.
- under the title Essayes or Counsels, Civill and Morall, was published in 1625 with 58
essays. Translations into French and Italian appeared during Bacon's lifetime
 Some quotable quotes from Bacon
a. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed
and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but
not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. - Of
Studies
b. He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune; for they are
impediments to great enterprises, either of virtue or mischief. - Of Marriage and
Single Life
c. Wives are young men’s mistresses, companions for middle age, and old men’s
nurses. - Of Marriage and Single Life
d. Children sweeten labors; but they make misfortunes more bitter. They increase the
cares of life; but they mitigate the remembrance of death. The perpetuity by generation
is common to beasts; but memory, merit, and noble works, are proper to
men. - Of Parents and Children
e. If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to
begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties. - Advancement of Learning

2. The Pilgrim's Progress (John Bunyan).

 John Bunyan
- was an English writer and Puritan preacher best remembered as the author of the
Christian allegory The Pilgrim's Progress.
- Bunyan came from the village of Elstow, near Bedford. He had some schooling and at
the age of sixteen joined the Parliamentary Army.
- a popular author and preacher, and pastor of the Bedford Meeting.

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- The Pilgrim's Progress became one of the most published books in the English
language; 1,300 editions having been printed by 1938, 250 years after the author's
death.
 The Pilgrim’s progress
- An allegory that shows Christian tormented by spiritual anguish. Evangelist, a spiritual
guide visits him and urges him to leave the City of Destruction. Evangelist claims that
salvation can only be found in the Celestial City, known as Mount Zion. Christian
embarks on a journey and meets a number of other characters before he reaches the
Celestial City.
- Allegory is a story illustrating an idea or a moral principle in which objects and
characters take on symbolic meanings external to the narrative.
- The Pilgrim’s Progress religious allegory by the English writer John Bunyan, published
in two parts in 1678 and 1684.
- . It was first published in the reign of Charles II and was largely written while
its Puritan author was imprisoned for offenses against the Conventicle Act of 1593.
- The Pilgrim’s Progress, written in homely yet dignified biblical prose, has some of the
qualities of a folktale, and in its humour and realistic portrayals of minor characters,
it anticipates the 18th-century novel.

3. Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained (John Milton)

 John Milton
- was an English poet and intellectual who served as a civil servant for
the Commonwealth of England under its Council of State and later under Oliver
Cromwell.
- He wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval, and is best known for
his epic poem Paradise Lost (1667).
- Writing in English, Latin, Greek, and Italian, he achieved international renown within
his lifetime.
- Writing in English, Latin, Greek, and Italian, he achieved international renown within
his lifetime
- he introduced new words (coined from Latin and Ancient Greek) to the English
language, and was the first modern writer to employ unrhymed verse outside of the
theatre or translations.
 Paradise Lost
- the famous epic by 17th-century English poet John Milton.
- Published in 1667, the poem tells the story of Satan’s rebellion against God.

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- The first version, published in 1667, consists of ten books with over ten thousand lines
of verse. A second edition followed in 1674, arranged into twelve with minor revisions
throughout.
- Paradise Lost is an epic in every sense of the word: vast and ambitious in scope,
powerful and moving in its language, vivid in its depictions, its plot proceeding
inevitably from the first couple’s initial bliss to their ultimate tragic fall.
 Paradise Regained
- is a poem by English poet John Milton, first published in 1671.
- It centers on the temptation of Christ and the thirst for the word of God.
- Paradise Regained is four books long and comprises 2,065 lines; in contrast, Paradise
Lost is twelve books long and comprises 10,565 lines.
- Paradise Regained, tells the story of Jesus’ temptation in the wilderness by Satan and
how he resisted the Devil’s blandishments, thereby passing on humanity’s behalf the
test which Adam and Eve failed.
- It is connected by name to his earlier and more famous epic poem Paradise Lost, with
which it shares similar theological themes.

4. HOLY SONNETS (JOHN DONNE)

John donne
- was an English poet, scholar, soldier and secretary born into a recusant family, who
later became a cleric in the Church of England.
- He is considered the preeminent representative of the metaphysical poets.
- His poetical works are noted for their metaphorical and sensual style and
include sonnets, love poems, religious poems, Latin translations, epigrams, elegies,
songs, and satires. He is also known for his sermons.
HOLY SONNETS
• also known as the Divine Meditations. It is a series of nineteen poems written by English
poet namely John Donne on the year 1572–1631.
• The Holy sonnets were first published in year 1633, two years after Donne's death.
• They are written predominantly in the style and form prescribed by Renaissance Italian
poet Petrarch or famously known aa Francesco Petrarca in which the sonnet consisted of
two quatrains and a sestet.

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• However, several rhythmic and structural patterns as well as the inclusion of couplets are
elements influenced by the sonnet form developed by English poet and playwright
William Shakespeare.
• Metaphysical Poetry make use of conceits or farfetched similes and metaphors intended
to startle the reader into an awareness of relationships among things ordinarily not
associated.

Holy Sonnets XIV

John Donne

Batter my heart, three-person'd God, for you

As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend;
That I may rise and stand, o'erthrow me, and bend
Your force to break, blow, burn, and make me new.
I, like an usurp'd town to'another due,
Labor to'admit you, but oh, to no end;
Reason, your viceroy in me, me should defend,
But is captiv'd, and proves weak or untrue.
Yet dearly'I love you, and would be lov'd fain,
But am betroth'd unto your enemy;
Divorce me,'untie or break that knot again,
Take me to you, imprison me, for I,
Except you'enthrall me, never shall be free,
Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me.
5. Easter Wings and the Altar (George Herbert)
George Herbert
- (3 April 1593 – 1 March 1633) was a Welsh-born poet, orator, and priest of the Church of
England.

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- His poetry is associated with the writings of the metaphysical poets, and he is recognized
as "one of the foremost British devotional lyricists.“
- He is the fifth son of an eminent Welsh family. His mother, Magdalen Newport, held great
patronage to distinguished literary figures such as John Donne, who dedicated his Holy
Sonnets to her.

Easter Wings and the Altar

• The Poem “Easter Wings” by George Herbert is a poem full of deep imagery not only in
its words but also in the visual structure of the stanzas.
• Herbert also used huge amounts of mental imagery so that the reader can find new truths
and meanings each time he or she reads it. The poem tells of the poets desire to fly with
Christ as a result of Jesus’ sacrifice, death and resurrection.
• The argument as to the proper presentation of this poem is easily explained with the help
of the poet’s address to the “Lord” in the opening line of the first page in the original text.

Cavalier Poems
(Popularized by Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling and Robert Herrick,
cavalier poems are known for their elegant, refined and courtly culture. The poems are
often erotic and espouse carpe diem, "seize the day.“)

• The cavalier poets was a school of English poets of the 17th century, that came from the
classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War on year 1642–1651.
Charles, a connoisseur of the fine arts, supported poets who created the art he craved.
• These poets in turn grouped themselves with the King and his service, thus becoming
Cavalier Poets.
• A cavalier was traditionally a mounted soldier or knight, but when the term was applied
to those who supported Charles, it was meant to portray them as roistering gallants.
From To the Virgins to Make Much of Time
Robert Herrick
Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,
Old time is still a-flying:
And this same flower that smiles to-day
To-morrow will be dying.
The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun,
The higher he's a-getting,
The sooner will his race be run,
And nearer he's to setting.

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SYNTHESIS

 For much of the 18th century, a new way of thinking became increasingly common in both
Western Europe and the American colonies of North America. Known as both the Age of Reason
and the Enlightenment, this period was very different than earlier epochs of European history.
Independent thought was embraced, skepticism ran freely through work, and new values,
including an emphasis on science, became quite common among the educated classes. Not
surprisingly, this Enlightenment found its way to the literary world as well. Let's review some
characteristics of Enlightenment literature.
 To call the 18th century the Age of Reason is to seize on a useful half-truth but to cause confusion
in the general picture, because the primacy of reason had also been a mark of certain periods of
the previous age. It is more accurate to say that the 18th century was marked by two main
impulses: reason and passion. The respect paid to reason was shown in pursuit of order,
symmetry, decorum, and scientific knowledge; the cultivation of the feelings stimulated
philanthropy, exaltation of personal relationships, religious fervor, and the cult of sentiment, or
sensibility. In literature the rational impulse fostered satire, argument, wit, plain prose; the other
inspired the psychological novel and the poetry of the sublime.

ACTIVITY

 Select a literary piece in the age of reason period and analyze it using the most suitable
literary approach. For the format, kindly follow the following:
 Background of the Author
 Analysis using the literary approach chosen
 Comparative Analysis (contrastive analysis to other critiques)

SELF-REFLECTION

 In what particular part of your life that you could say that it is the period of
enlightenment? How could you say so? Please cite some instances.
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MODULE 8 (WEEKS 13-18)

RESTORATION & CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN PERIOD

“And God has appointed in the church first apostles,

BIBLE second prophets, third teachers, then miracles, then gifts
of healing, helping, administrating, and various kinds of
VERSE tongues.”(1 Corinthians 12:28)

Ignacian Core and Related Values: SERVICE and Couarge

“M. Ignacia showed sensitivity to others’ needs and feelings. She counseled her companions to always
observe courtesy, respect and charity for one another.”

Learning Outcomes
1. Identify various literary works from The Restoration Period;
2. Appreciate and cultivate the significance of The Restoration Literature;
3. Exhibit a deep understanding to widen the idea about The Restoration Period in style of artistic
use of words, aesthetic and content of their literature;
4. Evaluate different modern literary text through socio-cultural approaches;
5. Differentiate the rhetoric and language use from earlier stages of English;
6. Construct literary pieces with the proper utilization of literary devices and techniques;
7. Appreciate the development of the English language through time; and
8. Design original script for a musical play as an evaluation activity for the subject.

Warm up activity:

Do you happen to judge someone, something or anything you see? What are the basis of your
judgement? In what way or how do you express your judgments? Or do you express it?

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LEARNING CONTENT

 THE RESTORATION PERIOD

- Restoration literature is the English literature written during the historical period
commonly referred to as the English Restoration (1660–1689), which corresponds to
the last years of Stuart reign in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. In general, the
term is used to denote roughly homogenous styles of literature that center on a
celebration of or reaction to the restored court of Charles II.
- At the heart of this literature is the attempt to come to terms with the political events
that had occurred in previous decades. The writings of this time are both innovative
and varied; the style and subject matter of the literature produced during the
Restoration period spanned the spectrum from definitively religious to satirical and
risqué. In 1688, James II, Charles II's brother, was removed from the throne, which
many scholars use to mark the end of Restoration literature.
- The dates for Restoration literature are a matter of convention, and they differ
markedly from genre to genre. Thus, the "Restoration" in drama may last until 1700,
while in poetry it may last only until 1666 and the annus mirabilis; and in prose it
might end in 1688, with the increasing tensions over succession and the
corresponding rise in journalism and periodicals, or not until 1700, when those
periodicals grew more stabilized.

 Famous Writer/Novelist that have contributed in the literature in Restoration period:

1. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

- He was an Anglo-Irish satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer, poet and Anglican cleric
who became Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, hence his common sobriquet,
"Dean Swift".
 A Modest Proposal
- A Modest Proposal For preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen
to Their Parents or Country, and for making them Beneficial to the Public, commonly
referred to as A Modest Proposal, is a Juvenalian satirical essay written and published
anonymously by Jonathan Swift in 1729.
- It is a bitter pamphlet that ironically suggests that the Irish babies be specially
fattened for profitable sale as meat, since the English were eating the Irish people
anyhow – by heavy taxation.
- The essay is a masterpiece of satire, with a blend of rational deliberation and
unthinkable conclusion, and its title has come to symbolize any proposition to solve
a problem with an effective but outrageous cure.

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- This satirical essay by Jonathan Swift is considered to be one of the finest examples
of sustained irony in the English language. By treating the first quarter of the essay
very seriously and piously, the readers of 1729 would have been shocked to get to
the part where Swift proposes that the solution to the problem of the poor is to simply
eat the babies they produce.
- The main rhetorical challenge of this bitingly ironic essay is capturing the attention of
an audience whose indifference has been well tested. Swift makes his point
negatively, stringing together an appalling set of morally untenable positions in order
to cast blame and aspersions far and wide.
 Gulliver’s Travels
- A satire on human folly and stupidity. Swift said that he wrote it to vex the world
rather than to divert it. Most people, however, are so delightfully entertained by the
tiny Lilliputians and by the huge Brobdingnagians that they do not bother much with
Swift's bitter satire on human pettiness or crudity.
- Gulliver's Travels, or Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. In Four Parts.
By Lemuel Gulliver, first a Surgeon, and then a Captain of Several Ships is a 1726 prose
satire by the Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan Swift, satirizing both human nature
and the "travelers' tales" literary subgenre.
- Gulliver's Travels is an adventure story (in reality, a misadventure story) involving
several voyages of Lemuel Gulliver, a ship's surgeon, who, because of a series of
mishaps en route to recognized ports, ends up, instead, on several unknown islands
living with people and animals of unusual sizes, behaviors, and philosophies, but who,
after each adventure, is somehow able to return to his home in England where he
recovers from these unusual experiences and then sets out again on a new voyage.

2. Alexander Pope (1688-1744)

- He is seen as one of the greatest English poets and the foremost poet of the early
18th century. He is best known for satirical and discursive poetry, including The Rape
of the Lock, The Dunciad, and An Essay on Criticism, and for his translation of Homer.
 The Rape of the Lock
- It is a humorous indictment of the vanities and idleness of 18th-century high society.
Basing his poem on a real incident among families of his acquaintance, Pope intended
his verses to cool hot tempers and to encourage his friends to laugh at their own folly.
- It mockingly describes a furious fight between two families when a young man snips
off a lock of the beautiful Belinda's hair. Pope wrote in heroic couplets, a technique
in which he has been unsurpassed. In thought and form he carried 18th-century
reason and order to its highest peak.
- “The Rape of the Lock” recounts a seemingly trivial episode of 18th-century royal
court life. Belinda, a beautiful and charming young woman, spends a day at court

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where she encounters the Baron, an aristocrat greatly taken with her beauty. The
Baron snips off one of the two large curls into which Belinda has styled her hair, and
this prompts her to begin a kind of courtly war, demanding the Baron return the lock
of hair. From here, the narrative becomes increasingly silly, as the courtiers ultimately
discover that the lock is no longer in the Baron’s possession and has been transformed
into a constellation in the sky above.
- Pope’s mock-heroic treatment in The Rape of the Lock underscores the ridiculousness
of a society in which values have lost all proportion, and the trivial is handled with the
gravity and solemnity that ought to be accorded to truly important issues. The society
on display in this poem is one that fails to distinguish between things that matter and
things that do not. The poem mocks the men it portrays by showing them as unworthy
of a form that suited a more heroic culture. Thus the mock-epic resembles the epic in
that its central concerns are serious and often moral, but the fact that the approach
must now be satirical rather than earnest is symptomatic of how far the culture has
fallen.
- The verse form of The Rape of the Lock is the heroic couplet; Pope still reigns as the
uncontested master of the form. The heroic couplet consists of rhymed pairs of
iambic pentameter lines (lines of ten syllables each, alternating stressed and
unstressed syllables). Pope’s couplets do not fall into strict iambs, however, flowering
instead with a rich rhythmic variation that keeps the highly regular meter from
becoming heavy or tedious. Pope distributes his sentences, with their resolutely
parallel grammar, across the lines and half-lines of the poem in a way that enhances
the judicious quality of his ideas. Moreover, the inherent balance of the couplet form
is strikingly well suited to a subject matter that draws on comparisons and contrasts:
the form invites configurations in which two ideas or circumstances are balanced,
measured, or compared against one another. It is thus perfect for the evaluative,
moralizing premise of the poem, particularly in the hands of this brilliant poet.

3. Thomas Gray (1716-1771)

- Thomas Gray was an English poet, letter-writer, classical scholar, and professor at
Pembroke College, Cambridge. He is widely known for his Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard, published in 1751. Gray was an extremely self-critical writer who
published only 13 poems in his lifetime, despite being very popular.
 Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
- "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" is the British writer Thomas Gray's most
famous poem, first published in 1751. The poem's speaker calmly mulls over death
while standing in a rural graveyard in the evening. Taking stock of the graves, he
reflects that death comes for everyone in the end, and notes that the elaborate tombs
of the rich won't bring their occupants back from the dead. He also commemorates

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the common folk buried in the churchyard by imaging the lives they might have lived
had they been born into better circumstances, and considers the benefits of
anonymity. The poem ends with his own imagined epitaph.

4. Henry Fielding (1707-1754)

- He is an English novelist and dramatist known for his earthy humour and satire. His
comic novel Tom Jones is still widely appreciated. He and Samuel Richardson are seen
as founders of the traditional English novel.
 Tom Jones
- Tom Jones, like its predecessor, Joseph Andrews, is constructed around a romance
plot. Squire All worthy suspects that the infant whom he adopts and names Tom Jones
is the illegitimate child of his servant Jenny Jones. When Tom is a young man, he falls
in love with Sophia Western, his beautiful and virtuous neighbor. In the end his true
identity is revealed and he wins Sophia’s hand, but numerous obstacles have to be
overcome before he achieves this, and in the course of the action the various sets of
characters pursue each other from one part of the country to another, giving Fielding
an opportunity to paint an incomparably vivid picture of England in the mid-18th
century.

(Analysis)

- The novel was innovative in its clear description and characterization, which offered
more authentic representations of people and situations than texts of the time.
Fielding's ambition in crafting the work was great. He was aware of the depth and
breadth of Shakespeare's work, and endeavored to capture such complexity in his
own writing. His purpose, to present human nature to the reader, is expertly
managed, and those who criticize the novel are perhaps as blind to the realities of
human behavior as they are to great literature.
- Fielding wanted Tom Jones to be a realistic hero – a man with appetites, strengths,
failings and feelings whose transition into virtue took time and struggle, rather than
being accepted as fact. Tom Jones is a process of character development, a comedy
narrative, and an exploration of writing. The endeavor was bold, ambitious, dramatic
and ultimately successful in forever changing the course of literature.

5. Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)

- He is an Anglo-Irish novelist and an Anglican cleric. He wrote the novels The Life and
Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman and A Sentimental Journey Through France
and Italy, and also published many sermons, wrote memoirs, and was involved in local
politics.
 Tristram Shandy
- Experimental Novel by Laurence Sterne

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- Published in 9 volumes from 1759 to 1767

- Almost modern avant-garde novel
- A fictional autobiography
- The story was narrated by Shandy himself
- the story begins at the moment of his conception and diverts into endless digressions,
interruptions, stories-within-stories, and another narrative device.
- Sterne was explicit about the influence of Lockean psychology on his writing, and the
book is filled with characters reinventing or mythologizing the conditions of their own
lives.
- It also toys with the limitations of language and teases an intricate drama out of
Shandy’s imagining of, and playing to, the reader’s likely responses.
- Sterne broke all the rules: events occur out of chronological order, anecdotes are
often left unfinished, and sometimes whole pages are filled with asterisks or dashes
or are left entirely blank.
- Sterne is recognized as one of the most important forerunners of psychological
fiction.

(Summary)
- The first is the plot sequence that includes Tristram's conception, birth, christening,
and accidental circumcision. (This sequence extends somewhat further in Tristram's
treatment of his "breeching," the problem of his education, and his first and second
tours of France, but these events are handled less extensively and are not as central
to the text.) It takes six volumes to cover this chain of events, although comparatively
few pages are spent in actually advancing such a simple plot. The story occurs as a
series of accidents, all of which seem calculated to confound Walter Shandy's hopes
and expectations for his son. The manner of his conception is the first disaster,
followed by the flattening of his nose at birth, a misunderstanding in which he is given
the wrong name, and an accidental run-in with a falling window-sash. The
catastrophes that befall Tristram are actually relatively trivial; only in the context of
Walter Shandy's eccentric, pseudo-scientific theories do they become calamities.
- The second major plot consists of the fortunes of Tristram's Uncle Toby. Most of the
details of this story are concentrated in the final third of the novel, although they are
alluded to and developed in piecemeal fashion from the very beginning. Toby receives
a wound to the groin while in the army, and it takes him four years to recover. When
he is able to move around again, he retires to the country with the idea of
constructing a scaled replica of the scene of the battle in which he was injured. He
becomes obsessed with re-enacting those battles, as well as with the whole history
and theory of fortification and defense. The Peace of Utrecht slows him down in these
"hobby-horsical" activities, however, and it is during this lull that he falls under the

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spell of Widow Wadman. The novel ends with the long-promised account of their
unfortunate affair.

6. Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774)

- He an Anglo-Irish novelist, playwright and poet, who is best known for his novel The
Vicar of Wakefield, his pastoral poem The Deserted Village, and his plays The Good-
Natured Man and She Stoops to Conquer.
 She Stoops to Conquer
- is a comedy by Oliver Goldsmith, first performed in London in 1773. The play is a
favorite for study by English literature and theatre classes in the English-speaking
world. It is one of the few plays from the 18th century to have retained its appeal and
is regularly performed.
- It is a comedy in five acts
- Produce and published in 1773
- The piece also mocked the simple morality of sentimental comedies
- Also known as The Mistakes of a Night
- the play is a lighthearted farce that derives its charm from the misunderstandings
which entangle the well-drawn characters.

(Summary)

- Mr. Hardcastle plans to marry his forthright daughter Kate to the bashful son of his
friend Sir Charles Marlow. Mrs. Hardcastle wants her recalcitrant son Tony Lumpkin
to marry her ward Constance Neville, who is in love with Marlow’s friend Hastings.
Humorous mishaps occur when Tony dupes Marlow and Hastings into believing that
Mr. Hardcastle’s home is an inn. By posing as a servant, Kate wins the heart of
Marlow, who is uncomfortable in the company of wellborn women but is flirtatious
with barmaids. Through various deceptions, Tony releases himself from his mother’s
clutches and unites Constance with Hastings.

(Analysis)

- While She Stoops to Conquer is most notable for the way it subverts the expectations
of its intended audience and provides complicated characters within the guise of
stock characters, it is also a "well-made play," in that it is well structured to deliver a
complicated plot with recognizable characters. It is worth understanding this
structure before getting into the play's eccentricities.

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LEARNING CONTENT

MODERN ENGLISH LITERATURE

 American literature, the body of written works produced in the English language in the United
[Link] other national literatures, American literature was shaped by the history of the
country that produced it. For almost a century and a half, America was merely a group of colonies
scattered along the eastern seaboard of the North American continent—colonies from which a
few hardy souls tentatively ventured westward. After a successful rebellion against the
motherland, America became the United States, a nation. By the end of the 19th century this
nation extended southward to the Gulf of Mexico, northward to the 49th parallel, and westward
to the Pacific. By the end of the 19th century, too, it had taken its place among the powers of the
world—its fortunes so interrelated with those of other nations that inevitably it became involved
in two world wars and, following these conflicts, with the problems of Europe and East Asia.
Meanwhile, the rise of science and industry, as well as changes in ways of thinking and feeling,
wrought many modifications in people’s lives. All these factors in the development of the United
States molded the literature of the country.

Early 20th-Century Prose

1. John Galsworthy (1867-1933) depicted the social life of an upper-class English family in The Forsyte
Saga, a series of novels which records the changing values of such a family.).
2. H.G. Wells (1866-1946) wrote science fiction like The Time Machine, The Island of Dr. Moreau, and
The War of the Worlds. He also wrote social and political satires criticizing the middle-class life of
England. A good example is Tono-Bungay which attacks commercial advertising.
3. Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) wrote remarkable novels as The Nigger of the Narcissus and Lord Jim
where he depicts characters beset by obsessions of cowardice, egoism, or vanity.
4. E.M. Forster (1879-1970) is a master of traditional plot. His characters are ordinary persons out of
middle-class life. They are moved by accident because they do not know how to choose a course of
action. He is famous for A Passage to India, a novel that shows the lives of Englishmen in India.
Early 20th-Century Poetry

1. A.E. Housman (1859-1936) was an anti-Victorian who echoed the pessimism found in Thomas Hardy.
In his Shropshire Lad, nature is unkind; people struggle without hope or purpose; boys and girls laugh,
love, and are untrue.
2. William Butler Yeats (1865-1939), John Millington Synge (1871-1909), and Lord Dunsany (1878-
1957) worked vigorously for the Irish cause. All were dramatists and all helped found the famous
Abbey Theatre.
Writers after the World Wars

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World War I brought discontent and disillusionment. Men were plunged into gloom at the knowledge
that "progress" had not saved the world from war. In fiction there was a shift from novels of the
human comedy to novels of characters. Fiction ceased to be concerned with a plot or a forward-
moving narrative. Instead it followed the twisted, contorted development of a single character or a
group of related characters

1. William Somerset Maugham (1874-1965) focused on the alienation and despair of drifters. His Of
Human Bondage portrays Philip Carey struggling against self-consciousness and embarrassment
because of his cub-foot.
2. D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) explored highly psychological themes as human desire, sexuality, and
instinct alongside the dehumanizing effects of modernity and industrialization in such great novels as
Sons and Lovers, Women in Love, The Plumed Serpent, and Lady Chatterley’s Lover.
3. James Joyce (1882-1941) was an Irish expatriate noted for his experimental use of the interior
monologue and the stream of consciousness technique in landmark novels as Ulysses, Finnegans
Wake, and in his semi-autobiographical novel The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man’.
 Stream of consciousness is a technique pioneered by Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf and
James Joyce. It presents the thoughts and feelings of a character as they occur.
 Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is one of the most notable bildungs-roman in
English literature. A bildungsroman is a novel of formation or development in which the
protagonist transforms from ignorance to knowledge, innocence to maturity.
4. Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) also believed that reality, or consciousness, is a stream. Life, for both
reader and characters, is immersion in the flow of that stream. Mrs. Dalloway and To the Lighthouse
are among her best works.
5. Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) wrote Point Counter Point, Brave New World, and After Many a Summer
Dies the Swan where he showed his cynicism of the contemporary world.
6. William Golding (born 1911) was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1983. His first novel, Lord
of the Flies tells of a group of schoolboys who revert to savagery when isolated on an island. In the
novel, Golding explores naturalist and religious themes of original sin.
7. George Orwell (1903-50) is world-renown, for the powerful anti-Communist satire Animal Farm. This
was followed in 1949 with an anti-totalitarian novel entitled Nineteen Eighty-Four.
8. Graham Greene (1904-91) is known for novels of highly Catholic themes like Brighton Rock, The Heart
of the Matter, The End of the Affair and The Power and the Glory. Among his better-known later
novels are The Quiet American, Our Man in Havana, A Burnt-Out Case, The Human Factor, and
Monsignor Quixote.
9. Kingsley Amis is considered by many to be the best of the writers to emerge from the 1950s. The
social discontent he expressed made Lucky Jim famous in England. Lucky Jim is the story of Jim Dixon,
who rises from a lower-class background only to find all the positions at the top of the social ladder
filled.
10. Anthony Burgess (born 1917) was a novelist whose fictional exploration of modern dilemmas
combines wit, moral earnestness, and touches of the bizarre. He is known for A Clockwork Orange.
His other novels include Enderby Outside, Earthly Powers, The End of the World News, and The
Kingdom of the Wicked.

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11. Doris Lessing (born 1919) is a Zimbabwean-British writer, famous for novels The Grass is Singing and
The Golden Notebook. She won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2007.
12. Salman Rushdie is a British-Indian novelist and essayist noted for his Midnight's Children and The
Satanic Verses which prompted Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini to issue a fatwa against him, because
Muslims considered the book blasphemous. In July 2008 Midnight's Children won a public vote to be
named the Best of the Booker, the best novel to win the Booker Prize in the award's 40-year history.

SYNTHESIS

 Typical characteristics of the contemporary period include reality-based stories with

strong characters and a believable story. Settings usually keep to the current or
modern era, so futuristic and science fiction novels are rarely included in this category.
 Contemporary literature is defined as literature written after World War II through the
current day. It is from these real-life themes that we find the beginning of a new period
of writing.
 The three characteristics of American Literature include – plot of decline, indifferent of
nature, 3rd person omniscient reaction to romanticism and surrealism. Firstly, American
Literature reflects beliefs and traditions that come from the nation’s frontier days.

COMPREHENSION CHECK

 Select at least 1 literary piece produced in the restoration and contemporary

American period using the most suitable literary approach.

SELF-REFLECTION

 What are the themes that can be observed to the literary pieces produced in
the restoration and contemporary American? How will you relate to the current
lives of the people?
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REFERENCES
 Rosales, R. (2012). English and American Literature: An Anthology. Jimczyville
Publications.
 Burgess, Adam. (2020, February 11). A Brief Overview of British Literary Periods.
Retrieved from [Link]
 Crews, F. (2014). Literary Criticism. Encyclopædia Britannica.
[Link]
 Abrams, M.H. "Marxist Criticism." A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. Fort Worth:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999. 147-153.
 Luebering, J.E (2011). English Literature from the Old English Period through the
Renaissance. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Rosen Educational Services, LLC.
 [Link]
 [Link]
 Read more at [Link]
 Read more at [Link]

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